ABACUS: MYSTERY OF THE

BEAD
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The Bead Unbaffled

- Totton Heffelfinger & Gary Flom
Abacus is a Latin word meaning sand tray. The word originates with
the Arabic "abq", which means dust or fine sand. In Greek this would
become abax or abakon which means table or tablet.
 

  A BRIEF HISTORY 

Early Counting Boards and Tablets

Probably, the first device was the counting board. This appeared at various
times in several places around the world. The earliest counting boards
consisted of a tray made of sun dried clay or wood. A thin layer of sand
would be spread evenly on the surface, and symbols would be drawn in the
sand with a stick or ones finger. To start anew, one would simply shake the
tray or even out the sand by hand.

Eventually, the use of sand was abandoned. Instead, pebbles were used,
and placed in parallel grooves carved into stone counting boards. The
oldest surviving counting board is the Salamis tablet, used by the
Babylonians circa 300 B.C. It was discovered in 1846 on the island of
Salamis. It is made of white marble and is in the National Museum of
Epigraphy, Athens.

Later counting boards were made of various other materials. Besides the
marble used by the Greeks, bronze was used by the Romans. As part of
their primary education, young boys in both Greece and Rome learned at
least some arithmetic using an abax or abacus. In fact, Plato suggested,
"As much as is necessary for the purposes of war and household
management and the work of government."
At some point, the Romans added additional grooves between each
decimal position. So now, the grooves would signify 1s, 5s, 10s, 50s, 100s,
500s, 1000s, etc. This corresponded to the Roman numerals I, V, X, L, C,
D, M. The Latin term for pebble is calculus. So, while calculus is considered
higher mathematics, the term actually refers, literally, to the ancient
counting boards and pebbles.

In the quest for an easily portable counting device, the Romans invented
the hand abacus. This consisted of a metal plate with metal beads that ran
in slots. The beads were held to the device by flanging on the back, but left
loose enough to allow movement of the metal beads in the slots. The
Roman hand abacus on display in the London Science Museum would fit in
a modern shirt pocket. The bead arrangement is like the modern soroban
(see later discussion), in that it has one bead in the relatively short upper
slots, and four beads in the longer lower slots. There is a photograph of
another Roman hand abacus at the Museo Nazionale Ramano at Piazzi
delle Terme, Rome.

Some people believe that the Roman abacus, which pre-dates the Chinese
suan-pan, was introduced into China early in the Christian era by trading
merchants.

In the Middle ages, counting tables were quite common throughout Europe.
In France, the counting pebbles were called jetons inspiring this little rhyme.

Les courtisans sont des jetons

Leur valeur dépend de leur place
Dans la faveur, des millions
Et des zeros dans la disgrâce

Translation

The courtiers are the counters

Their worth depends on their place
In favor, they're in the millions
And in the zeros when in disgrace

The Framed Bead Abacus 

Some of the first records of a device with counters that were strung on
parallel rods have been found among relics of the Mayan civilization. The
Aztec abacus, known as the nepohualtzitzin, dates back to the 10th
century. The counting beads were made of maize strung along parallel
wires or strings within a frame of wood. In addition, there was a bar across
the frame that separated the counters into 3 above and 4 below the bar.
This was consistent with the vigesimal (base 20) system thought to be used
in ancient Aztec civilization as well as by the Basques in Europe. Each of
the 3 counters above the bar represented 5. And each of the 4 counters
below the bar represented 1. So a total of 19 could be represented in each
column.

During the 11th century, the Chinese abacus, or suan pan, was invented.
The suan pan is generally regarded as the earliest abacus with beads on
rods. The Mandarin term suan pan means calculating plate. A suan pan has
2 beads above a middle divider called a beam (a.k.a. reckoning bar) and 5
beads below.

Use of the suan pan spread to Korea, and then to Japan during the latter
part of the 15th century. The Japanese termed the abacus a soroban.
Originally the soroban looked very much like its Chinese cousin having two
beads above the reckoning bar and five beads below. Around 1850, it was
modified to have only one bead above the reckoning bar while maintaining
the five beads below. It was further changed by removing one lower bead in
1930. This one bead above and four beads below ( 1/4 ) arrangement
remains as the present day Japanese soroban construction. In 1928,
soroban examinations were established by the Japanese Chamber of
Commerce and Industry. Over one million candidates had sat for the exams
by 1959.

The Russians devised their own abacus, and call it a schoty. It was invented
during the 17th century. The schoty has ten beads per rod , and no
reckoning bar. Each bead counts as one unit. Usually the fifth and sixth
beads are of a contrasting color to aid in counting. Many schoty have been
found with various numbers of beads per column, including various
numbers of beads per column on the same abacus.

Abaci are still in use today. They have been invaluable for many visually
impaired individuals, as teaching number placement value and calculations
can be done by feel. Merchants and bankers in various parts of the world
still depend on an abacus for their day-to-day business. And as recently as
25 years ago (1979), the Chinese Abacus Association was founded. They
established a graded examination in 1984, and started competitions in
1989. Areas without electricity, or inconsistent power, benefit from an
abacus. And as an arithmetic teaching tool, it has been of immense value.
In fact Forbes.com ranks the abacus as the second most important tool of all
time. Many parts of the world teach abacus use starting as early as pre-
kindergarten. It is felt by many that learning abacus strengthens the
student's sense of number placement value and helps to further a better
overall understanding of numbers. It's also a lot of fun.
 

Doubtlessly the Westerner, with his belief in the powers of mental arithmetic and the
modern calculating machine, often mistrusts the efficiency of such a primitive looking
instrument. However, his mistrust of the soroban is likely to be transformed into
admiration when he gains some knowledge concerning it. For the soroban, which
can perform in a fraction of time a difficult arithmetic calculation that the Westerner
could do laboriously only by means of pencil and paper, possesses distinct
advantages over mental and written arithmetic. In a competition in arithmetic
problems, an ordinary Japanese tradesman with his soroban would easily outstrip a
rapid and accurate Western accountant even with his adding machine. - Takashi
Kojima, from his book, The Japanese Abacus, it's use and theory. Tokyo: Charles E.
Tuttle, 1954

Every parent wants what's best for their children. There's no question that once the
emphasis of the marketing of Soroban is moved from computation skills to the
development of thinking skills, then it will be a no-brainer sell for parents. - George
Sato, Better@Math~Better@Thinking, New York City, 2007

  ABACUS TECHNIQUES 

The following techniques are Japanese and use a modern 1:4 bead
Japanese soroban. I love Japanese soroban and it is the style of abacus I
most often use. Collecting them has become a passion. Many soroban are
beautifully crafted and wonderful to look at; especially the older ones. Some
of the soroban in my collection have been signed by the craftsmen who made
them and I love the way they work and feel. Some of them have been
signed by their original owners. Each has its own history.

However, for some people the soroban may not be the instrument of
choice. As already mentioned the Chinese have their own version of the
abacus, a 2:5 bead suan pan. There are those who prefer to use a Chinese
instrument because it has a larger frame and larger beads allowing for
larger fingers. It really doesn't matter which instrument you use. The
procedures are virtually the same for both and these methods are well
suited to either instrument.
 
The Japanese Soroban

Fig.1

A soroban is made up of a frame with vertical rods on which beads move up

and down. Dividing the upper and lower portion of the soroban is a
horizontal bar called a beam or reckoning bar.

The Beam

On a modern-day soroban one bead sits above the beam and four beads sit
below. The beads above the beam are often called heaven beads and
each has a value of 5. The beads below are often called earth beads and
each has a value of 1.

Along the length of the beam, you'll notice that every third rod is marked
with a dot. These specially marked rods are called unit rods because any
one of them can be designated to carry the unit number. While the soroban
operator makes the final decision as to which rod will carry the unit number,
it is common practice to choose a unit rod just to the right of center on the
soroban.

The dots also serve as markers by which larger numbers can be quickly
and efficiently recognized. For example in Fig.1 (above), rod I is the
designated unit rod. For example, when given a number such
as  23,456,789  an operator can quickly identify rod B as the 10
millions rod and go ahead and set the first number 2 on that rod. This
ensures that all subsequent numbers will be set on their correct rods and
that the unit number 9 will fall neatly on unit rod I.

Setting Numbers on a Soroban

Use only the thumb and index fingers to manipulate beads on a soroban.
The thumb moves the earth beads up toward the beam. The index finger
moves everything else (all earth beads down away from the beam and all
heaven beads up & down).

Earth beads up Earth beads down Heaven beads down Heaven beads up
(Fig.2) (Fig.3) (Fig.4) (Fig.5)

When setting numbers on the soroban the operator slides beads up or

down so that beads touch the beam. Bringing up one earth bead so that it
touches the beam gives a rod a value of 1. Three earth beads touching the
beam give that rod a value of 3. To make a value of 5 clear all the earth
beads and move one heaven bead down so that it touches the beam.
Pinching together one heaven bead and two earth beads sets a value of 7
and so on.

In Fig.6 from left to right, the numbers on single rods show 1, 3, 5, 7 & 9.
Designating rod F as the unit rod, the soroban on the right shows the
number 42,386 on rods B, C, D, E and F. (Notice how the "2" in 42
thousand falls neatly on thousands rod C.)

  Fig.6

Clearing a Soroban

Calculations normally begin with an empty or cleared soroban. Place the

soroban flat on the table, then tilt the frame toward you. Gravity pulls all the
beads down. At this point only the earth beads have been cleared away
from the beam. Place the soroban back onto the table and hold it with the
left hand. Then, using the back of the right index finger, make a sweeping
motion from left to right between the top of the beam and the bottom of the
heaven beads (Fig.7). This forces the heaven beads up away from the
beam. When none of the rods shows any value, this is what is known as
a cleared frame.
   Fig.7

Always Work from Left to Right 

Fundamental to good soroban technique is the rule always work from left

to right. This may seem a little odd at first but it's extremely important. It's
one of the soroban's biggest advantages. It allows us to solve mathematical
problems with great agility and speed, in part, because numbers are added
and subtracted in exactly the same way we read and hear them.

To better understand this take the addition example 237 + 152 = 389 (see

below). Working left to right set 237 onto the soroban. Now solve the
problem: add 1 to the hundreds rod, 5 to the tens rod and finish by
adding 2 to the units rod leaving 389.

It's the same for subtraction. This time take the example 187 - 125 =
62 (see below). Working left to right set 187 onto the soroban. Solve the
problem: subtract 1 from the hundreds rod, 2 from the tens rod and
complete the problem by subtracting 5 from the units rod leaving 62.

Simple addition & subtraction

When using a soroban to solve problems of addition and subtraction, the

process can often be quite straightforward and easy to understand. In each
of the six examples below beads are either added or subtracted as needed.

Simple Addition

   

Simple Subtraction
    

But what happens when an operator is presented with a situation where

rods don't contain enough beads to complete addition or subtraction
problems in a simple, straightforward manner? This is where the real fun
begins. In the next section we'll see how the use of complementary
numbers and a process of mechanization allows an operator to add or
subtract sets of numbers with lightning speed.

COMPLEMENTARY NUMBERS

A Process of Thoughtlessness

In competent hands, a soroban is a very powerful and efficient calculating

tool. Much of its speed is attributed to the concept of mechanization. The
idea is to minimize mental work as much as possible and to perform the
task of adding and subtracting beads mechanically, without thought or
hesitation. In a sense to develop a process of thoughtlessness. With this in
mind, one technique employed by the operator is the use
of complementary numbers with respect to 5 and 10.

 In the case of 5, the operator uses two groups of

complementary numbers:
 4 & 1 and 3 & 2.

 In the case of 10, the operator uses five groups of

complementary numbers:
9 & 1,   8 & 2,   7 & 3,   6 & 4,   5 & 5.

With time and practice using complementary numbers becomes effortless

and mechanical. Once these techniques are learned, a good operator has
little difficulty in keeping up with (even surpassing) someone doing the
same addition and subtraction work on an electronic calculator.

The following examples illustrate how complementary numbers are used to

help solve problems of addition and subtraction. In all cases try not to think
beforehand what the answer to a problem will be. Learn these simple
techniques and and you'll be amazed at how quickly and easily correct
answers materialize, even when problems contain large strings of numbers.

Addition
In addition, always subtract the complement.

Example 1:  Add   4 + 8 = 12

 Set 4 on rod B.
 Add 8.
 Because rod B doesn't have 8 available, use the
complementary number.
 
 The complementary number for 8 with respect to 10 is 2.
 Therefore subtract the complementary 2 from 4 on rod B and
carry 1 to tens rod A.
 The answer 12 remains.  (Fig.8b)

4 + 8 = 12 becomes 4 - 2 + 10 = 12

 Similar exercises: 4+9

4+7 4+6 3+9 3+8
  3+7 2+9 2+8 1+9
9+9 9+8 9+7 9+6
Fi 8+9 8+8 8+7 7+9
g.8b

Example 2:  Add  6 + 7 = 13

 Set 6 on rod B.
 Add 7.
 Once again subtract the complement because rod B doesn't
have the required beads.
 
 The complementary number for 7 with respect to 10 is 3.
 Therefore subtract the complementary 3 from 6 on rod B and
carry 1 to tens rod A.
 This leaves the answer 13.  (Fig.9)

6 + 7 = 13  becomes 6 - 5 + 2 + 10 = 13

Similar exercises: 5+6

  5+7 5+8 5+9 6+6
6+8 7+6 7+7 8+6

Fig.9
Subtraction

In subtraction, always add the complement.

Example 1:  Subtract  11 - 7 = 4

 Set 11 on rods AB.

 Subtract 7.
 Since rod B only carries a value of 1 use the complement.

Please note: In subtraction the order of working the rods is different from
that of addition.

 The complementary number for 7 with respect to 10 is 3.

 Begin by subtracting 1 from the tens rod on A,
 then add the complementary 3 to rod B to equal 4.  (Fig.10)

11 - 7 = 4 becomes 11 - 10 + 3 = 4

 Similar exercises: 10-6

10-7 10-8 10-9 11-8
  11-9 12-8 12-9 13-9
15-9 15-8 15-7 15-6
16-9 16-8 16-7 17-9
Fig.10b

Example 2:  Subtract  13 - 6 = 7

 Set 13 on rods AB.

 Subtract 6.
 Use the complement again.
 
 In this case, the complementary number for 6 with respect to 10
is 4.
 Begin by subtracting 1 from the tens rod on A,
 then add the complementary 4 to rod B to equal 7.  (Fig.11)

13 - 6 = 7 becomes 13 - 10 + 5 - 1 = 7
  Similar exercises: 11-6
  12-6 12-7 13-7 13-8
14-6 14-7 14-8 14-9

Fig.11

The Order of the Rod

This is where students new to soroban can make mistakes. In each of the
above examples the operation involves using two rods, a complementary
number and a carry over from one rod to another. Notice the order of
operation.
For Addition

1. First subtract the complement from the rod on the right.

2. Then add a bead to the rod on the left.
For Subtraction

1.  First subtract a bead from the rod on the left.

2.  Then add the complement to the rod on the right.

This is the most efficient order of operation. When attention is finished on

one rod the operator moves on to the next. There is no back and forth
between rods. This saves time.

COMBINING FINGER MOVEMENTS

From the beginning it's important to start thinking about manipulating beads
quickly and effectively. With this in mind try to combine finger movements.

In the last century, long before electronic calculators became

commonplace, a governing body know as the Abacus Committee of the
Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry would regularly
hold  examinations  (75.7 kb PDF File) for individuals wishing to obtain a license
to work as an abacus operator. These examinations began at the tenth
grade level (the easiest) and worked up to the first grade level (most
difficult). Those individuals who passed first, second or third grade
examinations qualified for employment in government or business concerns
as abacus operators.

During the examinations contestants were given lists of problems. The

problems had to be solved within a given time frame. Of course accuracy
was very important. But the best operators were also very fast, in part
because they learned to combine finger movements wherever possible.

In some of the following examples I've put two combinations together in one
problem. Any combination can always be used in conjunction with another
or on its own. The nice thing about combination moves is that they don't
really have to be committed to memory. Logically they all make sense and,
more often than not, it just seems natural to use them.

Here are a few examples illustrating how operators  combine finger

movements.

Example 1:  8 + 7 = 15
 When students first begin to think about combining finger movements, I think it's this type that comes
most naturally.

1. Using the thumb and index finger together, pinch the 5 bead
and 3 earth beads onto rod C. This sets a  value of 8. (Two
movements become one)
 
2. Combine finger movements. In a twisting movement,
simultaneously use the index finger to subtract 3 earth beads
from rod C while using the thumb to add a 10 bead onto rod B.
(Two movements become one)

 
Step 1 Step 2  

By combining finger movements in Steps 1 & 2, the operator is able to

complete the problem using only two finger movements instead of four.
Similar Exercises:
6+9 7+8 7+9 8+8 8+9 9+6 9+7 9+8 9+9

Example 2:  15 + 8 = 23

1. Simultaneously use the thumb and index finger together. In a

twisting movement set the 5 bead on rod C and a 10 bead on
 rod B. This sets a  value of 15. (Two movements become one)
 
2. Once again combine the finger movements. Simultaneously
use the thumb and index finger. In one movement add 3 beads
with the thumb and subtract 5 with the index finger on rod C.
(Two movements become one)
 
3. Use the thumb to move up the 10 bead on rod B. (One
movement)

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

By combining finger movements in Steps 1 & 2, the operator is able to

complete the problem using only three finger movements instead of five.
Similar Exercises:
15+6 15+7 15+9 6+6 6+7 6+8 7+6 7+7 8+6

Example 3:  9 + 3 = 12

1. Using the thumb and index finger together, pinch the 5 bead
and 4 earth beads onto rod C. This sets a  value of 9. (Two
movements become one)
 
2. Use the index finger to clear 2 beads from rod C. (One
movement)
 
3. Combine the finger movements. Simultaneously use the index
finger to subtract 5 from rod C while using the thumb to add a
10 bead on rod B . (Two movement become one)
 

 
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

By combining finger movements in Steps 1 & 3, the operator is able to

complete the problem using only three finger movements instead of five.
Similar Exercises
6+4 7+3 7+4 8+2 8+3 8+4 9+1 9+2 9+4

Example 4:  14 - 9 = 5

1. Use the thumb for both movements. Set a 10 bead on rod B

and 4 earth beads on rod C. (Two movements)
 
2. Use the index finger to subtract the 10 bead from rod B. (One
movement)
 
3. Combine the finger movements. In one fluid motion use the
index finger to add the 5 bead to rod C and clear the 4 earth
beads below. (Two movements become one)

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Using this combination in Step 3, the operator is able to complete the

problem using only four finger movements instead of five.
Similar Exercises
11-6 12-6 12-7 13-6 13-7 13-8 14-6 14-7 14-8

Example 5:  11 - 7 = 4  (This is a combination I've not seen illustrated. Even so,

it's one I like to use.)
 1. Use the thumb for both movements. Set a 10 bead on rod B
and 1 earth bead on rod C. (Two movements)
 
2. Combine the finger movements. Simultaneously use the index
finger to subtract a 10 bead on rod B while using the thumb to
add 3 earth beads onto rod C. (Two movements become one)
 

 
Step 1 Step 2  

Using this combination in Step 2, the operator is able to complete the

problem using only three finger movements instead of four.
Similar Exercises
10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 11-8 11-9 12-8 12-9 13-9

Simplifying the Process of Mechanization

This is another look at the process of mechanization. Many operators find

that this method helps to simplify adding and subtracting numbers onto a
soroban. For those new to abacus work, this chapter may be better studied
at a later time.

Simple, Fast and Efficient

In part a soroban is a recording device that helps keep track of place value.
Consequently the process of adding and subtracting numbers is greatly
simplified because, at most, only two rods will ever come into play at any
given time. This is another of the soroban's greatest strengths. For
example, when given an addition problem that involves adding a number
such as seven hundred forty two thousand, six hundred and fifty-three , the
soroban allows us to break the problem down into six manageable, easy to
remember segments. Each segment is then solved on a rod by rod basis.
It's that simple. Seven, four, two, six, five, three are quickly added to their
respective rods. This, in conjunction with working left to right, makes solving
problems extremely fast and very efficient.

 
Of the four principal arithmetic disciplines most commonly done on the soroban;
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, it is really addition and subtraction
that are the most important. They form the foundation for all soroban work.

  ADDITION 

Example: 135 + 321 = 456

Step 1: With rod H acting as the unit rod, set 135 on rods FGH. (Fig.12)

Step 1

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 0 1 3 5 0

  Fig.12

Step 2: Add 3 to hundreds rod F.

Step 3: Add 2 to tens rod G.
Step 4 and the answer: Add 1 to units rod H leaving the answer 456 on
rods FGH. (Fig.13)
Step 2

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 0 1 3 5 0
+ 3 Step 2
0 0 0 0 0 4 3 5 0
+ 2 Step 3
0 0 0 0 0 4 5 5 0
  Fig.13 + 1 Step 4
0 0 0 0 0 4 5 6 0

The above is pretty straightforward. This next example gets a little tricky. When using
the complementary numbers there are several 'carry-overs' from right to left.

Example: 456 + 567 = 1,023

Step 1: Set 456 on rods FGH using H as the unit. (Fig.14)

 Step 1

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 0 4 5 6 0

  Fig.14

Step 2: Add 5 to hundreds rod F leaving 956 on rods FGH. (Fig.15)

Step 2

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 0 4 5 6 0
+ 5 Step 2
0 0 0 0 0 9 5 6 0
  Fig.15

Step 3: Add 6 to tens rod G. Use complimentary numbers. Subtract the

complementary 4, then....

3a: Carry 1 to hundreds rod F. No beads. Subtract the complementary 9,

then.... 

3b: Carry 1 over to thousands rod E leaving 1016 on rods EFGH. (Fig.16)

Step 3
A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
Using complementar 0 0 0 0 0 9 5 6 0
y numbers, the  - 4
process of adding 6 Step 3
to rod G becomes: 0 0 0 0 0 9 1 6 0
- 9
Step 3a
  0 0 0 0 0 0 1 6 0
  Fig.1
6 + 1
Step 3b
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 6 0

Step 4: Add 7 to units rod H. Use complimentary numbers. Subtract the

complementary 3 then....

4a and the answer: Carry 1 to tens rod G. This leaves the answer 1023 on
rods EFGH. (Fig. 17)
 Step 4

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
Using complementar
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 6 0
y numbers, the  - 3
process of adding 7 Step 4
to rod H becomes: 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 0
  + 1
Fig.17 Step 4a
0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0

It is important to emphasize at this point that one should not fall into old habits. Many
people will know that in this last step, for example, when adding 7 + 1016 the answer
will be 1023. It doesn't take much skill to know this. Nevertheless, the idea here is to
keep mental work to a minimum. Work using complementary numbers and allow the
soroban to do its job. This is what makes the soroban such a powerful tool.
 

Further Examples:
Addition

  SUBTRACTION 

Example: 4321 - 3456 = 865

Step 1: Set 4321 on rods EFGH with rod H acting as the unit.

Step 1

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 4 3 2 1 0

   Fig.18

Step 2: Subtract 3 from thousands rod E leaving 1321 on rods EFGH.

(Fig.19)

Step 2

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 4 3 2 1 0
- 3 Step 2
0 0 0 0 1 3 2 1 0
  Fig.19

Step 3: Subtract 4 from hundreds rods F. Use the complement. Subtract 1

from thousands rod E, then....
3a: Add the complement 6 to rod F leaving 921 on rods FGH. (Fig.20)
Step 3

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 1 3 2 1 0
- 1 Step 3
0 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 0
+ 6 Step 3a
0 0 0 0 0 9 2 1 0
  Fig.20

Step 4: Subtract 5 from tens rod G. Use complimentary numbers. Subtract

1 from hundreds rod F, then....

4a: Add the complement 5 to rod G leaving 871 on rods FGH. (Fig.21)

Step 4

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 0 9 2 1 0
- 1 Step 4
0 0 0 0 0 8 2 1 0
+ 5 Step 4a
0 0 0 0 0 8 7 1 0
  Fig.21

Step 5: Subtract 6 from units rod H. Use the complement. Subtract 1 from
tens rod G, then....

5a and the answer: Add the complement 4 to rod H leaving the answer

865 on rods FGH. (Fig.22)
Step 5

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 0 0 8 7 1 0
- 1 Step 5
0 0 0 0 0 8 6 1 0
+ 4 Step 5a
0 0 0 0 0 8 6 5 0
  Fig.22

Further Examples:
Subtraction
   MULTIPLICATION 

While there are other techniques used to solve problems of multiplication on

the soroban, the method described here is the one most commonly
suggested by the Abacus Committee. In order to solve problems of
multiplication using this technique one must know the multiplication tables
up to 9 x 9 = 81. In the following examples I will use standard terminology.
For example in the problem 6 x 3 = 18,  6 is the multiplicand, 3 is the
multiplier and 18 is the product.

When setting up problems of multiplication on the soroban it is customary to

set the multiplicand in the central part of the soroban with the multiplier set
to the left leaving two empty rods in between. Always add the product
immediately to the right of the multiplicand. In the case of a multiplicand
consisting of two or more numbers: when the operator is finished using the
first part of the multiplicand that number is then cleared from the soroban
and the operation continues using the next part of the multiplicand. (See
the examples below for clarification.)

Many soroban experts do not even bother to set the multiplier onto the soroban at all.
Instead, they prefer to save a little time and set only the multiplicand.

Predetermine the Unit Rod

For problems where multipliers and multiplicands begin with whole

numbers: In order to get the unit number of a product to fall neatly on a
predetermined unit rod, place your finger on the chosen rod. Move your
finger to the left counting off one rod for every digit in the multiplier plus one
for every digit in the multiplicand. Set the first number in the multiplicand on
that rod.

For more detailed instructions on predetermining the unit rod see:

Unit Rod

Example: 34 x 7 = 238

In this example choose rod H to be the unit rod. There is one number in the
multiplier and two in the multiplicand. Count off three rods to the left ending
up at rod E. Set the up the problem so that first number in the multiplicand
falls on rod E. Now the unit number in the product will fall neatly on rod H.

Step 1: Set the multiplicand 34 on rods EF and the multiplier 7 on B.

(Fig.23)
 Step 1

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 7 0 0 3 4 0 0 0

  Fig.23

Step 2: Multiply the 4 on F by 7 on B. Add the product 28 immediately to

the right of the multiplicand on rods GH.

2a: Having finished with this part of the multiplicand (the 4 on F) clear it

from the soroban. This leaves 3 on rod E and the partial product 28 on rods
GH. (Fig.24)
Step 2

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 7 0 0 3 4 0 0 0
+ 2 8 Step 2
0 7 0 0 3 4 2 8 0
clear (-4) Step 2a
0 7 0 0 3 0 2 8 0
  Fig.24

Step 3: Multiply the 3 on E by 7 on B. Add the product 21immediately to the

right of the multiplicand on rods FG.

3a and the answer: Clear the 3 on E from the soroban leaving the answer
238 on rods FGH. (Fig.25)
Step 3

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 7 0 0 3 0 2 8 0
+ 2 1 Step 3
0 7 0 0 3 2 3 8 0
clear (-3) Step 3a
0 7 0 0 0 2 3 8 0
  Fig.25

It is a good idea to think of a product as having of at least two digits. For example 3 x
4 = 12 and 3 x 1 = 03. It helps in placing products on their correct rods.

Example: 2.3 x 17 = 39.1

In this example the multiplier has two whole numbers and the multiplicand
has one for a total of three whole numbers. Choose rod I as the unit and
count off three rods to the left. Set the fist number in the multiplicand on rod
F.

Step 1: Set the multiplicand 23 on rods FG. Set the multiplier 17 on BC.
(Fig.26)

Step 1

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
0 1 7 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0

  Fig.26

Step 2: Multiply the 3 on G by 1 on B. Add the product 03 on rods HI.

2a: Next, multiply the 3 on G by 7 on C and add the product 21 on rods IJ.

2b: Clear the 3 on G. This leaves 2 on F and the partial product 51 on rods

IJ. (Fig.27)
Step 2

A B C D E F GH I J K
. . .    
0 1 7 0 0 2 30 0 0 0
+0 3 Step 2
0 1 7 0 0 2 30 3 0 0
+ 2 1 Step 2a
0 1 7 0 0 2 3 0 5 1 0
clear (-3) Step 2b
  Fig.27 0 1 7 0 0 2 0 0 5 1 0

Step 3: Multiply the 2 on F by 1 on B and add the product 02 on rods GH.

3a: Next, multiply the 2 on F by 7 on C and add the product 14 on rods HI.

3b and the answer: Clear the 2 on F leaving the answer 39.1 on rods HIJ.
Notice how the unit number in the product has fallen on unit rod I and the
first decimal number on rod J. (Fig.28)
Step 3

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
0 1 7 0 0 2 0 0 5 1 0
+ 0 2 Step 3
0 1 7 0 0 2 0 2 5 1 0
+ 1 4 Step 3a
  Fig.28 0 1 7 0 0 2 0 3 9 1 0
 clear (-2) Step 3b
0 1 7 0 0 0 0 3 9 1 0

This standard technique for solving problems of multiplication is very powerful in part because it
creates patterns that are easy to follow. For more on this see Patterns.
 

Further Examples:
Multiplication

  DIVISION 

As is the case with multiplication, there are different techniques that can be

used to solve problems of division on the soroban. Although the method
described below is often referred to as the 'modern method' it's not really all
that new. It had been in use in Japan for many years before becoming
widely popular around 1930 after improvements to the technique were
made. This is the way division is most often done today. In the following
examples I will use standard terminology. For example in the problem 6 ÷ 3
= 2,  6 is the dividend, 3 is the divisor and 2 is the quotient.

When setting up problems of division on the soroban, the dividend is set on

the right and the divisor is set on the left. The Abacus Committee suggests
leaving 4 unused rods in between the two numbers. It's on these unused
rods where the quotient answer is formed.

Often soroban experts do not bother to set the divisor. Instead, they prefer to save a
little time and set only the dividend.

Division is done by dividing one number in the divisor into one or possibly
two numbers of the dividend at a time. The operator multiplies after each
division step and subtracts the product. The next part of the dividend is then
tacked onto the remainder and the process continues. It is much like doing
it with a pencil and paper.

Division Revision

Easy Division Revision: In the event that the quotient is too high or too
low, it is the ease with which the operator can revise an answer that makes
the soroban such a powerful tool. Doing division work on a soroban allows
the operator to make an estimate as to what a quotient might be, go a head
and do the work then quickly make an adjustment if need be. (See
the Division Revision section below.)

Rules for Placing the First Quotient Number

Rule I) Where the digits in a divisor are less than (or equal to) the
corresponding digits of the dividend, begin by placing the quotient two rods
to the left of the dividend. In Fig.29, the divisor 4 is smaller than the
dividend 8. The quotient begins two rods to the left of the dividend.

two rods to the left. (Fig.29) one rod to the left. (Fig.30)

Rule II) Where the digits in the divisor are greater than the corresponding
digits of the dividend, begin by placing the first number in the quotient one
rod to the left of the dividend. In Fig.30 the divisor 4 is larger than the
dividend 2. The quotient begins one rod to the left of the dividend.

Predetermine the Unit Rod

For problems where divisors and dividends begin with whole numbers: The
process of predetermining the unit rod is very much the same as it is for
multiplication in that it involves counting digits and rods. However, it is
slightly different and a little more involved. In division, the operator chooses
a unit rod and then counts left the number of digits in the dividend. From
that point, the operator counts back again to the right the number of
digits plus two in the divisor. The first number in the dividend is set on that
rod.

For more detailed instructions on predetermining the unit rod see:

Unit Rod

Example: 951 ÷ 3 = 317

In this example, the dividend has three whole numbers. Choose rod F as
the unit and count three rods to the left. The divisor has one whole number
so count one plus two back to the right. Set the first number of the dividend
on rod F.

Step 1: Set the dividend 951 on rods FGH and the divisor 3 on A. (Fig.31)
 Step 1

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
3 0 0 0 0 9 5 1 0 0 0

  Fig.31

Step 2: The divisor (3 on A) is smaller than the dividend (9 on F). Therefore

apply "Rule I" and set the first number in the quotient two rods to the left on
D. Divide 3 on A into 9 on F and set the quotient 3 on rod D.

2a: Multiply the quotient 3 by 3 on A and subtract the product 9 from rod F.

This leaves the partial quotient 3 on D and the remainder of the dividend 51
on rods GH. (Fig. 32)

Step 2

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
3 0 0 0 0 9 5 1 0 0 0
(3) Step 2
- 9 Step 2a
3 0 0 3 0 0 5 1 0 0 0
  Fig.32

Step 3: Divide 3 on A into 5 on G. Once again the divisor is smaller than

the dividend so follow "Rule1". Set the quotient 1 on rod E.

3a: Multiply the quotient 1 by 3 on A and subtract the product 3 from 5 on

rod G. This leaves the partial quotient 31 on DE and the remainder of the
dividend 21 on rods GH. (Fig.33)

Step 3

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
3 0 0 3 0 0 5 1 0 0 0
(1) Step 3
- 3 Step 3a
3 0 0 3 1 0 2 1 0 0 0
 Fig.33

Step 4: Divide 3 on A into 21 on GH and set the quotient 7 on rod F.

4a and the answer: Multiply the quotient 7 by 3 on A and subtract the

product 21 from rods GH leaving the answer 317 on rods DEF. (Fig.34)
 Step 4

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
3 0 0 3 1 0 2 1 0 0 0
(7) Step 4
- 2 1 Step 4a
3 0 0 3 1 7 0 0 0 0 0
  Fig.34

Example: 356 ÷ 25 = 14.24

In this example, the dividend has three whole numbers. Choose F as the
unit rod and count three to the left. The divisor has two whole numbers so
count two plus two back to the right. Set the first number of the dividend on
rod G.

Step 1: Set the dividend 356 on GHI and the divisor 25 on rods AB. (Fig.35)

Step 1

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
2 5 0 0 0 0 3 5 6 0 0

  Fig.35

Step 2: Because the first two digits in the divisor are smaller than those of
the dividend apply "Rule I" and begin placing the quotient two rods to the left
on rod E. Divide 2 on rod A into the 3 on G and set the quotient 1 on rod E.

2a: Multiply the quotient 1 by 2 on A and subtract the product 2 from 3 on

rod G.

2b: Multiply the quotient 1 by 5 on B and subtract the product 5 from 15 on

rods GH. This leaves the partial quotient 1 on rod E and the remainder of
the dividend 106 on rods GHI. (Fig.36)
Step 2

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
2 5 0 0 0 0 3 5 6 0 0
(1) Step 2
2- Step 2a
2 5 0 0 1 0
1 5 6 0 0
- 5 Step 2b
  Fig.36 2 5 0 0 1 0 1 0 6 0 0
Step 3: Divide 2 on A into 10 on GH. At first glance, it looks like the answer
should be 5. However, in order to continue working the problem there must
be a remainder. Instead, use the quotient 4. Set 4 on rod F.

3a: Multiply the quotient 4 by 2 on A and subtract the product 8 from 10 on

rods GH.

3b: Multiply the quotient 4 by 5 on B and subtract the product 20 from rods

HI. This leaves the partial quotient 14 on rods EF and the remainder 6 on
rod I. (Fig.37)
Step 3

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
2 5 0 0 1 0 1 0 6 0 0
(4) Step 3
- 8 Step 3a
2 5 0 0 1 4 0 2 6 0 0
- 2 0 Step 3b
2 5 0 0 1 4 0 0 6 0 0
  Fig.37

In order to continue, borrow a zero from rod J. This yields 60 on rods IJ and creates
the first decimal number in the quotient.

Step 4: Divide 2 on A into 6 on rod I. It looks like the answer should be 3.

But once again, there must be enough of a remainder to continue working
the problem. Instead, use the quotient 2. Follow "Rule 1" and set 2 on rod G.

4a: Multiply the quotient 2 by 2 on A and subtract the product 4 from 6 on

rod I.

4b: Multiply the quotient 2 by 5 on B and subtract the product 10 from rods

IJ. This leaves the partial quotient 14.2 on rods EFG and the remainder of
the dividend 10 on rods IJ. (Fig.38)
Step 4

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
2 5 0 0 1 4 0 0 6 0 0
(2) Step 4
- 4 Step 4a
2 5 0 0 1 4 2 0 2 0 0
- 1 0 Step 4b
2 5 0 0 1 4 2 0 1 0 0
  Fig.38
Once again borrow a zero, this time from rod K. This yields 100 on rods IJK.

Step 5: Divide 2 on A into 10 on rods IJ. Again make sure there is enough
of a remainder to continue working. Choose the quotient 4. Set 4 on rod H.

5a: Multiply the quotient 4 by 2 on A and subtract the product 8 from 10 on

rods IJ.

5b and the answer: Multiply the quotient 4 by 5 on B and subtract the

product 20 from rods JK leaving 1424 on rods EFGH. Because rod F is the
designated unit rod the answer reads 14.24. (Fig.39)
Step 5

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .    
2 5 0 0 1 4 2 0 1 0 0
(4) Step 5
- 8 Step 5a
2 5 0 0 1 4 2 4 0 2 0
- 2 0 Step 5b
  Fig.39 2 5 0 0 1 4 2 4 0 0 0

Further Examples:
Division

  DIVISION REVISION 

In problems of division, coming to the correct answer can sometimes

involve a little trial and error. The division problem shown below is a case in
point. In this type of problem making a judgment as to what the exact
quotient will be can be difficult. Estimation is often the best course of action.
It's the ease with which an operator can revise an incorrect answer that
makes the soroban such a superior tool for solving problems of division.

Example: 0.14 ÷ 1.6 = 0.0875

Choose D as the unit rod. In this example, because there are no whole
numbers in the dividend there is no need to count to the left. The divisor
has one whole number. Starting on rod D, count one plus two to the right.
Set the first number of the dividend on rod G.

Step 1: Set the dividend 14 on rods GH and divisor 16 on rods AB. (Fig.40)
 Step 1

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .   .  
1 6 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0

  Fig.40

Step 2: In this problem, the first two digits in the divisor are larger than
those of the dividend. Apply "Rule II". Set the first number in the quotient
one rod to the left of the dividend, in this case on rod F. Think of the
problem as dividing 16 on AB into 140 on GHI. Now estimate the quotient. It
seems reasonable to estimate a quotient of 7. Set 7 next to the dividend on
rod F.

2a: Multiply the quotient 7 by 1 on A and subtract the product 7 from 14 on

rods GH.

2b: Multiply the quotient 7 by 6 on B and subtract the product 42 from rods

HI.

With 28 remaining on rods HI, the estimated quotient of 7 was too small.

2c & 2d: Revise both the quotient and the dividend. Add 1 to the
quotient on rod F to make it 8. Subtract a further 16 from rods HI. This
leaves the partial quotient 0.08 on CDEF and the remainder 12 on HI.
(Fig.41)
Step 2

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .   .  
1 6 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0
(7) Step 2
- 7 Step 2a
1 6 0 0 0 7 0 7 0 0 0
- 4 2 Step 2b
1 6 0 0 0 7 0 2 8 0 0
plus 1 Revise(2c)
  Fig.41
- 1 6 Revise(2d)
1 6 0 0 0 8 0 1 2 0 0

Step 3: Borrow a zero from rod J and think of the problem as dividing 16 on
AB into 120 on HIJ. Estimate a quotient of 8. Set 8 on rod G.

3a: Multiply the quotient 8 by 1 on A and subtract the product 8 from 12 on

rods HI.
3b: Multiply the quotient 8 by 6 on B and subtract the product 48 from rods
IJ.

In order to continue there must be at least 48 on rods IJ. There's only 40. The
estimated quotient of 8 was too large.

3c & 3d: Revise both the quotient and the dividend. Subtract 1 from 8
on G. Add 1 to 4 on rod I.

3e & 3f: Continue with the problem but this time use the revised quotient of
7. Multiply 7 on G by 6 on B and subtract 42 from rods IJ. This leaves the
partial quotient 0.087 on rods CDEFG and the remainder, 8, on rod J.
(Fig.42)
Step 3

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .   .  
1 6 0 0 0 8 0 1 2 0 0
(8) Step 3
- 8 Step 3a
1 6 0 0 0 8 8 0 4 0 0
- ? ? Step 3b
minus 1 Revise(3c)
+ 1 Revise(3d)
1 6 0 0 0 8 7 0 5 0 0
  Fig.42 (7) Step 3e
- 4 2 Step 3f
1 6 0 0 0 8 7 0 0 8 0

Step 4: Borrow a zero from rod K and think of the problem as dividing 16 on
AB into 80 on JK. Estimate a quotient of 5. Set 5 on rod H.

4a: Multiply the quotient 5 by 1 on A and subtract the product 5 from 8 on

rod J.

4b and the answer: Multiply the quotient 5 by 6 on B and subtract the

product 30 from rods JK leaving 875 on rods FGH. With rod D acting as the
unit, the answer reads 0.0875 on rods CDEFGH. (Fig.43)
Step 4

A B C D E F G H I J K
. . .   .  
1 6 0 0 0 8 7 0 0 8 0
(5) Step 4
- 5 Step 4a
1 6 0 0 0 8 7 5 0 3 0
- 3 0 Step 4b
  Fig.43 1 6 0 0 0 8 7 5 0 0 0
 

Further Examples:
Revision

  NEGATIVE NUMBERS FROM SUBTRACTION 

In the following examples, negative numbers are a result of subtracting a

larger number from a smaller one. Because a negative sign can not be
placed on the soroban, the operation of subtracting larger numbers from
smaller ones is performed on the soroban by means of complementary
numbers.

Complementary Numbers at a Glance

In order to see negative numbers on a soroban, it is necessary to be able to

recognize complementary numbers quickly. From left to right the rods below
show the values 3, 42 and 286.

  
Fig. 44 Fig. 45 Fig.46  

Notice the grey beads. They form the basis for the complementary number.
In order to find the true complementary number for each of the above add
plus 1 to the total value of grey beads.

In Fig. 44, the grey beads add up to 6. Plus 1 equals 7, the complement of
3 with respect to 10.

In Fig.45, the grey beads add up to 57. Plus 1 equals 58, the complement
of 42 with respect to 100.

In Fig.46, the grey beads add up to 713. Plus 1 equals 714, the

complement of 286 with respect to 1,000.
 Rule i) Always add plus 1 to the last value of the complementary number to find the true
complement.

PROBLEM: After making purchases totaling $86.32 a customer gives a

shopkeeper $100.00. What is the amount of change due back to the
customer?

SOLUTION: After placing the

total $86.32 onto the soroban the
shopkeeper reads the
complementary number. The grey
 
beads total $13.67. Plus
1 equals $13.68 which is the
amount of change owed to the
  Fig.47  customer. (Fig.47)

Subtraction and the Negative Answer

Example: 13 - 78 = -65

Step 1: Set 13 on rods DE with E acting as the unit rod. (Fig.48)

Step 1

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0

  Fig.48

Step 2: Subtract 78 from 13. As it stands this is not possible and this tells
us we are going to have a negative result. On a soroban the way to solve
this problem is to borrow. To give us something to borrow set 1 on
hundreds column C. This leaves 113 on rods CDE. (Fig.49)

Step 2

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0
+ (1) Step 2, borrow
100
  Fig.49 0 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 0

Except for practice purposes it is not really necessary to set the 1 on rod C as shown
in Fig.49. It is enough to do it mentally.
 
Step 3 and the answer: With 113 on CDE there is enough to borrow and
complete the operation. Subtract 78 from 113 leaving 35 on DE. The
negative answer appears in the form of a complementary number as seen
on the grey beads. Add plus 1 to the complementary number and the final
answer is -65. (Fig.50)

Step 3

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 0
- 7 8 Step 3
0 0 0 3 5 0 0 0 0
  Fig.50

Rule ii) If the number being subtracted is too large, borrow from the rods on the left and
continue the operation as if doing a normal subtraction problem.

Rule iii) Reading the complementary result yields the negative answer.

Example: Add 182 to the result in the above equation. [-65 + 182 = 117]

step 1: The process of adding 182

to negative 65 is very easy. Simply add
182 to the 35 already set on rods DE. This step 1
equals 217. A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
1a and the answer: Subtract the 100 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 0 0
  + 1 8 2 Step 1
borrowed in Step 2 of the previous
0 0 2 1 7 0 0 0 0
example (see above). This leaves the
- (1) Step 1a,
answer 117 on rods CDE, which is the subtract 100
answer. 0 0 1 1 7 0 0 0 0

 
Rule iv) Give back the amount borrowed if subsequent operations yield a positive answer.

Example: 19 - 72 - 7846 = -7,899

Step 1: Set 19 on DE with E acting as the unit. (Fig.51)

 Step 1

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 0

  Fig.51

Step 2: In order to subtract 72 from 19 borrow 1 from the hundreds column
on rod C leaving 119 on CDE

2a: Subtract 72 from 119 leaving 47 on rods DE. Interim, this leaves the
complementary number 53 on rods DE. (Fig.52)

Step 2

A B C D E F G H I
. . .
0 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 0
+ (1) Step 2, borrow
100
0 0 1 1 9 0 0 0 0
- 7 2 Step 2a
  Fig.52 0 0 0 4 7 0 0 0 0

In Step 2 (see above), the operation required borrowing 100 from rod D. In this next
step it will be necessary to borrow again but borrowing a further 10,000 would bring
the total to 10100. That would be wrong. Instead, borrow a further 9900 bringing the
total amount borrowed to 10,000.

Step 3: In order to subtract 7846 from 47 on rods DE borrow 9900. This
leaves 9947 on rods BCDE. (Fig.53)
Step 3

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 0 0 4 7 0 0 0 0
+(9 9) Step 3, borrow
9900
0 9 9 4 7 0 0 0 0
  Fig.53

Rule v) If the operation requires borrowing again, only borrow 9s from adjacent rods.
Remember that all complementary numbers on the soroban result from powers of 10. (10,
100, 1000 and so on.)
Step 4 and the answer: Subtract 7846 from 9947 leaving 2101 on rods
BCDE. Once again, the negative answer appears in the form of a
complementary number. Add plus 1 to the complementary number and the
answer is -7899. (Fig.54)

Step 4

A B C D E F G H I
. . .
0 9 9 4 7 0 0 0 0
- 7 8 4 6 Step 4
0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
  Fig.54

Example: Subtract a further 31 from the result in the above equation.

[- 7899 - 31 = -7930]

Step 1 and the answer: Subtract 31 from 2101 leaving 2070 on rods

BCDE. The complementary number shows 7920. Because rod E does not
have a value add plus 1 to the complement on rod D instead. This leaves
the complementary answer -7930. (Fig.55)

Step 1

A B C D E F G H I
. . .  
0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
- 3 1 Step 1
  Fig.55 0 2 0 7 0 0 0 0 0
 

Rule vi) When adding plus 1 to the last digit of the complementary number add only to the
last rod that has a value.

 A small tutorial on how to multiply Negative numbers:

Multiplying Negative numbers

  CARING FOR YOUR ABACUS

In some cases, when you first use your abacus, it may be apparent that the
frame is somewhat warped. By pressing down on each of the corners
individually (when the abacus is lying in working position on a flat surface)
you may determine that a corner, or its diagonally opposite corner, needs to
be built up. An effective method to do this is by gluing small cut out "L"
shaped pieces from a 3 x 5 card on the back of the frame at a needed
corner. You can "titrate" this by gluing these one at a time on top of each
other to the needed correction, checking for wobble after each piece is
affixed. (Here's  how I fixed  one of the soroban I own. - TPH)

If you find that your abacus wants to slide on your table, putting a small
stick on rubber foot on the underside of the frame at each corner is helpful.
These are the same feet that are used under a table lamp to keep it from
sliding. Use the small, approximately 1 cm, stick on rubber feet.

To clean the beads, rods, and frame, use a soft lint free rag dampened with
a mild soap solution.

To keep the beads moving freely, the rods must be kept clean. If the rods
are bamboo or rattan, treat occasionally with furniture polish. A good way to
apply it, is by spraying the polish on a rag, then wiping the rods with it. Then
buff with a soft dry rag. With regular use of the abacus and occasional
polish of the rods, the bead movement will become quite silky.

If the rods are metal, then you may first have to remove some surface
changes. This can be done with gentle scraping using the tip of a sharp
blade. To obtain a smooth bead action on the rod, you can apply a thin
coating of a teflon based lubricant, wiping the excess with a dry cloth.

You can also treat the frame and beads with furniture polish after cleaning
them. It is a good idea to do this prior to storing an abacus if it will not be
used for awhile. And whenever the wood seems dry or loses its luster.

To minimize dust accumulation, store them standing on end in a covered or

enclosed area. Keep them in a low humidity and temperature controlled
environment. Basically, treat them like your slide rules and other
collectibles.

  ABACUS DIVERSIONS

These are a couple of exercises that are easy to remember.

"Crazy Eights"

 Add 98765432 , nine times , to get 888888888 .

"Repeated Number Sums"

  Add 123456789 , nine times , to get 1111111101 .
 Then , add 123456789 nine more times to 1111111101 and
obtain 2222222202 .
 Adding 123456789 nine more times to that result will yield
3333333303 , and so on.

The general formula for the above is :

123456789 times (9 times n) = nnnnnnnn0n.

You can also subtract 123456789 nine times from one of these "repeated
number" sums to get back to the prior "repeated number" sum.

"Fibonacci Numbers"

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, etc.

General recursion formula:

F(n) + F(n+1) = F(n+2)
F(1) = 1 , F(2) = 1

 Choose a rod towards the left and set 1 . (call this "L#" ) .
 
 Choose a rod towards the right and set 1 . (call this "R#" ) .
 
 Add R# to L# . Abacus reads :
2 on left
1 on right
 
 Add L# to R# . Abacus reads :
2 on left
3 on right
 
 Add R# to L# . Abacus reads :
5 on left
3 on right
 
 Add L# to R# . Abacus reads :
5 on left
8 on right

And so on....
Can also work these in reverse, by back and forth subtraction, to get back
to 1s.

References

GENERAL ABACUS HISTORY AND INFORMATION

Books

Pullan, J.M.
The History of the Abacus
London: Books That Matter, 1968. pgs. 21, 25 & 30.

Moon, Parry.
The Abacus: Its history; its design; its possibilities in the modern world
New York: Gordon and Breach Science, 1971. pgs. 16 - 17.

Gullberg, Jan.
Mathematics From the Birth of Numbers
New York, London: W.W.Norton & Company, 1997.
ISBN : 0-393-04002-X
pgs 168 -170

Websites

Fernandes, Luis. "Introduction", The Abacus, the Art of Calculating with

Beads
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/~elf/abacus/   (Updated: Jul 16 2004)

The Abacus: A History

E. A. Young
http://fenris.net/~lizyoung/abacus.html  (Revised September, 2004)

Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus

The League of Japan Abacus Associations

http://www.syuzan.net/english/index.html

SOROBAN TECHNIQUES

Books
Kojima, Takashi.
The Japanese Abacus: Its Use and Theory
Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1954.

Kojima, Takashi.
Advanced Abacus: Japanese Theory and Practice
Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1963.

The Japanese Chamber of Commerce & Industry.

Soroban, the Japanese abacus it's use and practice
Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1967.

Tani, Yukio
The Magic Calculator, the way of the abacus
Japan Publications Trading Co, 1964

Kato, Professor Fukutaro.

SOROBAN pelo Método Moderno (SOROBAN by the Modern Method)
Brazil: Brazilian Shuzan Cultural Association, (not dated - but looks to be
circa 1969)

Martinez, Beluva Sulliuent.

Soroban in America
Tokyo: The league of Soroban Education of Japan Inc. (not dated - but
looks to be circa 1980)

Websites

Bernazzani, Dave.
The Soroban Abacus HandBook.pdf ( 281 kb)
Rev.1.05 - March 2, 2005
 

Members of the Soroban / Abacus newsgroup

https://groups.io/g/sorobanabacus
 

Advanced Abacus Techniques

http://totton.idirect.com/soroban/

TITLE PAGE PHOTOGRAPH

Flemstrom, Mats: Toronto, Ontario, Canada

 

GRAPHIC IMAGES

Morris, Elizabeth: Toronto, Ontario, Canada

http://llizard.etherwork.net/gifs/abacus.html

Heffelfinger, Totton: Toronto, Ontario, Canada

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Gary Flom   Atlanta Georgia   USA

Email
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Totton Heffelfinger   Toronto Ontario   Canada

Email
totton[at]idirect[dot]com

Abacus: Mystery of the Bead

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