LECTURE

SEVEN
MEASUREMENT OF
VARIABLES: OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION AND SCALES
COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 1
 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
DETAILS OF STUDY MEASURMENT

Purpose of the Types of Extent of researcher Measurement

Study setting
study Investigation Interference and measures
Minimum: Studying events DATA
Operational ANALYSIS
Establishing: as they normally occur
definition
Exploration -Casual relationships Moderate: Minimum Contrived
Description -Correlations amount of interference
items (measure) 1. Feel for
Scaling data
Hypothesis testing -Group differences, Maximum: High degree Noncontrived
Categorizing
of control and artificial
Coding
settings
PROBLEM STATEMENT

7. Goodness
of data

Unit of analysis
Data-Collection
(Population to be Sampling design Time horizon
method
studied)
Probability/ Observation
Individuals nonprobability One-Shot Interview 3. Hypotheses
Dyads (cross-sectional) testing
Groups Sample Questionnaire
Organizations Size (n) Multishot
Machines (longitudinal) Physical
etc. measurement
Unobtrusive

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 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Reduction of abstract concepts to

render them measurable in
tangible way is called
operationalizing the concepts. It
is done by looking at the
behavioral dimensions, facets, or
properties denoted by the
concept.
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 EXPLANATION OF OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
Certain things lend themselves to easy measurement
through the use of appropriate measurement instrument,
as for example, blood pressure, pulse rate, body
temperature, height, weight, etc. The same is true for
measuring office floor area. As for example:
• How long have you been working in this organization?
• How long have you been working on this particular
assignment?
• What is your job title?
• What is your marital status?
when we get into realm (particular area) of people
subjective feelings, attitudes, and perceptions, the
measurement of these factors or variable becomes
difficult. So the abstract notation are broken down
into observable characteristic behavior i.e.,
dimensions, and elements
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EXAMPLE OF DIMENTIIONS AND ELEMENTS
The concept of thirst is abstract: we cannot
see thirst. However, we would expect a thirsty
person to drink plenty of fluid. If several people
say they are thirsty, then we may determine the
thirst level of each of these individuals by the
measure of the quantity of fluid that they
drink to quench their thirst. We will thus be
able to measure their level of thirst, even though
the concept of thirst itself is abstract and
nebulous (unclear).
In the above example the thirst is the concept,
the drinking of plenty of fluid is the
dimension, and the measuring of the quantity
of fluid that they drink to quench their thirst
is the element.
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 EXAMPLE OF OPERATIONAL DEFINITION:
DIMENTION (D) (INDICATORS) AND ELEMENT (E)
(VARIABLES) OF THE CONCEPT (C) LEARNING

Learning

D D D

Understanding Retention Application

E E E E E
Solve problems
Recall material Integrate with
Answer questions Give appropriate applying concepts
after some lapse other relevant
correctly examples understood and
of time material
recalled

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 METHODS OF SCALES
A scale is a tool or mechanism by which
individuals are distinguished as to how they
differ from one another on the variable of
interest to our study.
There are four basic methods of scales:
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. The
degree of sophistication to which the scales are
fine-tuned increases progressively as we move
from nominal to the ratio scale.

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 NOMINAL SCALE

A nominal scale is one that allows the

researcher to assign subjects to certain
categories or groups. The categories are
also collectively exhaustive (complete). In
other words, there is no third category into
which respondents would normally fall.
Thus the nominal scale gives us some
basic, categorical, gross information.

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 EXAMPLE OF NOMINAL SCALE
• variable of gender, respondents can be grouped into
two categories- male female. These two groups can
be assigned code numbers 1 and 2.

• If we had interviewed 200 people, and assigned code

number 1 to all male respondents and number 2 to all
female respondents, then computer analysis of the
data at the end of the survey may show that 98 of the
respondents are men and 102 are women. This
frequency distribution tells us that 49%of the survey’s
respondents are men and 51% women. Other than this
marginal information, such scaling tells us nothing
more about the two groups.
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 ORDINAL SCALE

An ordinal scale not only categorized the

variables in such a way as to denote differences
among the various categories, it also rank-
orders the categories in some meaningful way.
With any variable for which the categories are to
be ordered according to some preference, the
ordinal scale would be used. The preference
would be ranked (for example: best to worse,
first to last etc.) and numbered 1, 2, and so on.
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EXAMPLE OF ORDINAL SCALE
Rank the following five characteristics in a job in terms of how
important they are for you. You should rank the most important item
as 1, the next in importance as 2, and so on, until you have ranked
each of them 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.

JOB CHARECTERISTICS RANKING OF IMPORTANCE

The opportunity provided by the job to:

1. Interact with others. 4

2. Use a number of different skills. 2

3. Complete a whole task from 1

beginning to end.
4. Serve others. 5
5. Work independently. 3
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 INTERVAL SCALE
An interval scale measure the distance between any two
points on the scale. This help us to compute the means
and the standard deviations of the responses on the
variables.
In other words, the interval scale not only groups, it also
measures the magnitude of the differences in the
preferences among the individuals.
It is more powerful scale than the nominal and ordinal
scale, and has for its measure of central tendency the
arithmetic mean. Its measure of dispersion are the
range, the standard deviation, and the variance.

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 EXAMPLE OF INTERVAL SCALE
Indicate the extent to which you agree with the
following statements as they related to your job, by
circling the appropriate number against each, using
the scale given below.
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Agree Strongly
Disagree NorDisagre Agree
1 2 3 4 5
The following opportunities offered by the job are very important to me:
a. Interacting with others. 1 2 3 4 5
b. Using a number of different skills. 1 2 3 4 5
c. Completing a task from beginning to end. 1 2 3 4 5
d. Serving others. 1 2 3 4 5
e. Working independently. 1 2 3 4 5

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 RATIO SCALE
The ratio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the
arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that it has
an absolute zero point, which is a meaningful
measurement point. Thus the ratio scale not only
measures the magnitude of the differences between
points on the scale but also tapes the propositions
in the differences. It is most powerful of the four scales
because it has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary
origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other
three scales.
The measurement of central tendency of the ratio scale
could be either the arithmetic or the geometric mean and
the measure of dispersion could be either the standard
deviation, or variance, or the coefficient of variation.
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 EXAMPLE OF RATIO SCALE
1. How many other organization did you work for before
joining this system? ____
2. Indicate the number of children you have in each of the
following categories:
____below three years of age
____between three to six years
____over six years but under twelve years
____twelve years and over.
7. How many retail outlets do you operate? ____.

The responses to the questions could range from 0 to

any reasonable figure.
COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 15
 PROPERTIES OF FOUR SCALES

Highlights Statistical Tools

Scales Difference/ Order/ Distance/ Unique Measures Measure of Some Tests
of Central
Category Rank Magnitude Origin Dispersion of
Tendency Significance
Yes No No No Mode ________ Chi-square Test
Nominal
( X2 )
Yes Yes No No Median Semi-inter- Rank-order
Ordinal quartile range correlation
Yes Yes Yes No Arithmetic Standard t, F
Interval Mean deviation,
variance,
coefficient of
variation
Yes Yes Yes Yes Arithmetic or Standard t, F
Ratio Geometric deviation or
Mean variance, or
coefficient of
variation

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 EXERCISE-1
Schematically depict the operational definition of
the concept of stress and develop 10 question
that would measure stress

EXERCISE-2
Schematically depict the operational definition of
the concept of motivation and develop 10
question that would measure motivation

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 EXERCISE-3
Develop a nominal scale of gender for
students in Dadabhoy.

EXERCISE-4
Develop an ordinal scale for consumer
preference for different newspaper.

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 EXERCISE-5
Develop a interval scale of effectiveness
for students in Dadabhoy.

EXERCISE-6
Develop a ratio scale for employees of
dadabhoy for absenteeism.
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 EXERCISE-7
Delineate the dimensions and elements of
the concept “intangible assets” of an
organization.

EXERCISE-8
delineate the dimensions and elements of the
concept of waging war in the context of the
percent political environment.
COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 20
 SCALE
Assigning numbers or symbols to elicit the
attitudinal responses of subjects toward
object, event, or persons is called scale.

TYPES OF SCALES
There are two main categories of
attitudinal scales.
2. Rating scale.
3. Ranking scale.
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 Rating Scale
Rating scales have several response categories
and are used to elicit responses or behavioral
concept with regard to the object, events, or
person studied.

Ranking Scale
Ranking scales make comparison
between or among objects, events, or
persons and elicit the preferred choices
and ranking among them.
COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 22
 RATING SCALES USED IN ORGANIZATION

1. Dichotomous Scale.
2. Category Scale.
3. Likert Scale.
4. Semantic (artificial) Differential Scale.
5. Numerical Scale.
6. Itemized Rating Scale.
7. Fixed or Constant Sum Rating Scale.
8. Stapel (basic) Scale.
9. Graphic rating Scale.
10. Consensus Scale.
COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 23
 1. DICHOTOMOUS SCALE
The dichotomous scale is used to either a
Yes or NO answer. It is a nominal scale.

EXAMPLE
Question: Do you have a job?
Answer: Yes / No
Question: Do you like the subject BRM?
Answer: Yes / no
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 2. CATEGORY SCALE
The category scale uses multiple items to
elicit a single response. This is also uses a
nominal scale.

EXAMPLE
Where in Karachi do you reside?
------------- district east
------------- district west
------------- district south
------------- district malir
------------- district central
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 3. LIKERT SCALE
The likert scale is designed to examine how
strongly subjects agree or disagree with
statement on a 5 point scale with anchors. This is
an interval scale.

EXAMPLE
Strongly Neither Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree agree
1 2 3 4 5

Using the Likert scale, state the extent to which you agree with each of
the following. Circle your answer.
My work is very interesting. 1 2 3 4 5
I am not engaged in my work all day. 1 2 3 4 5
Life without my work will be dull. 1 2 3 4 5
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4. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extremes
of the scale, and respondents are asked to indicate their
attitudes, on what may be called a semantic (artificial)
space, towards a particular individual, object, or event of
each if the attributes. The bipolar adjectives used as
Good-Bad, Strong-Weak, Hot-Cold. etc.

EXAMPLE
Responsive ------------------------------------------- Unresponsive
Beautiful ----------------------------------------------------------- Ugly
Bad ---------------------------------------------------------------- Good
Hot ------------------------------------------------------------------ Cold
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 5. NUMERICAL SCALE
The numerical scale is similar to the semantic
scale, with the difference that number on a 5
points or 7 points scale are provided, with polar
adjectives at both ends. This is also an interval
scale.

EXAMPLE
Responsive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unresponsive
Beautiful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ugly
Bad 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Good
Hot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cold
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 6. ITEMIZED RATING SCALE
A 5-point or 7-point (or 9, or whatever) scale with different anchors
(e.g., Very Unimportant to Very Important, Extremely low to
Extremely high) as needed, is provided for each item and the
respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each item,
or circle the relevant number against each item. The responses to
the items are then summated. This is an interval scale.

EXAMPLE
Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your
response number on the line by each item.
1 2 3 4 5
Very Unlikely Unlikely Neither Unlikely likely Very Likely
Nor Likely
1. I will be changing my job within the next 12 months. --
2. I will take on new assignments in the near future. --
3. It is possible that I will be out of this organization with in the next 12 --
months.
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 7. FIXED OR CONSTANT SUM SCALE
The respondents are here asked to distribute a
given number of points across various items.
This is an ordinal scale

EXAMPLE
In choosing a toilet soap, indicate the importance you attach to each of
the following five aspects by allotting points for each to total 100 in all.
Fragrance ----------
Color ----------
Shape ----------
Size ----------
Texture of lather ----------
Total Points 100

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 8. STAPAL (BASIC) SCALE
This scale simultaneously measure both the direction and intensity
of the attitude toward the item under study. The characteristic of
interest to the study is placed at the center and a numerical scale
ranging, say from +3 to -3, on either side of the item. This gives the
idea of how closer or distant the individual response to the stimulus.
Since this does not an absolute zero point, this is an interval scale.

EXAMPLE
State how you would rate your supervisor’s abilities with respect to each of the
characteristics mentioned below, by circling the appropriate number.
+3 +3 +3
+2 +2 +2
+1 +1 +1
Adopting modern Technology Product innovation Interpersonal Skills
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
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9. GRAPHIC RATING SCALE
A graphical scale representation helps the respondents
to indicate on this scale their answers to a particular
question by placing a mark at the appropriate point
in the line. This is an ordinal scale. The faces scale,
which shows faces ranging from smiling to sad is
also a graphic scale, used to obtain responses regarding
people’s feelings.

EXAMPLE
1 Good

On a scale of 1 to 10 5 Better
how would you rate
your supervisor?
10 Best

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 10. CONSENSUS SCALE
Scales are also developed by
consensus, where panel of judges
selects certain items, which in its
view measure the relevant
concept. The items are chosen
particularly based on their
pertinence or relevant to the
concept.
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 RANKING SCALES USED IN ORGANIZATION
1. PAIRED COMPARISON.
2. FORCED CHOICE.
3. COMPARATIVE SCALE.

1. PAIRED COMPARISON
It is used when, among a small number of objects, respondents
are asked to choose between two objects at a time.
As the number of objects to be compared increases, so does the
number of paired comparisons. The paired choices for n
objects will be n (n-1) / 2. The greater the number of objects or
stimuli, the greater the number of paired comparisons presented
to the respondents, and the greater the respondent fatigue.
Hence paired comparison is a good method if the number of
stimuli presented is small.
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 2. FORCED CHOICE
It enables respondents to rank objects relative to one
another, among the alternatives provided. This is easier
for the respondents, practically if the number of choices
to be ranked is limited in number.

EXAMPLE
Rank the following Companies of Computer that you would like to
subscribe to in the order of preference, assigning 1 for the most
preferred choice and 5 for the least preferred.
Dell 1
Hewlett-Packard (HP) 3
IBM 2
Toshiba 5
Compaq 4
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 3. COMPARATIVE SCALE
It provides a benchmark or a point of reference
to assess attitudes toward the current object,
event, or situation under study.

EXAMPLE
In a volatile (evaporation) financial environment, compared to stocks,
how wise or useful is it to invest in Treasury bonds? Circle the
appropriate response.
More Useful About the Less Useful
Same

1 2 3 4 5

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 GOODNESS OF DATA

It is the surety that the instrument that we

develop to measure a particular concept is
indeed accurately measuring the variable, and
that infect, we are actually measuring the
concept perceptual and attitudinal measure.
This ensures that in operationally defining
perceptual and attitudinal variables, we have
not overlooked some important dimensions
and elements or included some irrelevant
ones.
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 RELIBILITY
The reliability of a measure indicate the extent to which it
is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent
measurement across time and across the various items
in the instrument. In other words, the reliability of a
measures is an indication of the stability and
consistency with which the instrument measures the
concept and helps to assess the “goodness” of a
measure.

STABILITY
The ability of a measure to remain the same over
time-despite uncontrollable testing condition.
There are two tests of stability are of most importance.
3. Test-Retest Reliability.
2. Parallel Form Reliability.
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 TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY

The reliability coefficient obtained with a

repetition of the same measure on a second
occasion is called test-retest reliability. That
is, when a questionnaire containing some items
that are supposed to measure a concept is
administered to a set of respondents now, and
again to the same respondents, say several
weeks to 6 months later, the correlation between
the scores obtained at the two different times
from one and the same set of respondents is
called the test-retest reliability.
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 PARALLEL-FORM RELIABILITY

When responses on two comparable

sets of measure tapping the same
construct are highly correlated, we
have parallel-form reliability. Both
forms have similar items and the
same response format, the only
changes being the wordings and
the order or sequence of the
questions.
COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 40
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY OF MEASURE

The internal consistency of measures is

indicative of the homogeneity of the items in
the measure that tap the construct. In other
words, the items should “hang together as a
set” and be capable of independently
measuring the same concept so that the
respondents attach the same overall meaning
to each of the items.
Consistency can be examined through :
3. Inter-item Consistency Reliability.
4. Split- Half Reliability.
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INTER-ITEM CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY
This is a test of the consistency of respondents
answer to all the items in a measure. To the
degree that items are independent measures of
the same concept, they will be correlated with
one another.

SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY
Split-half reliability reflects the correlations
between two halves of an instrument. The
estimates would vary depending on how the
items in the measure are split into two halves.
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 VALIDITY
As we know the terms internal validity and external
validity. That is we were concerned about the issue of
the authenticity of the cause-and-effect relationship
(internal validity), and their generalizability to the
external environment (external validity). We are now
going to examine the validity of the measuring
instrument itself. That is when we ask a set of
questions (i.e., develop a measuring instrument)
with the hope that we are tapping the concept, how
can we be reasonably certain that we are indeed
measuring the concept we set out to do and not
some thing else?
We may group validity test under three headings:
3. Content validity.
4. Criterion-related validity.
5. Construct validity.
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 CONTENT VALIDITY
It ensures that the measure includes an
adequate and representative set of items
that tap the concept. The more the scale items
represent the domain (circle of affection) or
universe of the concept being measured, the
greater the content validity.

FACE VALIDITY
It is considered by some as a basic and a
very minimum index of content validity. Face
validity indicates that the items that are
intended to measure a concept, so on the face
of it look like they measure the concept.
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 CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
It is established when the measure differentiates individuals on a
criterion it is expected to predict. This can be done by establishing
concurrent ( with consensus) validity or predictive validity

CONCURRENT VALIDITY
It is established when the scale discriminates individuals who are
known to the different; that is they should score differently on the
instrument .

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
It indicates the ability of the measuring instrument to differentiate
among individuals with reference to a future criterion.
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 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
It testified to how well the results obtained from the use of the
measure fit the theories around which the test is designed. This is
assessed through convergent and discriminant validity.

CONVERGENT VALIDITY
It is established when the scores obtained with two different
instrument measuring the same concept are highly correlated.

DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
It is established when, based on the theory, two variables are
predicted to be correlated, and the scores obtained by measuring
them are indeed empirically found to be so.

COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 46

 TESTING GOODNESS OF MEASURES
Test-retest reliability
Stability
Reliability
Parallel-form reliability
(accuracy
In
Measure- Interitem consistency reliability
ment) Consistency
Goodness
of data Split-half reliability
Validity
(we are
Measuring
The right
Thing)

Logical validity Criterion-related Congruent validity

(content) validity (construct)

Face validity Predictive Concurrent Convergent Discriminant

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 TYPES OF VALIDITY
Validity Description
Content Validity Does the measure adequately measure the
concept?
Face Validity Do “experts” validate that the instrument measures
what its name suggests it measures?
Criterion-related Validity Does the measure differentiate in a manner that
helps to predict a criterion variable.
Concurrent Validity Does the measure differentiate in a manner that
helps to predict a criterion variable currently?
Predictive Validity Does the measure differentiate individuals in as
manner as to help predict a future criterion?
Construct Validity Does the instrument tap the concept as theorized?

Convergent Validity Do two instruments measuring the concept

correlate highly?
Discriminant Validity Does the measure have a low correlation with a
variable that is supposed to be unrelated to this
variable?
COMPILES AND DEVELOPED BY SIR IMRAN ZAIDI 48
 THANK YOU
FOR YOUR
CONCENTRATION

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