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Intermediate Algebra, Chapter

1: Introduction to Functions

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Printed: January 16, 2012

 Authors
Andrew Gloag, Anne Gloag, Melissa Kramer

Contributor
William Meacham

Editor
Annamaria Farbizio

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Contents

1 Introduction to Functions 1
1.1 Introduction to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Linear Functions and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Functions

1.1 Introduction to Functions

The study of expressions, equations, and functions is the basis of mathematics. Each mathematical subject
requires knowledge of manipulating equations to solve for a variable. Careers such as automobile accident
investigators, quality control engineers, and insurance originators use equations to determine the value of
variables.

Functions are methods of explaining relationships and can be represented as a rule, a graph, a table, or in
words. The amount of money in a savings account, how many miles run in a year, or the number of trout
in a pond are all described using functions.
Throughout this chapter, you will learn how to choose the best variables to describe a situation, simplify
an expression using the Order of Operations, describe functions in various ways, write equations, and solve
problems using a systematic approach.

Functions as Rules and Tables

Instead of purchasing a one-day ticket to the theme park, Joseph decided to pay by ride. Each ride costs
$2.00. To describe the amount of money Joseph will spend, several mathematical concepts can be used.

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First, an expression can be written to describe the relationship between the cost per ride and the number
of rides, r. An equation can also be written if the total amount he wants to spend is known. An inequality
can be used if Joseph wanted to spend less than a certain amount.
Example 1: Using Joseph’s situation, write the following:
a. An expression representing his total amount spent
b. An equation that shows Joseph wants to spend exactly $22.00 on rides
c. An inequality that describes the fact that Joseph will not spend more than $26.00 on rides
Solution: The variable in this situation is the number of rides Joseph will pay for. Call this r.
a. 2(r)
b. 2(r) = 22
c. 2(r) ≤ 26
In addition to an expression, equation, or inequality, Joseph’s situation can be expressed in the form of a
function or a table.
Definition: A function is a relationship between two variables such that the input value has ONLY one
output value.

Writing Equations as Functions

A function is a set of ordered pairs in which the first coordinate, usually x, matches with exactly one second
coordinate, y. Equations that follow this definition can be written in function notation. The y coordinate
represents the dependent variable, meaning the values of this variable depend upon what is substituted
for the other variable.
Consider Joseph’s equation m = 2r. Using function notation, the value of the equation (the money spent
m) is replaced with f (r). f represents the function name and (r) represents the variable. In this case the
parentheses do not mean multiplication; they separate the function name from the independent variable.

input
↓
f (x) = y ← output
|{z}
f unction
box

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Example 2: Rewrite the following equations in function notation.
a. y = 7x − 3
b. d = 65t
c. F = 1.8C + 32
Solution:
a. According to the definition of a function, y = f (x), so f (x) = 7x − 3.
b. This time the dependent variable is d. Function notation replaces the dependent variable, so d = f (t) =
65t.
c. F = f (C) = 1.8C + 32

Why Use Function Notation?

Why is it necessary to use function notation? The necessity stems from using multiple equations. Function
notation allows one to easily decipher between the equations. Suppose Joseph, Lacy, Kevin, and Alfred
all went to the theme park together and chose to pay $2.00 for each ride. Each person would have the
same equation m = 2r. Without asking each friend, we could not tell which equation belonged to whom.
By substituting function notation for the dependent variable, it is easy to tell which function belongs to
whom. By using function notation, it will be much easier to graph multiple lines (Chapter 4).
Example 3: Write functions to represent the total each friend spent at the park.
Solution: J(r) = 2r represents Joseph’s total, L(r) = 2r represents Lacy’s total, K(r) = 2r represents
Kevin’s total, and A(r) = 2r represents Alfred’s total.

Using a Function to Generate a Table

A function really is an equation. Therefore, a table of values can be created by choosing values to represent
the independent variable. The answers to each substitution represent f (x).
Use Joseph’s function to generate a table of values. Because the variable represents the number of rides
Joseph will pay for, negative values do not make sense and are not included in the value of the independent
variable.
Table 1.1:

R J(r) = 2r
0 2(0) = 0
1 2(1) = 2
2 2(2) = 4
3 2(3) = 6
4 2(4) = 8
5 2(5) = 10
6 2(6) = 12

As you can see, the list cannot include every possibility. A table allows for precise organization of data.
It also provides an easy reference for looking up data and offers a set of coordinate points that can be
plotted to create a graphical representation of the function. A table does have limitations; namely it cannot
represent infinite amounts of data and it does not always show the possibility of fractional values for the

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independent variable.

Domain and Range of a Function

The set of all possible input values for the independent variable is called the domain. The domain can be
expressed in words, as a set, or as an inequality. The values resulting from the substitution of the domain
represent the range of a function.
The domain of Joseph’s situation will not include negative numbers because it does not make sense to ride
negative rides. He also cannot ride a fraction of a ride, so decimals and fractional values do not make sense
as input values. Therefore, the values of the independent variable r will be whole numbers beginning at
zero.
Domain: All whole numbers
The values resulting from the substitution of whole numbers are whole numbers times two. Therefore, the
range of Joseph’s situation is still whole numbers just twice as large.
Range: All even whole numbers
Example 4: A tennis ball is bounced from a height and bounces back to 75% of its previous height. Write
its function and determine its domain and range.
Solution: The function of this situation is h(b) = 0.75b, where b represents the previous bounce height.
Domain: The previous bounce height can be any positive number, so b ≥ 0.
Range: The new height is 75% of the previous height, and therefore will also be any positive number
(decimal or whole number), so the range is all positive real numbers.
Multimedia Link For another look at the domain of a function, see the following video where the
narrator solves a sample problem from the California Standards Test about finding the domain of an
unusual function. Khan Academy CA Algebra I Functions (6:34)

Figure 1.1: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/88

Write a Function Rule

In many situations, data is collected by conducting a survey or an experiment. To visualize the data, it is
arranged into a table. Most often, a function rule is needed to predict additional values of the independent
variable.
Example 5: Write a function rule for the table.

Number of CDs 2 4 6 8 10
Cost ($) 24 48 72 96 120

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Solution: You pay $24 for 2 CDs, $48 for 4 CDs, and $120 for 10 CDs. That means that each CD costs
$12.
We can write the function rule.
Cost = $12 × number of CDs or f (x) = 12x
Example 6: Write a function rule for the table.

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

Solution: The values of the dependent variable are always the positive outcomes of the input values. This
relationship has a special name, the absolute value. The function rule looks like this: f (x) = |x|.

Represent a Real-World Situation with a Function

Let’s look at a real-world situation that can be represented by a function.
Example 7: Maya has an internet service that currently has a monthly access fee of $11.95 and a
connection fee of $0.50 per hour. Represent her monthly cost as a function of connection time.
Solution: Let x = the number of hours Maya spends on the internet in one month and let y = Maya’s
monthly cost. The monthly fee is $11.95 with an hourly charge of $0.50.
The total cost = flat fee + hourly fee × number of hours. The function is y = f (x) = 11.95 + 0.50x

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both. CK-12 Basic Algebra: Domain and Range of a Function (12:52)

1. Rewrite using function notation: y = 56 x − 2.

2. What is one benefit of using function notation?
3. Define domain.
4. True or false? Range is the set of all possible inputs for the independent variable.
5. Generate a table from −5 ≤ x ≤ 5 for f (x) = −(x)2 − 2
6. Use the following situation for question 6: Sheri is saving for her first car. She currently has $515.85
and is savings $62 each week.

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 Figure 1.2: (Watch Youtube Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/454

(a) Write a function rule for the situation.

(b) Can the domain be ‘‘all real numbers”? Explain your thinking.
(c) How many weeks would it take Sheri to save $1,795.00?

In 7 - 11, identify the domain and range of the function.

7. Dustin charges $10 per hour for mowing lawns.

8. Maria charges $25 per hour for math tutoring, with a minimum charge of $15.
9. f (x) = 15x − 12
10. f (x) = 2x2 + 5
11. f (x) = 1x
12. What is the range of the function y = x2 − 5 when the domain is −2, −1, 0, 1, 2?
13. What is the range of the function y = 2x − 34 when the domain is −2.5, 1.5, 5?
14. Angie makes $6.50 per hour working as a cashier at the grocery store. Make a table of values that
shows her earning for the input values 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30.
15. The area of a triangle is given by: A = 12 bh. If the base of the triangle is 8 centimeters, make a table
of values that shows the area of the triangle for√heights 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 centimeters.
16. Make a table of values for the function f (x) = 2x + 3 for the input values −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
17. Write a function rule for the table.
3 4 5 6
9 16 25 36

18. Write a function rule for the table.

hours 0 1 2 3
cost 15 20 25 30

19. Write a function rule for the table.

0 1 2 3
24 12 6 3

20. Write a function that represents the number of cuts you need to cut a ribbon in x number of pieces.
21. Solomon charges a $40 flat rate and $25 per hour to repair a leaky pipe. Write a function that
represents the total fee charged as a function of hours worked. How much does Solomon earn for a
three-hour job?
22. Rochelle has invested $2500 in a jewelry making kit. She makes bracelets that she can sell for $12.50
each. How many bracelets does Rochelle need to make before she breaks even?
23. Make up a situation in which the domain is all real numbers but the range is all whole numbers.

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Quick Quiz
1. Write a function rule to describe the following table:

# of Books 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cost 4.75 5.25 5.75 6.25 6.75 7.25

2. Simplify: 84 ÷ [(18 − 16) × 3].

3. Evaluate the expression 23 (y + 6) when y = 3.
4. Rewrite using function notation: y = 41 x2 .
5. You purchased six video games for $29.99 each and three DVD movies for $22.99. What is the total
amount of money you spent?

Functions as Graphs
Once a table has been created for a function, the next step is to visualize the relationship by graphing
the coordinates (independent value, dependent value). In previous courses, you have learned how to plot
ordered pairs on a coordinate plane. The first coordinate represents the horizontal distance from the origin
(the point where the axes intersect). The second coordinate represents the vertical distance from the origin.

To graph a coordinate point such as (4,2) we start at the origin.

Because the first coordinate is positive four, we move 4 units to the right.
From this location, since the second coordinate is positive two, we move 2 units up.

Example 1: Plot the following coordinate points on the Cartesian plane.

(a) (5, 3)
(b) (–2, 6)

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(c) (3, –4)
(d) (–5, –7)
Solution: We show all the coordinate points on the same plot.

Notice that:
For a positive x value we move to the right.
For a negative x value we move to the left.
For a positive y value we move up.
For a negative y value we move down.
When referring to a coordinate plane, also called a Cartesian plane, the four sections are called quadrants.
The first quadrant is the upper right section, the second quadrant is the upper left, the third quadrant is
the lower left and the fourth quadrant is the lower right.

Suppose we wanted to visualize Joseph’s total cost of riding at the amusement park. Using the table
generated in Lesson 1.5, the graph can be constructed as (number of rides, total cost).

Table 1.2:

r J(r) = 2r
0 2(0) = 0
1 2(1) = 2
2 2(2) = 4
3 2(3) = 6
4 2(4) = 8
5 2(5) = 10
6 2(6) = 12

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The green dots represent the combination of (r, J(r)). The dots are not connected because the domain of
this function is all whole numbers. By connecting the points we are indicating that all values between the
ordered pairs are also solutions to this function. Can Joseph ride 2 12 rides? Of course not! Therefore, we
leave this situation as a scatter plot.
Example 2: Graph the function that has the following table of values.

Side of the Square 0 1 2 3 4

Area of the Square 0 1 4 9 16

Solution: The table gives us five sets of coordinate points:

(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16).
To graph the function, we plot all the coordinate points. Because the length of a square can be fractional
values, but not negative, the domain of this function is all positive real numbers, or x ≥ 0. This means
the ordered pairs can be connected with a smooth curve. This curve will continue forever in the positive
direction, shown by an arrow.

Writing a Function Rule Using a Graph

In many cases, you are given a graph and asked to determine its function. From a graph, you can read pairs
of coordinate points that are on the curve of the function. The coordinate points give values of dependent

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and independent variables. These variables are related to each other by a rule. It is important we make
sure this rule works for all the points on the curve.
In this course, you will learn to recognize different kinds of functions. There will be specific methods that
you can use for each type of function that will help you find the function rule. For now, we will look at
some basic examples and find patterns that will help us figure out the relationship between the dependent
and independent variables.
Example 3: The graph below shows the distance that an inchworm covers over time. Find the function
rule that shows how distance and time are related to each other.

Solution: Make table of values of several coordinate points to identify a pattern.

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9

We can see that for every minute the distance increases by 1.5 feet. We can write the function rule as:
Distance = 1.5 × time
The equation of the function is f (x) = 1.5x

Analyze the Graph of a Real-World Situation

Graphs are used to represent data in all areas of life. You can find graphs in newspapers, political cam-
paigns, science journals, and business presentations.
Here is an example of a graph you might see reported in the news. Most mainstream scientists believe
that increased emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, are contributing to the warming
of the planet. The graph below illustrates how carbon dioxide levels have increased as the world has
industrialized.

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From this graph, we can find the concentration of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere in different
years.
1900 - 285 parts per million
1930 - 300 parts per million
1950 - 310 parts per million
1990 - 350 parts per million
In Chapter 9, you will learn how to approximate an equation to fit this data using a graphing calculator.

Determining Whether a Relation Is a Function

You saw that a function is a relation between the independent and the dependent variables. It is a rule
that uses the values of the independent variable to give the values of the dependent variable. A function
rule can be expressed in words, as an equation, as a table of values, and as a graph. All representations
are useful and necessary in understanding the relation between the variables.
Definition: A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
Mathematically, a function is a special kind of relation.
Definition: A function is a relation between two variables such that the independent value has EXACTLY
one dependent value.
This usually means that each x−value has only one y−value assigned to it. But, not all functions involve
x and y.
Consider the relation that shows the heights of all students in a class. The domain is the set of people in
the class and the range is the set of heights. Each person in the class cannot be more than one height at
the same time. This relation is a function because for each person there is exactly one height that belongs
to him or her.

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Notice that in a function, a value in the range can belong to more than one element in the domain, so more
than one person in the class can have the same height. The opposite is not possible, one person cannot
have multiple heights.
Example 4: Determine if the relation is a function.
a) (1, 3), (–1, –2), (3, 5), (2, 5), (3, 4)
b) (–3, 20), (–5, 25), (–1, 5), (7, 12), (9, 2)
Solution:
a) To determine whether this relation is a function, we must follow the definition of a function. Each
x−coordinate can have ONLY one y−coordinate. However, since the x−coordinate of 3 has two y−coordinates,
4 and 5, this relation is NOT a function.
b) Applying the definition of a function, each x−coordinate has only one y−coordinate. Therefore, this
relation is a function.

Determining Whether a Graph Is a Function

One way to determine whether a relation is a function is to construct a flow chart linking each dependent
value to its matching independent value. Suppose, however, all you are given is the graph of the relation.
How can you determine whether it is a function?
You could organize the ordered pairs into a table or a flow chart, similar to the student and height situation.
This could be a lengthy process, but it is one possible way. A second way is to use the Vertical Line
Test. Applying this test gives a quick and effective visual to decide if the graph is a function.
Theorem: Part A) A relation is a function if there are no vertical lines that intersect the graphed relation
in more than one point.
Part B) If a graphed relation does not intersect a vertical line in more than one point, then that relation
is a function.
Is this graphed relation a function?

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By drawing a vertical line (the red line) through the graph, we can see that the vertical line intersects the
circle more than once. Therefore, this graph is NOT a function.
Here is a second example:

No matter where a vertical line is drawn through the graph, there will be only one intersection. Therefore,
this graph is a function.
Example 4: Determine if the relation is a function.

Solution: Using the Vertical Line Test, we can conclude the relation is a function.
For more information:
Watch this YouTube video giving step-by-step instructions of the Vertical Line Test. CK-12
Basic Algebra: Vertical Line Test (3:11)

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the

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 Figure 1.3: (Watch Youtube Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/715

number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both. CK-12 Basic Algebra: Functions as Graphs (9:34)

Figure 1.4: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/716

In 1 – 5, plot the coordinate points on the Cartesian plane.

1. (4, –4)
2. (2, 7)
3. (–3, –5)
4. (6, 3)
5. (–4, 3)

Using the coordinate plane below, give the coordinates for a – e.

6.

In 7 – 9, graph the relation on a coordinate plane. According to the situation, determine whether to
connect the ordered pairs with a smooth curve or leave as a scatter plot.

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 7.

X −10 −5 0 5 10
Y −3 −0.5 2 4.5 7

Table 1.3:

Side of cube (in inches) Volume of cube (in inches3 )

0 0
1 1
2 8
3 27
4 64

Table 1.4:

Time (in hours) Distance (in miles)

–2 –50
–1 25
0 0
1 5
2 50

In 10 – 12, graph the function.

10. Brandon is a member of a movie club. He pays a $50 annual membership and $8 per movie.
11. f (x) = (x − 2)2
12. f (x) = 3.2 x

In 13 – 16, determine if the relation is a function.

13. (1, 7), (2, 7), (3, 8), (4, 8), (5, 9)
14. (1, 1), (1, –1), (4, 2), (4, –2), (9, 3), (9, –3)
15.

Age 20 25 25 30 35
Number of jobs by that age 3 4 7 4 2
16.

−4 −3 −2 −1 0
16 9 4 1 0

In 17 and 18, write a function rule for the graphed relation.

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 17.

18.

19. The students at a local high school took the Youth Risk Behavior Survey. The graph below shows the
percentage of high school students who reported that they were current smokers. A person qualifies
as a current smoker if he/she has smoked one or more cigarettes in the past 30 days. What percentage
of high school students were current smokers in the following years?

(a) 1991
(b) 1996
(c) 2004
(d) 2005

20. The graph below shows the average lifespan of people based on the year in which they were born. This
information comes from the National Vital Statistics Report from the Center for Disease Control.
What is the average lifespan of a person born in the following years?

(a) 1940

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(b) 1955
(c) 1980
(d) 1995

21. The graph below shows the median income of an individual based on his/her number of years of
education. The top curve shows the median income for males and the bottom curve shows the
median income for females (Source: US Census, 2003). What is the median income of a male who
has the following years of education?

(a) 10 years of education

(b) 17 years of education
What is the median income of a female who has the same years of education?
(c) 10 years of education
(d) 17 years of education

In 22 – 23, determine whether the graphed relation is a function.

22.

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 23.

You saw in the last chapter that linear graphs and equations are used to describe a variety of real-life
situations. In mathematics, the goal is to find an equation that explains a situation as presented in a
problem. In this way, we can determine the rule that describes the relationship. Knowing the equation or
rule is very important since it allows us to find the values for the variables. There are different ways to
find the best equation to represent a problem. The methods are based on the information you can gather
from the problem.
This chapter focuses on several formulas used to help write equations of linear situations, such as slope-
intercept form, standard form, and point-slope form. This chapter also teaches you how to fit a line to
data and how to use a fitted line to predict data.

1.2 Linear Equations

Linear Equations in Slope-Intercept Form
Previously, you learned how to graph solutions to two-variable equations in slope-intercept form. This
lesson focuses on how to write an equation for a graphed line. There are two things you will need from the
graph to write the equation in slope-intercept form:

1. The y−intercept of the graph

2. The slope of the line

Having these two pieces of information will allow you to make the appropriate substitutions in the slope-
intercept formula. Recall from the last chapter,
Slope-intercept form: y = (slope)x + (y − intercept) or y = mx + b
Example 1: Write the equation for a line with a slope of 4 and a y−intercept (0, –3).
Solution: Slope-intercept form requires two things: the slope and y−intercept. To write the equation, you
substitute the values into the formula.

y = (slope)x + (y − intercept)
y = 4x + (−3)
y = 4x − 3

You can also use a graphed line to determine the slope and y−intercept.
Example 2: Use the graph below to write its equation in slope-intercept form.

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 −3
Solution: The y−intercept is (0, 2). Using the slope triangle, you can determine the slope is rise
run = −1 = 31 .
Substituting the value 2 for b and the value 3 for m, the equation for this line is y = 3x + 2.

Writing an Equation Given the Slope and a Point

Sometimes it may be difficult to determine the y−intercept. Perhaps the y−intercept is rational instead of
an integer. Maybe you don’t know the y−intercept. All you have is the slope and an ordered pair. You
can use this information to write the equation in slope-intercept form. To do so, you will need to follow
several steps.
Step 1: Begin by writing the formula for slope-intercept form y = mx + b.
Step 2: Substitute the given slope for m.
Step 3: Use the ordered pair you are given (x, y) and substitute these values for the variables x and y in
the equation.
Step 4: Solve for b (the y−intercept of the graph).
Step 5: Rewrite the original equation in Step 1, substituting the slope for m and the y−intercept for b.
Example 3: Write an equation for a line with slope of 4 that contains the ordered pair (–1, 5).
Solution:
Step 1: Begin by writing the formula for slope-intercept form.

y = mx + b

Step 2: Substitute the given slope for m.

y = 4x + b

Step 3: Use the ordered pair you are given (–1, 5) and substitute these values for the variables x and y in
the equation.

5 = (4)(−1) + b

Step 4: Solve for b (the y−intercept of the graph).

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 5 = −4 + b
5 + 4 = −4 + 4 + b
9=b

Step 5: Rewrite y = mx + b, substituting the slope for m and the y−intercept for b.

y = 4x + 9

Example 4: Write the equation for a line with a slope of –3 containing the point (3, –5).
Solution: Using the five-steps from above:

y = (slope)x + (y − intercept)
y = −3x + b
−5 = −3(3) + b
−5 = −9 + b
4=b
y = −3x + 4

Writing an Equation Given Two Points

In many cases, especially real-world situations, you are given neither the slope nor the y−intercept. You
might have only two points to use to determine the equation of the line.
To find an equation for a line between two points, you need two things:

1. The y−intercept of the graph

2. The slope of the line

Previously, you learned how to determine the slope between two points. Let’s repeat the formula here.
y2 −y1
The slope between any two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is: slope = x2 −x1 .
The procedure for determining a line given two points is the same five-step process as writing an equation
given the slope and a point.
Example 5: Write the equation for the line containing the points (3, 2) and (–2, 4).
Solution: You need the slope of the line. Find the line’s slope by using the formula. Choose one ordered
pair to represent (x1 , y1 ) and the other ordered pair to represent (x2 , y2 ).
y2 − y1 4−2 2
slope = = =−
x2 − x1 −2 − 3 5

Now use the five-step process to find the equation for this line.
Step 1: Begin by writing the formula for slope-intercept form.

y = mx + b

Step 2: Substitute the given slope for m.

www.ck12.org 20
 −2
y= x+b
5

Step 3: Use one of the ordered pairs you are given (–2, 4) and substitute these values for the variables x
and y in the equation.
( −2 )
4= (−2) + b
5

Step 4: Solve for b (the y−intercept of the graph).

4
4= +b
5
4 4 4
4− = − +b
5 5 5
16
=b
5

Step 5: Rewrite y = mx + b, substituting the slope for m and the y−intercept for b.
−2 16
y= x+
5 5

Example 6: Write the equation for a line containing the points (–4, 1) and (–2, 3).
Solution:

1. Start with the slope–intercept form of the line y = mx + b.

2. Find the slope of the line: m = yx22 −y 1 3−1 2
−x1 = −2−(−4) = 2 = 1.
3. Substitute the value of slope for m : y = (1)x + b.
4. Substitute the coordinate (–2, 3) into the equation for the variables x and y : 3 = −2 + b ⇒ b = 5.
5. Rewrite the equation, substituting the slope for m and the y−intercept for b: y = x + 5.

Writing a Function in Slope-Intercept Form

Remember that a linear function has the form f (x) = mx + b. Here f (x) represents the y values of the
equation or the graph. So y = f (x) and they are often used interchangeably. Using the functional notation
in an equation often provides you with more information.
For instance, the expression f (x) = mx + b shows clearly that x is the independent variable because you
substitute values of x into the function and perform a series of operations on the value of x in order to
calculate the values of the dependent variable, y.

In this case when you substitute x into the function, the function tells you to multiply it by m and then
add b to the result. This process generates all the values of y you need.
Example 7: Consider the function f (x) = 3x − 4. Find f (2), f (0), and f (−1).
Solution: Each number in parentheses is a value of x that you need to substitute into the equation of the
function.

21 www.ck12.org
 f (2) = 2; f (0) = −4; and f (−1) = −7

Function notation tells you much more than the value of the independent variable. It also indicates a point
on the graph. For example, in the above example, f (−1) = −7. This means the ordered pair (–1, –7) is
a solution to f (x) = 3x − 4 and appears on the graphed line. You can use this information to write an
equation for a function.
Example 8: Write an equation for a line with m = 3.5 and f (−2) = 1.
Solution: You know the slope and you know a point on the graph (–2, 1). Using the methods presented
in this lesson, write the equation for the line.
Begin with slope-intercept form.

y = mx + b
Substitute the value for the slope. y = 3.5x + b
Use the ordered pair to solve for b. 1 = 3.5(−2) + b
b=8
Rewrite the equation. y = 3.5x + 8
or f (x) = 3.5x + 8

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both.
CK-12 Basic Algebra: Linear Equations in Slope-Intercept Form (14:58)

Figure 1.5: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/757

1. What is the formula for slope-intercept form? What do the variables m and b represent?
2. What are the five steps needed to determine the equation of a line given the slope and a point on
the graph (not the y−intercept)?
3. What is the first step in finding the equation of a line given two points?

www.ck12.org 22
In 4 – 20, find the equation of the line in slope–intercept form.

4. The line has

slope of 7 and y−intercept of –2.
5. The line has
slope of –5 and y−intercept of 6.
6. The line slope = −2 and a y−intercept = 7.
has
7. The line slope = 23 and a y−intercept = 45 .
has
8. The line slope of − 14 and contains point( (4, )–1).
has
9. The line slope of 23 and contains point 21 , 1 .
has
( )
10. The line has slope of –1 and contains point 45 , 0 .
11. The line contains points (2, 6) and (5, 0).
12. The line contains points (5, –2) and (8, 4).
13. The line contains points (3, 5) and (–3, 0).
14. The slope of the line is − 23 and the line contains point (2, –2).
15. The slope of the line is –3 and the line contains point (3, –5).
16. The line contains points (10, 15) and (12, 20).
17.

18.

23 www.ck12.org
 19.

20.

In 21 – 28, find the equation of the linear function in slope–intercept form.

21. m = 5, f (0) = −3
22. m = −2 and f (0) = 5
23. m = −7, f (2) = −1
24. m = 13 , f (−1) = 23
25. m(=)4.2, f (−3) = 7.1
26. f 14 = 43 , f (0) = 54
27. f (1.5) = −3, f (−1) = 2
28. f (−1) = 1 and f (1) = −1

Linear Equations in Standard Form

As the past few lessons of this chapter have shown, there are several ways to write a linear equation. This
lesson introduces another method: standard form. You have already seen examples of standard form
equations in a previous lesson. For example, here are some equations written in standard form.

www.ck12.org 24
 0.75(h) + 1.25(b) = 30
7x − 3y = 21
2x + 3y = −6

The standard form of a linear equation has the form Ax + By = C, where A, B, and C are integers and A
and B are not both zero.
Equations written in standard form do not have fractional coefficients and the variables are written on
the same side of the equation.
You should be able to rewrite any of the formulas into an alternate form.

S lope − intercept f orm ↔ S tandard f orm

S lope − intercept f orm ↔ Point − slope f orm
Point − slope f orm ↔ S tandard f orm

Example 1: Rewrite 43 (h) + 54 (b) = 30 in standard form.

Solution: According to the definition of standard form, the coefficients must be integers. So we need to
clear the fractions of the denominator using multiplication.
3 5 (3 5 )
h + b = 30 → 4 h + b = 4(30)
4 4 4 4
3h + 5b = 120

This equation is now in standard form, A = 3, B = 5, and C = 120.

Example 2: Rewrite y − 5 = 3(x − 2) in standard form.
Solution: Use the Distributive Property to simplify the right side of the equation

y − 5 = 3x − 6

Rewrite this equation so the variables x and y are on the same side of the equation.

y − 5 + 6 = 3x − 6 + 6
y − y + 1 = 3x − y
1 = 3x − y, where A=3, B=-1, and C=1.

Example 3: Rewrite 5x − 7 = y in standard form.

Solution: Rewrite this equation so the variables x and y are on the same side of the equation.

5x − 7 + 7 = y + 7
5x − y = y − y + 7
5x − y = 7, where A=5, B=-1, and C=7.

Finding Slope and y−Intercept of a Standard Form Equation

Slope-intercept form and point-slope form of a linear equation both contain the slope of the equation
explicitly, but the standard form does not. Since the slope is such an important feature of a line, it is

25 www.ck12.org
useful to figure out how you would find the slope if you were given the equation of the line in standard
form.
Begin with standard form: Ax + By = C.
If you rewrite this equation in slope-intercept form, it becomes:

Ax − Ax + By = C − Ax
By −Ax + C
=
B B
−A C
y= x+
B B

When you compare this form to slope-intercept form, y = mx + b, you can see that the slope of a standard
form equation is −A C
B and the y−intercept is B .
The standard form of a linear equation Ax + By = C has the following:
−A
slope = B and y − intercept = C
B.
Example 4: Find the slope and y−intercept of 2x − 3y = −8.
Solution: Using the definition of standard form, A = 2, B = −3, and C = −8.
−A −2 2
slope = = →
B −3 3
C −8 8
y − intercept = = →
B −3 3

2
The slope is 3 and the y−intercept is 83 .

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both.
CK-12 Basic Algebra: Linear Equations in Standard Form (10:08)

Figure 1.6: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/759

1. What is the standard form of a linear equation? What do A, B, and C represent?

2. What is the meaning of ‘‘clear the fractions”? How would you go about doing so?
3. Consider the equation Ax + By = C. What are the slope and y−intercept of this equation?

www.ck12.org 26
Rewrite the following equations in standard form.

4. y = 3x − 8
5. y = −x − 6
6. y = 53 x − 4
7. 0.30x + 0.70y = 15
8. 5 = 16 x − y
9. y − 7 = −5(x − 12)
10. 2y = 6x + 9
11. y = 94 x + 14
12. y + 35 = 23 (x − 2)
13. 3y + 5 = 4(x − 9)

Find the slope and y−intercept of the following lines.

14. 5x − 2y = 15
15. 3x + 6y = 25
16. x − 8y = 12
17. 3x − 7y = 20
18. 9x − 9y = 4
19. 6x + y = 3
20. x−y=9
21. 8x + 3y = 15
22. 4x + 9y = 1

In 23 – 27, write each equation in standard form by first writing it in point-slope form.

23. S lope = −1 through point (–3, 5)

24. S lope = − 14 through point (4, 0)
25. Line through (5, –2) and (–5, 4)
26. Line through (–3, –2) and (5, 1)
27. Line through (1, –1) and (5, 2)

Equations of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

In a previous lesson, you learned how to identify parallel lines.
Parallel lines have the same slope.
Each of the graphs below have the same slope. According to the definition, all these lines are parallel.

27 www.ck12.org
Example 1: Are y = 13 x − 4 and −3x + 9y = 18 parallel?
Solution: The slope of the first line is 31 . Any line parallel to this must also have a slope of 13 .
Find the slope of the second equation: A = −3, B = 9
−A 3 1
slope = = →
B 9 3

These two lines have the same slope so they are parallel.

Slopes of Perpendicular Lines

Lines can be parallel, coincident (overlap each other), or intersecting (crossing). Lines that intersect at
90◦ angles have a special name: perpendicular lines. The slopes of perpendicular lines have a special
property.
Perpendicular lines form a right angle. The product of their slopes is –1.

m1 · m2 = −1

Example 2: Verify that the following lines are perpendicular.

Line a: passes through points (–2, –7) and (1, 5)
Line b: passes through points (4, 1) and (–8, 4)
Solution: Find the slopes of each line.

5 − (−7) 12 4 4−1 3 −1
Line a : = = Line b : = =
1 − (−2) 3 1 −8 − 4 −12 4

To verify that the lines are perpendicular, the product of their slopes must equal –1.
4 −1
× = −1
1 4

Because the product of their slopes is −1, lines a and b are perpendicular.
Example 3: Determine whether the two lines are parallel, perpendicular, or neither:

www.ck12.org 28
Line 1: 2x = y − 10; Line 2: y = −2x + 5
Solution: Begin by finding the slopes of lines 1 and 2.

2x + 10 = y − 10 + 10
2x + 10 = y

The slope of the first line is 2.

y = −2x + 5

The slope of the second line is –2.

These slopes are not identical, so these lines are not parallel.
To check if the lines are perpendicular, find the product of the slopes. 2 × −2 = −4. The product of the
slopes is not –1, so the lines are not perpendicular.
Lines 1 and 2 are neither parallel nor perpendicular.

Writing Equations of Parallel Lines

Example 4: Find the equation parallel to the line y = 6x − 9 passing through (–1, 4).
Solution: Parallel lines have the same slope, so the slope will be 6. You have a point and the slope, so
you can use point-slope form.

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
y − 4 = 6(x + 1)

You could rewrite it in slope-intercept form:

y = 6x + 6 + 4
y = 6x + 10

Writing Equations of Perpendicular Lines

Writing equations of perpendicular lines is slightly more difficult than writing parallel line equations. The
reason is because you must find the slope of the perpendicular line before you can proceed with writing an
equation.
Example: Find the equation perpendicular to the line y = −3x + 5 that passes through point (2, 6).
Solution: Begin by finding the slopes of the perpendicular line. Using the perpendicular line definition,
m1 · m2 = −1. The slope of the original line is –3. Substitute that for m1 .

−3 · m2 = −1

Solve for m2 , the slope of the perpendicular line.

−3m2 −1
=
−3 −3
1
m2 =
3

29 www.ck12.org
The slope of the line perpendicular to y = −3x + 5 is 13 .
You now have the slope and a point. Use point-slope form to write its equation.

1
y − 6 = (x − 2)
3

You can rewrite this in slope-intercept form: y = 13 x − 2

3 + 6.

1 16
y= x+
3 3

Example 4: Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line y = 5 and passing through (5, 4).
Solution: The line y = 5 is a horizontal line with slope of zero. The only thing that makes a 90◦ angle
with a horizontal line is a vertical line. Vertical lines have undefined slopes.
Since the vertical line must go through (5, 4), the equation is x = 5.
Multimedia Link: For more help with writing lines, visit AlgebraLab.

Families of Lines
A straight line has two very important properties, its slope and its y−intercept. The slope tells us how
steeply the line rises or falls, and the y−intercept tells us where the line intersects the y−axis. In this
section, we will look at two families of lines.
A family of lines is a set of lines that have something in common with each other. Straight lines can
belong to two types of families: where the slope is the same and where the y−intercept is the same.

Family 1: The slope is the same

Remember that lines with the same slope are parallel. Each line on the Cartesian plane below has an
identical slope with different y−intercepts. All the lines look the same but they are shifted up and down
the y−axis. As b gets larger the line rises on the y−axis and as b gets smaller the line goes lower on the
y−axis. This behavior is often called a vertical shift.

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Family 2: The y−intercept is the same
The graph below shows several lines with the same y−intercept but varying slopes.

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both.
CK-12 Basic Algebra: Equations of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines (9:13)

Figure 1.7: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/760

1. Define parallel lines.

2. Define perpendicular lines.
3. What is true about the slopes of perpendicular lines?
4. What is a family of lines?

Determine the slope of a line a) parallel and b) perpendicular to each line given.

5. y = −5x + 7
6. 2x + 8y = 9

31 www.ck12.org
 7. x = 8
8. y = −4.75
9. y − 2 = 15 (x + 3)

In 9 – 16, determine whether the lines are parallel, perpendicular, or neither.

10. Line a : passing through points (–1, 4) and (2, 6); Line b : passing through points (2, –3) and (8, 1).
11. Line a : passing through points (4, –3) and (–8, 0); Line b : passing through points (–1, –1) and (–2,
6).
12. Line a : passing through points (–3, 14) and (1, –2); Line b : passing through points (0, –3) and (–2,
5).
13. Line a : passing through points (3, 3) and (–6, –3); Line b : passing through points (2, –8) and (–6,
4).
14. Line 1: 4y + x = 8; Line 2: 12y + 3x = 1
15. Line 1: 5y + 3x + 1; Line 2: 6y + 10x = −3
16. Line 1: 2y − 3x + 5 = 0; Line 2: y + 6x = −3
17. Find the equation of the line parallel to 5x − 2y = 2 that passes through point (3, –2).
18. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y = − 25 x − 3 that passes through point (2, 8).
19. Find the equation of the line parallel to 7y + 2x − 10 = 0 that passes through the point (2, 2).
20. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y + 5 = 3(x − 2) that passes through the point (6, 2).
21. Find the equation of the line through (2, –4) perpendicular to y = 27 x + 3.
22. Find the equation of the line through (2, 3) parallel to y = 32 x + 5.

In 23 – 26, write the equation of the family of lines satisfying the given condition.

23. All lines pass through point (0, 4).

24. All lines are perpendicular to 4x + 3y − 1 = 0.
25. All lines are parallel to y − 3 = 4x + 2.
26. All lines pass through point (0, –1).
27. Write an equation for a line parallel to the equation graphed below.
28. Write an equation for a line perpendicular to the equation graphed below and passing through the
ordered pair (0, –1).

www.ck12.org 32
Quick Quiz
4
1. Write an equation for a line with slope of 3 and y−intercept (0, 8).
2. Write an equation for a line containing (6, 1) and (7, –3).
3. A plumber charges $75 for a 2.5-hour job and $168.75 for a 5-hour job.
Assuming the situation is linear, write an equation to represent the plumber’s charge and use it to predict
the cost of a 1-hour job.
4. Rewrite in standard form: y = 65 x + 11.
5. Sasha took tickets for the softball game. Student tickets were $3.00 and adult tickets were $3.75. She
collected a total of $337.50 and sold 75 student tickets. How many adult tickets were sold?

1.3 Linear Functions and Applications

A Problem-Solving Plan
Much of mathematics apply to real-world situations. To think critically and to problem solve are mathemat-
ical abilities. Although these capabilities may be the most challenging, they are also the most rewarding.
To be successful in applying mathematics in real-life situations, you must have a ‘‘toolbox” of strategies
to assist you. The last few lessons of many chapters in this FlexBook are devoted to filling this toolbox so
you to become a better problem solver and tackle mathematics in the real world.

Step #1: Read and Understand the Given Problem

Every problem you encounter gives you clues needed to solve it successfully. Here is a checklist you can
use to help you understand the problem.
√
Read the problem carefully. Make sure you read all the sentences. Many mistakes have been made by
failing to fully read the situation.
√
Underline or highlight key words. These include mathematical operations such as sum, difference,
product, and mathematical verbs such as equal, more than, less than, is. Key words also include the nouns
the situation is describing such as time, distance, people, etc.
Visit the Wylie Intermediate Website (http://wylie.region14.net/webs/shamilton/math_clue_words.htm)
for more clue words.
√
Ask yourself if you have seen a problem like this before. Even though the nouns and verbs may be
different, the general situation may be similar to something else you’ve seen.
√
What are you being asked to do? What is the question you are supposed to answer?
√
What facts are you given? These typically include numbers or other pieces of information.
Once you have discovered what the problem is about, the next step is to declare what variables will
represent the nouns in the problem. Remember to use letters that make sense!

Step #2: Make a Plan to Solve the Problem

The next step in the problem-solving plan is to make a plan or develop a strategy. How can the
information you know assist you in figuring out the unknown quantities?

33 www.ck12.org
Here are some common strategies that you will learn.

• Drawing a diagram
• Making a table
• Looking for a pattern
• Using guess and check
• Working backwards
• Using a formula
• Reading and making graphs
• Writing equations
• Using linear models
• Using dimensional analysis
• Using the right type of function for the situation

In most problems, you will use a combination of strategies. For example, drawing a diagram and looking
for patterns are good strategies for most problems. Also, making a table and drawing a graph are often
used together. The ‘‘writing an equation” strategy is the one you will work with the most frequently in
your study of algebra.

Step #3: Solve the Problem and Check the Results

Once you develop a plan, you can use it to solve the problem.
The last step in solving any problem should always be to check and interpret the answer. Here are some
questions to help you to do that.

• Does the answer make sense?

• If you substitute the solution into the original problem, does it make the sentence true?
• Can you use another method to arrive at the same answer?

Step #4: Compare Alternative Approaches

Sometimes a certain problem is best solved by using a specific method. Most of the time, however, it can be
solved by using several different strategies. When you are familiar with all of the problem-solving strategies,
it is up to you to choose the methods that you are most comfortable with and that make sense to you. In
this book, we will often use more than one method to solve a problem. This way we can demonstrate the
strengths and weaknesses of different strategies when applied to different types of problems.
Regardless of the strategy you are using, you should always implement the problem-solving plan when you
are solving word problems. Here is a summary of the problem-solving plan.
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Step 2: Devise a plan – Translate. Come up with a way to solve the problem. Set up an equation, draw
a diagram, make a chart, or construct a table as a start to begin your problem-solving plan.

www.ck12.org 34
Step 3: Carry out the plan – Solve.
Step 4: Check and Interpret: Check to see if you have used all your information. Then look to see if the
answer makes sense.

Solve Real-World Problems Using a Plan

Example 1: Jeff is 10 years old. His younger brother, Ben, is 4 years old. How old will Jeff be when he
is twice as old as Ben?
Solution: Begin by understanding the problem. Highlight the key words.
Jeff is 10 years old. His younger brother, Ben, is 4 years old. How old will Jeff be when he is twice
as old as Ben?
The question we need to answer is. ‘‘What is Jeff’s age when he is twice as old as Ben?”
You could guess and check, use a formula, make a table, or look for a pattern.
The key is ‘‘twice as old.” This clue means two times, or double Ben’s age. Begin by doubling possible
ages. Let’s look for a pattern.
4 × 2 = 8. Jeff is already older than 8.
5 × 2 = 10. This doesn’t make sense because Jeff is already 10.
6 × 2 = 12. In two years, Jeff will be 12 and Ben will be 6. Jeff will be twice as old.
Jeff will be 12 years old.
Example 2: Matthew is planning to harvest his corn crop this fall. The field has 660 rows of corn with
300 ears per row. Matthew estimates his crew will have the crop harvested in 20 hours. How many ears of
corn will his crew harvest per hour?

Solution: Begin by highlighting the key information.

Matthew is planning to harvest his corn crop this fall. The field has 660 rows of corn with 300 ears per
row. Matthew estimates his crew will have the crop harvested in 20 hours. How many ears of corn
will his crew harvest per hour?
You could draw a picture (it may take a while), write an equation, look for a pattern, or make a table.
Let’s try to use reasoning.
We need to figure out how many ears of corn are in the field. 660(300) = 198, 000. This is how many ears

35 www.ck12.org
are in the field. It will take 20 hours to harvest the entire field, so we need to divide 198,000 by 20 to get
the number of ears picked per hour.
198, 000
= 9, 900
20
The crew can harvest 9,900 ears per hour.

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both. CK-12 Basic Algebra: Word Problem-Solving Plan 1 (10:12)

Figure 1.8: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/719

1. What are the four steps to solving a problem?

2. Name three strategies you can use to help make a plan. Which one(s) are you most familiar with
already?
3. Which types of strategies work well together? Why?
4. Suppose Matthew’s crew takes 36 hours to harvest the field. How many ears per hour will they
harvest?
5. Why is it difficult to solve Ben and Jeff’s age problem by drawing a diagram?
6. How do you check a solution to a problem? What is the purpose of checking the solution?
7. There were 12 people on a jury, with four more women than men. How many women were there?
8. A rope 14 feet long is cut into two pieces. One piece is 2.25 feet longer than the other. What are the
lengths of the two pieces?
9. A sweatshirt costs $35. Find the total cost if the sales tax is 7.75%.
10. This year you got a 5% raise. If your new salary is $45,000, what was your salary before the raise?
11. It costs $250 to carpet a room that is 14 f t × 18 f t. How much does it cost to carpet a room that is
9 f t × 10 f t?
12. A department store has a 15% discount for employees. Suppose an employee has a coupon worth $10
off any item and she wants to buy a $65 purse. What is the final cost of the purse if the employee
discount is applied before the coupon is subtracted?
13. To host a dance at a hotel, you must pay $250 plus $20 per guest. How much money would you have
to pay for 25 guests?
14. It costs $12 to get into the San Diego County Fair and $1.50 per ride. If Rena spent $24 in total,
how many rides did she go on?
15. An ice cream shop sells a small cone for $2.92, a medium cone for $3.50, and a large cone for $4.25.
Last Saturday, the shop sold 22 small cones, 26 medium cones, and 15 large cones. How much money
did the store earn?

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 16. The sum of angles in a triangle is 180 degrees. If the second angle is twice the size of the first angle
and the third angle is three times the size of the first angle, what are the measures of the angles in
the triangle?

Problem-Solving Strategies: Make a Table; Look for a Pattern

This lesson focuses on two of the strategies introduced in the previous chapter: making a table and looking
for a pattern. These are the most common strategies you have used before algebra. Let’s review the
four-step problem-solving plan from Lesson 1.7.
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Step 2: Devise a plan – Translate. Come up with a way to solve the problem. Set up an equation, draw
a diagram, make a chart, or construct a table as a start to begin your problem-solving plan.
Step 3: Carry out the plan – Solve.
Step 4: Check and Interpret: Check to see if you used all your information. Then look to see if the answer
makes sense.

Using a Table to Solve a Problem

When a problem has data that needs to be organized, a table is a highly effective problem-solving strategy.
A table is also helpful when the problem asks you to record a large amount of information. Patterns and
numerical relationships are easier to see when data are organized in a table.
Example 1: Josie takes up jogging. In the first week she jogs for 10 minutes per day, in the second week
she jogs for 12 minutes per day. Each week, she wants to increase her jogging time by 2 minutes per day.
If she jogs six days per week each week, what will be her total jogging time in the sixth week?
Solution: Organize the information in a table

Table 1.5:

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

10 minutes 12 minutes 14 minutes 16 minutes
60 min/week 72 min/week 84 min/week 96 min/week

We can see the pattern that the number of minutes is increasing by 12 each week. Continuing this pattern,
Josie will run 120 minutes in the sixth week.
Don’t forget to check the solution! The pattern starts at 60 and adds 12 each week after the first week.
The equation to represent this situation is t = 60 + 12(w − 1). By substituting 6 for the variable of w, the
equation becomes t = 60 + 12(6 − 1) = 60 + 60 = 120

Solve a Problem by Looking for a Pattern

Some situations have a readily apparent pattern, which means that the pattern is easy to see. In this case,
you may not need to organize the information into a table. Instead, you can use the pattern to arrive at
your solution.
Example 2: You arrange tennis balls in triangular shapes as shown. How many balls will there be in a
triangle that has 8 layers?

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One layer: It is simple to see that a triangle with one layer has only one ball.

Two layers: For a triangle with two layers we add the balls from the top layer to the balls of the bottom
layer. It is useful to make a sketch of the different layers in the triangle.

Three layers: we add the balls from the top triangle to the balls from the bottom layer.

We can fill the first three rows of the table.

1 2 3 4
1 3 6 6 + 4 = 10

To find the number of tennis balls in 8 layers, continue the pattern.

5 6 7 8
10 + 5 = 15 15 + 6 = 21 21 + 7 = 28 28 + 8 = 36

There will be 36 tennis balls in the 8 layers.

Check: Each layer of the triangle has one more ball than the previous one. In a triangle with 8 layers,
each layer has the smae number of balls as its position. When we add these we get:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = 36 balls
The answer checks out.

Comparing Alternative Approaches to Solving Problems

In this section, we will compare the methods of ‘‘Making a Table” and ‘‘Looking for a Pattern” by using
each method in turn to solve a problem.
Example 3: Andrew cashes a $180 check and wants the money in $10 and $20 bills. The bank teller gives
him 12 bills. How many of each kind of bill does he receive?
Solution: Method 1: Making a Table

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 Tens 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Twenties 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

The combination that has a sum of 12 is six $10 bills and six $20 bills.
Method 2: Using a Pattern
The pattern is that for every pair of $10 bills, the number of $20 bills reduces by one. Begin with the most
number of $20 bills. For every $20 bill lost, add two $10 bills.

6($10) + 6($20) = $180

Check: Six $10 bills and six $20 bills = 6($10) + 6($20) = $60 + $120 = $180.

Using These Strategies to Solve Problems

Example 4: Students are going to march in a homecoming parade. There will be one kindergartener, two
first-graders, three second-graders, and so on through 12th grade. How many students will be walking in the
homecoming parade?
Could you make a table? Absolutely. Could you look for a pattern? Absolutely.
Solution 1: Make a table:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

The solution is the sum of all the numbers, 91. There will be 91 students walking in the homecoming
parade.
Solution 2: Look for a pattern.
The pattern is: The number of students is one more than their grade level. Therefore, the solution is the
sum of numbers from 1 (kindergarten) through 13 (12th grade). The solution is 91.

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both. CK-12 Basic Algebra: Word Problem-Solving Strategies (12:51)

1. Go back and find the solution to the problem in Example 1.

2. Britt has $2.25 in nickels and dimes. If she has 40 coins in total how many of each coin does she
have?
3. A pattern of squares is placed together as shown. How many squares are in the 12th diagram?

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 Figure 1.9: (Watch Youtube Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/722

4. Oswald is trying to cut down on drinking coffee. His goal is to cut down to 6 cups per week. If he
starts with 24 cups the first week, cuts down to 21 cups the second week, and drops to 18 cups the
third week, how many weeks will it take him to reach his goal?
5. Taylor checked out a book from the library and it is now 5 days late. The late fee is 10 cents per
day. How much is the fine?
6. How many hours will a car traveling at 75 miles per hour take to catch up to a car traveling at 55
miles per hour if the slower car starts two hours before the faster car?
7. Grace starts biking at 12 miles per hour. One hour later, Dan starts biking at 15 miles per hour,
following the same route. How long would it take him to catch up with Grace?
8. Lemuel wants to enclose a rectangular plot of land with a fence. He has 24 feet of fencing. What is
the largest possible area that he could enclose with the fence?

Problem-Solving Strategies: Use a Linear Model

This chapter has focused on writing equations and determining lines of best fit. When we fit a line to data
using interpolation, extrapolation, or linear regression, it is called linear modeling.
A model is an equation that best describes the data graphed in the scatter plot.
Example 1: Dana heard something very interesting at school. Her teacher told her that if you divide
the circumference of a circle by its diameter you always get the same number. She tested this statement
by measuring the circumference and diameter of several circular objects. The following table shows her
results.
From this data, estimate the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 12 inches. What about 25 inches?
60 inches?
Solution: Begin by creating a scatter plot and drawing the line of best fit.

Table 1.6: Diameter and Circumference of Various Objects

Object Diameter (inches) Circumference (inches)

Table 53 170
Soda can 2.25 7.1
Cocoa tin 4.2 12.6
Plate 8 25.5
Straw 0.25 1.2
Propane tank 13.3 39.6
Hula hoop 34.25 115

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Find the equation of the line of best fit using points (0.25, 1.2) and (8, 25.5).
25.5 − 12 24.3
Slope m= = = 3.14
8 − 0.25 7.75
= 3.14x + b
1.2 = 3.14(0.25) + b ⇒ b = 0.42
Equation y = 3.14x + 0.42

Diameter = 12 inches ⇒ y = 3.14(12) + 0.42 = 38.1 inches

Diameter = 25 inches ⇒ y = 3.14(25) + 0.42 = 78.92 inches
Diameter = 60 inches ⇒ y = 3.14(60) + 0.42 = 188.82 inches

In this problem, the slope = 3.14. This number should be very familiar to you—it is the number pi rounded
to the hundredths place. Theoretically, the circumference of a circle divided by its diameter is always the
same and it equals 3.14 or π.
Example 2: A cylinder is filled with water to a height of 73 centimeters. The water is drained through
a hole in the bottom of the cylinder and measurements are taken at two-second intervals. The table below
shows the height of the water level in the cylinder at different times.
Find the water level at 15 seconds.
Solution: Begin by graphing the scatter plot. As you can see below, a straight line does not fit the majority
of this data. Therefore, there is no line of best fit. Instead, use interpolation.

Table 1.7: Water Level in Cylinder at Various Times

Time (seconds) Water level (cm)

0.0 73
2.0 63.9
4.0 55.5
6.0 47.2
8.0 40.0
10.0 33.4

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 Table 1.7: (continued)

Time (seconds) Water level (cm)

12.0 27.4
14.0 21.9
16.0 17.1
18.0 12.9
20.0 9.4
22.0 6.3
24.0 3.9
26.0 2.0
28.0 0.7
30.0 0.1

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To find the value at 15 seconds, connect points (14, 21.9) and (16, 17.1) and find the equation of the
straight line.
17.1 − 21.9 −4.8
m= = = −2.4
16 − 14 2

y = −2.4x + b ⇒ 21.9 = −2.4(14) + b ⇒ b = 55.5

Equation y = −2.4x + 55.5

Substitute x = 15 and obtain y = −2.4(15) + 55.5 = 19.5 cm.

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both. CK-12 Basic Algebra: Using a Linear Model (12:14)

Figure 1.10: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/765

1. What is a mathematical model?

2. What is linear modeling? What are the options to determine a linear model?
3. Using the Water Level data, use interpolation to determine the height of the water at 17 seconds.

Use the Life Expectancy table below to answer the questions.

4. Make a scatter plot of the data.

5. Use a line of best fit to estimate the life expectancy of a person born in 1955.
6. Use linear interpolation to estimate the life expectancy of a person born in 1955.
7. Use a line of best fit to estimate the life expectancy of a person born in 1976.
8. Use linear interpolation to estimate the life expectancy of a person born in 1976.
9. Use a line of best fit to estimate the life expectancy of a person born in 2012.
10. Use linear extrapolation to estimate the life expectancy of a person born in 2012.
11. Which method gives better estimates for this data set? Why?

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 Table 1.8:

Birth Year Life expectancy in years

1930 59.7
1940 62.9
1950 68.2
1960 69.7
1970 70.8
1980 73.7
1990 75.4
2000 77

The table below lists the high temperature for the first day of each month in 2006 in San Diego, California
(Weather Underground). Use this table to answer the questions.

12. Draw a scatter plot of the data.

13. Use a line of best fit to estimate the temperature in the middle of the 4th month (month 4.5).
14. Use linear interpolation to estimate the temperature in the middle of the 4th month (month 4.5).
15. Use a line of best fit to estimate the temperature for month 13 (January 2007).
16. Use linear extrapolation to estimate the temperature for month 13 (January 2007).
17. Which method gives better estimates for this data set? Why?

Table 1.9:

Month number Temperature (F)

1 63
2 66
3 61
4 64
5 71
6 78
7 88
8 78
9 81
10 75
11 68
12 69

Solve Real-World Problems Using Linear Models

Let’s apply the methods we just learned to a few application problems that can be modeled using a linear
relationship.
Example 9: Nadia has $200 in her savings account. She gets a job that pays $7.50 per hour and she deposits
all her earnings in her savings account. Write the equation describing this problem in slope–intercept form.
How many hours would Nadia need to work to have $500 in her account?

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Solution: Begin by defining the variables:
y = amount of money in Nadia’s savings account
x = number of hours
The problem gives the y−intercept and the slope of the equation.
We are told that Nadia has $200 in her savings account, so b = 200.
We are told that Nadia has a job that pays $7.50 per hour, so m = 7.50.
By substituting these values in slope–intercept form y = mx + b, we obtain y = 7.5x + 200.
To answer the question, substitute $500 for the value of y and solve.

500 = 7.5x + 200 ⇒ 7.5x = 300 ⇒ x = 40

Nadia must work 40 hours if she is to have $500 in her account.

Example 10: A stalk of bamboo of the family Phyllostachys nigra grows at steady rate of 12 inches per
day and achieves its full height of 720 inches in 60 days. Write the equation describing this problem in
slope–intercept form. How tall is the bamboo 12 days after it started growing?
Solution: Define the variables.
y = the height of the bamboo plant in inches
x = number of days
The problem gives the slope of the equation and a point on the line.
The bamboo grows at a rate of 12 inches per day, so m = 12.
We are told that the plant grows to 720 inches in 60 days, so we have the point (60, 720).

Start with the slope-intercept form of the line. y = mx + b

Substitute 12 for the slope. y = 12x + b
Substitute the point (60, 720). 720 = 12(60) + b ⇒ b = 0
Substitute the value of b back into the equation. y = 12x

To answer the question, substitute the value x = 12 to obtain y = 12(12) = 144 inches

Applying Standard Form to Real-World Situations

Example 5: Nimitha buys fruit at her local farmer’s market. This Saturday, oranges cost $2 per pound
and cherries cost $3 per pound. She has $12 to spend on fruit. Write an equation in standard form that
describes this situation. If she buys 4 pounds of oranges, how many pounds of cherries can she buy?

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Solution: Define the variables: x = pounds of oranges and y = pounds of cherries.
The equation that describes this situation is: 2x + 3y = 12
If she buys 4 pounds of oranges, we substitute x = 4 in the equation and solve for y.
2(4) + 3y = 12 ⇒ 3y = 12 − 8 ⇒ 3y = 4 ⇒ y = 43 . Nimitha can buy 1 13 pounds of cherries.
Example 6: Jethro skateboards part of the way to school and walks for the rest of the way. He can
skateboard at 7 miles per hour and he can walk at 3 miles per hour. The distance to school is 6 miles.
Write an equation in standard form that describes this situation. If Jethro skateboards for 12 an hour, how
long does he need to walk to get to school?

Solution: Define the variables: x = hours Jethro skateboards and y = hours Jethro walks.
The equation that describes this situation is 7x + 3y = 6.
1
If Jethro skateboards 2 hour, we substitute x = 0.5 in the equation and solve for y.
7(0.5) + 3y = 6 ⇒ 3y = 6 − 3.5 ⇒ 3y = 2.5 ⇒ y = 56 . Jethro must walk 5
6 of an hour.

Solving Situations Involving Point-Slope Form

Let’s solve some word problems where point-slope form is needed.
Example 5: Marciel rented a moving truck for the day. Marciel remembers only that the rental truck
company charges $40 per day and some amount of cents per mile. Marciel drives 46 miles and the final
amount of the bill (before tax) is $63. What is the amount per mile the truck rental company charges?
Write an equation in point-slope form that describes this situation. How much would it cost to rent this
truck if Marciel drove 220 miles?

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Solution: Define the variables: x = distance in miles; y = cost of the rental truck in dollars. There are
two ordered pairs: (0, 40) and (46, 63).
63−40 23
Step 1: Begin by finding the slope: 46−0 = 46 = 12 .
Step 2: Substitute the slope for m and one of the coordinates for (x1 , y1 ).

1
y − 40 = (x − 0)
2

To find out how much will it cost to rent the truck for 220 miles, substitute 220 for the variable x.

1
y − 40 = (220 − 0)
2
y − 40 = 0.5(220) ⇒ y = $150

Fitting a Line to Data

The real-world situations you have been studying so far form linear equations. However, most data in life
is messy and does not fit a line in slope-intercept form with 100% accuracy. Because of this tendency,
people spend their entire career attempting to fit lines to data. The equations that are created to fit the
data are used to make predictions, as you will see in the next lesson.
This lesson focuses on graphing scatter plots and using the scatter plot to find a linear equation that will
best fit the data.
A scatter plot is a plot of all the ordered pairs in the table. This means that a scatter plot is a relation,
and not necessarily a function. Also, the scatter plot is discrete, as it is a set of distinct points. Even
when we expect the relationship we are analyzing to be linear, we should not expect that all the points
would fit perfectly on a straight line. Rather, the points will be ‘‘scattered” about a straight line. There
are many reasons why the data does not fall perfectly on a line. Such reasons include measurement
errors and outliers.
Measurement error is the amount you are off by reading a ruler or graph.
An outlier is a data point that does not fit with the general pattern of the data. It tends to be ‘‘outside”
the majority of the scatter plot.
Example: Make a scatter plot of the following ordered pairs.
(0, 2), (1, 4.5), (2, 9), (3, 11), (4, 13), (5, 18), (6, 19.5)
Solution: Graph each ordered pair on one Cartesian plane.

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Fitting a Line to Data
Notice that the points graphed on the plane above look like they might be part of a straight line, although
they would not fit perfectly. If the points were perfectly lined up, it would be quite easy to draw a line
through all of them and find the equation of that line. However, if the points are ‘‘scattered,” we try to
find a line that best fits the data. The graph below shows several potential lines of best fit.

You see that we can draw many lines through the points in our data set. These lines have equations that
are very different from each other. We want to use the line that is closest to all the points on the graph.
The best candidate in our graph is the red line A. Line A is the line of best fit for this scatter plot.

Writing Equations for Lines of Best Fit

Once you have decided upon your line of best fit, you need to write its equation by finding two points on
it and using either:

• Point-slope form;

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 • Standard form; or
• Slope-intercept form.

The form you use will depend upon the situation and the ease of finding the y−intercept.
Using the red line from the example above, locate two points on the line.

11−4.5 6.5
Find the slope: m = 3−1 = 2 = 3.25.
Then y = 3.25x + b.
Substitute (3, 11) into the equation. 11 = 3.25(3) + b ⇒ b = 1.25
The equation for the line that fits the data best is y = 3.25x + 1.25.

Finding Equations for Lines of Best Fit Using a Calculator

Graphing calculators can make writing equations of best fit easier and more accurate. Two people working
with the same data might get two different equations because they would be drawing different lines. To
get the most accurate equation for the line, we can use a graphing calculator. The calculator uses a
mathematical algorithm to find the line that minimizes error between the data points and the line of best
fit.
Example: Use a graphing calculator to find the equation of the line of best fit for the following data: (3,
12), (8, 20), (1, 7), (10, 23), (5, 18), (8, 24), (11, 30), (2, 10).
Solution:
Step 1: Input the data in your calculator. Press [STAT] and choose the [EDIT] option.

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Input the data into the table by entering the x values in the first column and the y values in the second
column.
Step 2: Find the equation of the line of best fit.

Press [STAT] again and use the right arrow to select [CALC] at the top of the screen.
Chose option number 4: LinReg(ax + b) and press [ENTER]. The calculator will display LinReg(ax + b).

Press [ENTER] and you will be given the a and b values.

Here a represents the slope and b represents the y−intercept of the equation. The linear regression line is
y = 2.01x + 5.94.
Step 3: Draw the scatter plot.

To draw the scatter plot press [STATPLOT] [2nd] [Y=].

Choose Plot 1 and press [ENTER].
Press the On option and choose the Type as scatter plot (the one highlighted in black).
Make sure that the X list and Y list names match the names of the columns of the table in Step 1.

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Choose the box or plus as the mark since the simple dot may make it difficult to see the points.
Press [GRAPH] and adjust the window size so you can see all the points in the scatter plot.
Step 4: Draw the line of best fit through the scatter plot.
Press [Y=].
Enter the equation of the line of best fit that you just found: Y1 = 2.01X + 5.94.
Press [GRAPH].

Using Lines of Best Fit to Solve Situations

Example: Gal is training for a 5K race (a total of 5000 meters, or about 3.1 miles). The following table
shows her times for each month of her training program. Assume here that her times will decrease in a
straight line with time. Find an equation of a line of fit. Predict her running time if her race is in August.

Table 1.10:

Month Month number Average time (minutes)

January 0 40
February 1 38
March 2 39
April 3 38

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 Table 1.10: (continued)

Month Month number Average time (minutes)

May 4 33
June 5 30

Solution: Begin by making a scatter plot of Gal’s running times. The independent variable, x, is the month
number and the dependent variable, y, is the running time in minutes. Plot all the points in the table on
the coordinate plane.

Draw a line of fit.

Choose two points on the line (0, 41) and (4, 34).
Find the equation of the line.

34 − 41 7 3
m= = − = −1
4−0 4 4
7
y=− x+b
4
7
41 = − (0) + b ⇒ b = 41
4
7
y = − x + 41
4

In a real-world problem, the slope and y–intercept have a physical significance.

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 number o f minutes
Slope =
month

Since the slope is negative, the number of minutes Gal spends running a 5K race decreases as the months
pass. The slope tells us that Gal’s running time decreases 1.75 minutes per month.
The y−intercept tells us that when Gal started training, she ran a distance of 5K in 41 minutes, which is
just an estimate, since the actual time was 40 minutes.
The problem asks us to predict Gal’s running time in August. Since June is assigned to month number
five, then August will be month number seven. Substitute x = 7 into the line of best fit equation.
7 49 49 164 115 3
y = − (7) + 41 = − + 41 = − + = = 28
4 4 4 4 4 4

The equation predicts that Gal will be running the 5K race in 28.75 minutes.

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both.
CK-12 Basic Algebra: Fitting a Line to Data (7:48)

Figure 1.11: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/762

53 www.ck12.org
 1. To buy a car, Andrew puts in a down payment of $1500 and pays $350 per month in installments.
Write an equation describing this problem in slope-intercept form. How much money has Andrew
paid at the end of one year?
2. Anne transplants a rose seedling in her garden. She wants to track the growth of the rose, so she
measures its height every week. In the third week, she finds that the rose is 10 inches tall and in the
eleventh week she finds that the rose is 14 inches tall. Assuming the rose grows linearly with time,
write an equation describing this problem in slope-intercept form. What was the height of the rose
when Anne planted it?
3. Ravi hangs from a giant exercise spring whose length is 5 m. When his child Nimi hangs from the
spring, its length is 2 m. Ravi weighs 160 lbs. and Nimi weighs 40 lbs. Write the equation for this
problem in slope-intercept form. What should we expect the length of the spring to be when his wife
Amardeep, who weighs 140 lbs., hangs from it?
4. Petra is testing a bungee cord. She ties one end of the bungee cord to the top of a bridge and to
the other end she ties different weights. She then measures how far the bungee stretches. She finds
that for a weight of 100 lbs., the bungee stretches to 265 feet and for a weight of 120 lbs., the bungee
stretches to 275 feet. Physics tells us that in a certain range of values, including the ones given here,
the amount of stretch is a linear function of the weight. Write the equation describing this problem
in slope–intercept form. What should we expect the stretched length of the cord to be for a weight
of 150 lbs?
5. The farmer’s market sells tomatoes and corn. Tomatoes are selling for $1.29 per pound and corn is
selling for $3.25 per pound. If you buy 6 pounds of tomatoes, how many pounds of corn can you buy
if your total spending cash is $11.61?
6. The local church is hosting a Friday night fish fry for Lent. They sell a fried fish dinner for $7.50
and a baked fish dinner for $8.25. The church sold 130 fried fish dinners and took in $2,336.25. How
many baked fish dinners were sold?
7. Andrew has two part-time jobs. One pays $6 per hour and the other pays $10 per hour. He wants to
make $366 per week. Write an equation in standard form that describes this situation. If he is only
allowed to work 15 hours per week at the $10 per hour job, how many hours does he need to work
per week at his $6 per hour job in order to achieve his goal?
8. Anne invests money in two accounts. One account returns 5% annual interest and the other returns
7% annual interest. In order not to incur a tax penalty, she can make no more than $400 in interest
per year. Write an equation in standard form that describes this problem. If she invests $5000 in the
5% interest account, how much money does she need to invest in the other account?
9. What is a scatter plot? How is this different from other graphs you have created?
10. Define line of best fit.
11. What is an outlier? How can an outlier be spotted on a graph?
12. What are the two methods of finding a line of best fit?
13. Explain the steps needed to find a line of best fit ‘‘by hand.” What are some problems with using
this method?

For each data set, draw the scatter plot and find the equation of the line of best fit by hand.

6. (57, 45) (65, 61) (34, 30) (87, 78) (42, 41) (35, 36) (59, 35) (61, 57) (25, 23) (35, 34)
7. (32, 43) (54, 61) (89, 94) (25, 34) (43, 56) (58, 67) (38, 46) (47, 56) (39, 48)
8. (12, 18) (5, 24) (15, 16) (11, 19) (9, 12) (7, 13) (6, 17) (12, 14)
9. (3, 12) (8, 20) (1, 7) (10, 23) (5, 18) (8, 24) (2, 10)

In 10 – 12, for each data set, use a graphing calculator to find the equation of the line of best fit.

10. (57, 45) (65, 61) (34, 30) (87, 78) (42, 41) (35, 36) (59, 35) (61, 57) (25, 23) (35, 34)

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11. (32, 43) (54, 61) (89, 94) (25, 34) (43, 56) (58, 67) (38, 46) (47, 56) (95, 105) (39, 48)
12. (12, 18) (3, 26) (5, 24) (15, 16) (11, 19) (0, 27) (9, 12) (7, 13) (6, 17) (12, 14)
13. Shiva is trying to beat the samosa eating record. The current record is 53.5 samosas in 12 minutes.
The following table shows how many samosas he eats during his daily practice for the first week of
his training. Will he be ready for the contest if it occurs two weeks from the day he started training?
What are the meanings of the slope and the y–intercept in this problem?

Table 1.11:

Day No. of Samosas

1 30
2 34
3 36
4 36
5 40
6 43
7 45

14. Nitisha is trying to find the elasticity coefficient of a Superball. She drops the ball from different
heights and measures the maximum height of the resulting bounce. The table below shows her data.
Draw a scatter plot and find the equation. What is the initial height if the bounce height is 65 cm?
What are the meanings of the slope and the y−intercept in this problem?

Table 1.12:

Initial height (cm) Bounce height (cm)

30 22
35 26
40 29
45 34
50 38
55 40
60 45
65 50
70 52

15. Baris is testing the burning time of ‘‘BriteGlo” candles. The following table shows how long it takes
to burn candles of different weights. Let’s assume it’s a linear relation. We can then use a line to fit
the data. If a candle burns for 95 hours, what must be its weight in ounces?

Table 1.13: Candle Burning Time Based on Candle Weight

Candle weight (oz) Time (hours)

2 15
3 20
4 35

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 Table 1.13: (continued)

Candle weight (oz) Time (hours)

5 36
10 80
16 100
22 120
26 180

16. The table below shows the median California family income from 1995 to 2002 as reported by the
U.S. Census Bureau. Draw a scatter plot and find the equation. What would you expect the median
annual income of a Californian family to be in year 2010? What are the meanings of the slope and
the y−intercept in this problem?

Table 1.14:

Year Income
1995 53,807
1996 55,217
1997 55,209
1998 55,415
1999 63,100
2000 63,206
2001 63,761
2002 65,766

Predicting with Linear Models

Numerical information appears in all areas of life. You can find it in newspapers, in magazines, in journals,
on the television, or on the Internet. In the last lesson, you saw how to find the equation of a line of best
fit. Using a line of best fit is a good method if the relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is linear. Not all data fits a straight line, though. This lesson will show other methods to help
estimate data values. These methods are useful in both linear and non-linear relationships.

Linear Interpolation
Linear interpolation is useful when looking for a value between given data points. It can be considered
as ‘‘filling in the gaps” of a table of data.
The strategy for linear interpolation is to use a straight line to connect the known data points on either
side of the unknown point. Linear interpolation is often not accurate for non-linear data. If the points in
the data set change by a large amount, linear interpolation may not give a good estimate.

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Linear Extrapolation
Linear extrapolation can help us estimate values that are either higher or lower than the values in the data
set. Think of this as ‘‘the long-term estimate” of the data.
The strategy for linear extrapolation is to use a subset of the data instead of the entire data set. This is
especially true for non-linear data you will encounter in later chapters. For this type of data, it is sometimes
useful to extrapolate using the last two or three data points in order to estimate a value higher than the
data range.

Collecting and Organizing Data

Data can be collected through various means, including surveys or experiments.
A survey is a data collection method used to gather information about individuals’ opinions, beliefs, or
habits.
The information collected by the U.S. Census Bureau or the Center for Disease Control are examples of
data gathered using surveys. The U.S. Census Bureau collects information about many aspects of the U.S.
population.
An experiment is a controlled test or investigation.
Let’s say we are interested in how the median age for first marriages has changed during the 20th century.
The U.S. Census provides the following information about the median age at first marriage for males and
females. Below is the table of data and its corresponding scatter plot.

Table 1.15:

Year Median Age of Males Median Age of Females

1890 26.1 22.0
1900 25.9 21.9
1910 25.1 21.6
1920 24.6 21.2
1930 24.3 21.3
1940 24.3 21.5
1950 22.8 20.3
1960 22.8 20.3
1970 23.2 20.8
1980 24.7 22.0
1990 26.1 23.9
2000 26.8 25.1

Median Age of Males and Females at First Marriage by Year

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Example: Estimate the median age for the first marriage of a male in the year 1946.
Solution: We will first use the method of interpolation because there is a ‘‘gap” needing to be filled. 1946
is between 1940 and 1950, so these are the data points we will use.

By connecting the two points, an equation can be found.

22.8 − 24.3 −1.5
Slope m= = = −0.15
1950 − 1940 10
y = −0.15x + b
24.3 = −0.15(1940) + b
b = 315.3
Equation y = −0.15x + 315.3

To estimate the median age of marriage of males in year 1946, substitute x = 1946 in the equation.
y = −0.15(1946) + 315.3 = 23.4 years old

Example: The Center for Disease Control (CDC) has the following information regarding the percentage of
pregnant women smokers organized by year. Estimate the percentage of pregnant women that were smoking
in the year 1998.

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 Table 1.16: Percent of Pregnant Women Smokers by Year

Year Percent
1990 18.4
1991 17.7
1992 16.9
1993 15.8
1994 14.6
1995 13.9
1996 13.6
2000 12.2
2002 11.4
2003 10.4
2004 10.2

Percent of Pregnant Women Smokers by Year

Solution: We want to use the information close to 1998 to interpolate the data. We do this by connecting
the points on either side of 1998 with a straight line and find the equation of that line.

12.2 − 13.6 −1.4

Slope m= = = −0.35
2000 − 1996 4
y = −0.35x + b
12.2 = −0.35(2000) + b
b = 712.2
Equation y = −0.35x + 712.2

To estimate the percentage of pregnant women who smoked in year 1998, substitute x = 1998 into the
equation.

y = −0.35(1998) + 712.2 = 12.9%

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Predicting Using an Equation
When linear interpolation and linear extrapolation do not produce accurate predictions, using the line of
best fit (linear regression) may be the best choice. The ‘‘by hand” and calculator methods of determining
the line of best fit were presented in the last lesson.
Example: The winning times for the women’s 100-meter race are given in the following table. Estimate
the winning time in the year 2010. Is this a good estimate?

Table 1.17:

Winner Ctry. Year Seconds Winner Ctry. Year Seconds

Mary UK 1922 12.8 Vera Sov. 1958 11.3
Lines Krepkina
Leni Germ. 1925 12.4 Wyomia USA 1964 11.2
Schmidt Tyus
Gertrurd Germ. 1927 12.1 Barbara USA 1968 11.1
Glasitsch Ferrell
Tollien Neth. 1930 12.0 Ellen E. Germ. 1972 11.0
Schuur- Strophal
man
Helen USA 1935 11.8 Inge Hel- W. Germ. 1975 11.0
Stephens ten
Lulu Mae USA 1939 11.5 Marlies E. Germ. 1982 10.9
Hymes Gohr
Fanny Neth. 1943 11.5 Florence USA 1988 10.5
Blankers- Griffith
Koen Joyner
Marjorie Austr. 1952 11.4
Jackson

Solution: Start by making a scatter plot of the data. Connect the last two points on the graph and find
the equation of the line.
Winning Times for the Women’s 100-meter Race by Year
3 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Record_progression_100_m_women.

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 10.5 − 10.9 −0.4
Slope m= = = −0.067
1988 − 1982 6
y = −0.067x + b
10.5 = −0.067(1988) + b
b = 143.7
Equation y = −0.067x + 143.7

The winning time in year 2010 is estimated to be: y = −0.067(2010) + 143.7 = 9.03 seconds.
How accurate is this estimate? It is likely that it’s not very accurate because 2010 is a long time from 1988.
This example demonstrates the weakness of linear extrapolation. Estimates given by linear extrapolation
are never as good as using the equation from the line of best fit method. In this particular example, the
last data point clearly does not fit in with the general trend of the data so the slope of the extrapolation
line is much steeper than it should be.
As a historical note, the last data point corresponds to the winning time for Florence Griffith Joyner in
1988. After her race, she was accused of using performance-enhancing drugs but this fact was never proven.
In addition, there is a question about the accuracy of the timing because some officials said that the tail
wind was not accounted for in this race even though all the other races of the day were impacted by a
strong wind.

Practice Set
Sample explanations for some of the practice exercises below are available by viewing the following video.
Note that there is not always a match between the number of the practice exercise in the video and the
number of the practice exercise listed in the following exercise set. However, the practice exercise is the
same in both. CK-12 Basic Algebra: Predicting with Linear Models (11:46)

1. What does it mean to interpolate the data? In which cases would this method be useful?
2. How is interpolation different from extrapolation? In which cases would extrapolation be more
beneficial?
3. What was the problem with using the interpolation method to come up with an equation for the
women’s Olympic winning times?
4. Use the Winning Times data and determine an equation for the line of best fit.

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 Figure 1.12: (Watch Youtube Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flexbook/embed/view/764

5. Use the Median Age at First Marriage data to estimate the age at marriage for females in 1946.
Fit a line, by hand, to the data before 1970.
6. Use the Median Age at First Marriage data to estimate the age at marriage for females in 1984.
Fit a line, by hand, to the data from 1970 on in order to estimate this accurately.
7. Use the Median Age at First Marriage data to estimate the age at marriage for males in 1995.
Use linear interpolation between the 1990 and 2000 data points.
8. Use the data from Pregnant Women and Smoking to estimate the percent of pregnant smokers
in 1997. Use linear interpolation between the 1996 and 2000 data points.
9. Use the data from Pregnant Women and Smoking to estimate the percent of pregnant smokers
in 2006. Use linear extrapolation with the final two data points.
10. Use the Winning Times data to estimate the winning time for the female 100-meter race in 1920.
Use linear extrapolation because the first two or three data points have a different slope than the
rest of the data.
11. The table below shows the highest temperature vs. the hours of daylight for the 15th day of each
month in the year 2006 in San Diego, California. Using linear interpolation, estimate the high
temperature for a day with 13.2 hours of daylight.

Table 1.18:

Hours of daylight High temperature (F)

10.25 60
11.0 62
12 62
13 66
13.8 68
14.3 73
14 86
13.4 75
12.4 71
11.4 66
10.5 73
10 61

12. Use the table above to estimate the high temperature for a day with 9 hours of daylight using linear
extrapolation. Is the prediction accurate? Find the answer using line of best fit.

Chapter Review
Define the following words:
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1. Domain
2. Range
3. Solution
 9. Equation
10. Algebraic inequality
11. Function
12. Independent variable

Find an equation of the line in slope-intercept form using the given information.

1. (3, 4) with slope = 23

2. slope = −5, y − intercept = 9
3. slope = −1 containing (6, 0)
4. containing (3.5, 1) and (9, 6)
5. slope = 3, y−intercept = −1
6. slope = −13 containing (–3, –4)
7. containing (0, 0) and (9, –8)
8. slope = 53 , y−intercept = 6
9. containing (5, 2) and (–6, –3)
10. slope = 3 and f (6) = 1
11. f (2) = −5 and f (−6) = 3
12. slope = 38 and f (1) = 1

Find an equation of the line in point-slope form using the given information.

13. slope = m containing (x1 , y1 )

14. slope = 12 containing (-7, 5)
15. slope = 2 containing (7, 0)

Graph the following equations.

16. y + 3 = −(x − 2)
17. y − 7 = −2
3 (x + 5)
18. y + 1.5 = 32 (x + 4)

Find the equation of the line represented by the function below in point-slope form.

19. f (1) = −3 and f (6) = 0

20. f (9) = 2 and f (9) = −5
21. f (2) = 0 and slope = 83

Write the standard form of the equation of each line.

23. y − 3 = −14 (x + 4)
24. y = 27 (x − 21)
25. −3x − 25 = 5y

Write the standard form of the line for each equation using the given information.

25. containing (0, –4) and (–1, 5)

26. slope = 43 containing (3, 2)

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 27. slope = 5 containing (5, 0)
28. Find the slope and y−intercept of 7x + 5y = 16.
29. Find the slope and y−intercept of 7x − 7y = −14.
30. Are 12 x + 12 y = 5 and 2x + 2y = 3 parallel, perpendicular, or neither?
31. Are x = 4 and y = −2 parallel, perpendicular, or neither?
32. Are 2x + 8y = 26 and x + 4y = 13 parallel, perpendicular, or neither?
33. Write an equation for the line perpendicular to y = 3x + 4 containing (–5, 1).
34. Write an equation for the line parallel to y = x + 5 containing (–4, –4).
35. Write an equation for the line perpendicular to 9x + 5y = 25 containing (–4, 4).
36. Write an equation for the line parallel to y = 5 containing (–7, 16).
37. Write an equation for the line parallel to x = 0 containing (4, 6).
38. Write an equation for the line perpendicular to y = −2 containing (10, 10).
39. An Internet café charges $6.00 to use 65 minutes of their Wifi. It charges $8.25 to use 100 minutes.
Suppose the relationship is linear.
(a) Write an equation to model this data in point-slope form.
(b) What is the price to acquire the IP address?
(c) How much does the café charge per minute?
1
40. A tomato plant grows 2 inch per week. The plant was 5 inches tall when planted.
(a) Write an equation in slope-intercept form to represent this situation.
(b) How many weeks will it take the plant to reach 18 inches tall?
41. Joshua bought a television and paid 6% sales tax. He then bought an albino snake and paid 4.5%
sales tax. His combined purchases totaled $679.25.
(a) Write an equation to represent Joshua’s purchases.
(b) Graph all the possible solutions to this situation.
(c) Give three examples that would be solutions to this equation.
1
42. Comfy Horse Restaurant began with a 5-gallon bucket of dishwashing detergent. Each day 4 gallon
is used.
(a) Write an equation to represent this situation in slope-intercept form.
(b) How long will it take to empty the bucket?
43. The data below shows the divorce rate per 1,000 people in the state of Wyoming for various years
(source: Nation Masters).
(a) Graph the data in a scatter plot.
(b) Fit a line to the data by hand.
(c) Find the line of best fit by hand.
(d) Using your model, what do you predict the divorce rate is in the state of Wyoming in the year
2011?
(e) Repeat this process using your graphing calculator. How close was your line to the one the
calculator provided?

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Rate (per 1,000 people) 5.8 5.8 5.4 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.0

44. The table below shows the percentage of voter turnout at presidential elections for various years
(source The American Presidency Project).

Year 1828 1844 1884 1908 1932 1956 1972 1988 2004
% of Voter Turnout 57.6 78.9 77.5 65.4 56.9 60.6 55.21 50.15 55.27

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(a) Draw a scatter plot of this data.
(b) Use the linear regression feature on your calculator to determine a line of best fit and draw it on your
graph.
(c) Use the line of best fit to predict the voter turnout for the 2008 election.
(d) What are some outliers to this data? What could be a cause for these outliers?

45. The data below shows the bacteria population in a Petri dish after h hours.

hours 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Bacteria present 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400

(a) Use the method of interpolation to find the number of bacteria present after 4.25 hours.
(b) Use the method of extrapolation to find the number of bacteria present after 10 hours.
(c) Could this data be best modeled with a linear equation? Explain your answer.

Chapter Test
1. Write y = −3
2 x + 4 in standard form.
2. Write an equation in slope-intercept form for a line perpendicular to y = 13 x + 6 containing (1, 2).
3. Write an equation in point-slope form for a line containing (5, 3) and (–6, 0.5).
4. What is the speed of a car travelling 80 miles/hour in feet/second?
5. How many kilometers are in a marathon (26.2 miles)?
6. Lucas bought a 5-gallon container of paint. He plans to use 23 gallon per room.
(a) Write an equation to represent this situation.
(b) How many rooms can Lucas paint before the container is empty?

7. Are these two lines parallel, perpendicular, or neither? Explain your answer by showing your work:
y = 3x − 1 and −x + 3y = 6.
8. The table below gives the gross public debt of the U.S. Treasury for the years 2004–2007.
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007
Debt (in billions $) 7, 596.1 8, 170.4 8, 680.2 9, 229.2

(a) Make a scatter plot of the data.

(b) Use the method of extrapolation to determine the gross public debt for 2009.
(c) Find a linear regression line using a graphing calculator.
(d) Use the equation found in (c) to determine the gross public debt for 2009.
(e) Which answer seems more accurate, the linear model or the extrapolation?

9. What is the process used to interpolate data?

10. Use the table below to answer the following questions.
Hours (h) 0 1 2 3 4
Percentage of mineral remaining 100 50 25 12.5 6.25

(a) Draw a scatter plot to represent the data.

(b) Would a linear regression line be the best way to represent the data?
(c) Use the method of interpolation to find the percentage of mineral remaining when h = 2.75.

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Texas Instruments Resources
In the CK-12 Texas Instruments Algebra I FlexBook, there are graphing calculator activ-
ities designed to supplement the objectives for some of the lessons in this chapter. See
http://www.ck12.org/flexr/chapter/9615.

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