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Chapter 1

The document defines complex numbers and their algebraic properties. Complex numbers are ordered pairs of real numbers (x,y) which can be written as x + iy. Addition and multiplication of complex numbers follow specific rules. The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number z gives the distance from z to the origin. The triangle inequality states that the sum of the moduli of two complex numbers is greater than or equal to the modulus of their sum. Complex conjugates, exponential form, and arguments of complex numbers are also introduced.

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Mathew Mkude
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
49 views13 pages

Chapter 1

The document defines complex numbers and their algebraic properties. Complex numbers are ordered pairs of real numbers (x,y) which can be written as x + iy. Addition and multiplication of complex numbers follow specific rules. The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number z gives the distance from z to the origin. The triangle inequality states that the sum of the moduli of two complex numbers is greater than or equal to the modulus of their sum. Complex conjugates, exponential form, and arguments of complex numbers are also introduced.

Uploaded by

Mathew Mkude
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1 Complex Numbers

1.1 Sums and Products


Definition: The complex plane, denoted C is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) with x, y ∈ R,
where Re z = x is called the real part and Imz = y is called the imaginary part.
• We call the x-axis the real axis.
• We call the y-axis the imaginary axis.
• Usually we write z = (x, y) or z = x + iy, this is called rectangular form.
• For two complex numbers, z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) we have z1 = z2 if and only if
x1 = x2 and y1 = y2

For z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ), we define addition as


z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
and multiplication as
z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , y1 x2 + x1 y2 )
How do the real numbers interact here?
• For any r ∈ R we have (r, 0) ∈ C, and
(r, 0) + (s, 0) = (r + s, 0)
and
(r, 0)(s, 0) = (rs, 0)

• For i = (0, 1) ∈ C we have


i2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0)

Now we can see that multiplication is well-defined, since


z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 + i2 (y1 y2 ) + i(y1 x2 + x1 y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , y1 x2 + x1 y2 )

1
1.2 Basie Algebraic Properties
• Complex numbers are associative

z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3

and commutative
z 1 + z2 = z2 + z1
so we can rearrange and drop parenthesis.

• We have an additive identity 0 = (0, 0) ∈ C, and mult. identity 1 = (1, 0) ∈ C. Check


these!

• For any z = x + iy we have an additive inverse −z = −x − iy since

x + iy + (−x − iy) = 0.

For z = x + iy non-zero we have a multiplicative inverse z −1 = u + iv so that zz −1 = 1


defined by
(x + iy)(u + iv) = 1
and so
ux − vy + i(uy + vx) = 1
therefore ux − vy = 1 and uy + vx = 0. Solving the linear equation, we get
 
−1 x −y
z = ,
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

• If z1 z2 = 0 then z1 = 0 or z2 = 0. To see this, suppose z1 6= 0, then

z2 = z2 · 1 = z2 · z1 · z1−1 = 0 · z1−1 = 0

• Some interesting things happen with quotients, for example


1 1 i i
= · = = −i
i i i −1
and
4+i (4 + i)(2 + 3i) 5 + 14i 5 14
= = = +i .
2 − 3i (2 − 3i)(2 + 3i) 13 13 13

2
1.3 Vectors and Moduli
We can consider z = x + iy = (x, y) as a vector on the complex plane.

Then the sum can also be interpreted vectorially, as follows.

Definition: The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy gives the distance from z to the
origin, and is given by p
| z |= x2 + y 2
extending the notion of absolute value for the reals, and

| z |2 = (Re z)2 + (Im z)2

now gives a relation between real numbers. From here

• | z |=| −z |

• Re z ≤| Re z |≤| z | and Im z ≤| Im z |≤| z |

• Note that z1 < z2 is meaningless, but | z1 |<| z2 | has meaning.

Consider the difference


p
| z1 − z2 |=| (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 ) |= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2

What does this mean geometrically?

3
Examples:

1. Consider √ √
| −3 + 2i |= 9+4= 13
and √ √
| 1 + 4i |= 1 + 16 = 17
What does this mean, geometrically?

2. The equation | z |= 1 is the unit circle centered at the origin.

3. The equation | z − 1 + 3i |= 2 is the circle with center z = (1, −3) and radius 2.

4. Exercise: Show that | z1 · z2 |=| z1 | · | z2 |.

5. Exercise: Show that | z 2 |=| z |2 .

1.4 Triangle Inequality


Definition: The triangle inequality is given by

| z1 + z2 |≤| z1 | + | z2 | .

Illustrated by figure 3. Some consequences:

• We have | z1 + z2 |≥|| z1 | − | z2 ||, to see this, observe

| z1 |=| (z1 + z2 ) + (−z2 ) |≤| (z1 + z2 ) | + | −z2 |

and hence
| (z1 + z2 ) |≥| z1 | − | z2 | if | z1 |≥| z2 |
and
| (z1 + z2 ) |≥ −(| z1 | − | z2 |) if | z1 |<| z2 | .
What does this mean geometrically? Length of one side is greater than difference of other
two.

4
Examples:

1. Suppose z is on the circle | z |= 1. Then

| z − 2 |=| z + (−2) |≤| z | + | 2 |= 1 + 2 = 3

and
| z − 2 |=| z + (−2) |≥|| z | − | −2 ||=| 1 − 2 |= 1.
This means the distance from z to 2 is between 1 and 3.

2. The triangle inequality can be extended inductively, that is

| z1 + z2 + ... + zn |≤| z1 | + | z2 | +...+ | zn |

for any n. So for example, for z on the circle | z |= 2, we have

| 3 + z + z 2 |≤ 3+ | z | + | z 2 |= 3+ | z | + | z |2 ≤ 9.

3. Consider the degree n polynomial given by

P (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + ... + an z n

where n ∈ Z + and a0 , ..., an ∈ C. We will show that for some positive R ∈ R,



1 2
P (z) < an Rn

whenever | z |> R. Morally: Reciprocal 1/P (z) is bounded from above when z is outside
of the circle | z |= R. Recall,

• | z1 · z2 |=| z1 | · | z2 |
• | z 2 |=| 2 |2

and write
P (z) − an z n a0 a1 an−1
w= n
= n + n−1 + ... + .
z z z z
Then
P (z) = (an + w)z n
Then the equation above becomes

wz n = a0 + a1 z + ... + an−1 z n−1

and hence
| w || z n |≤| a0 | + | a1 z | +...+ | an−1 z n−1 |
implying
| a0 | | a1 | | an−1 |
| w |≤ n
+ n−1
+ ... +
|z| |z| |z|

5
Now pick R large enough so that

| ai | | an |
n−i
<
|z| 2n

when | z |> R. Then,

| an | | an |
w <n· = whenever | z |< R.
2n 2
Consequently,
| an |
| an + w |≥|| an | − | w ||>
2
and hence
| an |
| P (z) |=| an + w | · | z n |> · Rn .
2

1.5 Complex Conjugates


Definition: The complex conjugate of a number z = x + iy is given by

z = x − iy

Some observations:

• | z |=| z |

• z = z.

• z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , since

z1 + z2 = x1 + iy1 + x2 + iy2 = xi + x2 − i(y1 + y2 ) = x1 − iy1 + x2 − iy2 = z1 + z2 .

• z1 − z2 = z1 − z 2

• z1 · z2 = z1 · z 2
 
• zz12 = zz12

• z + z = 2Re z.

• z − z = 2Im z.

• zz = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y 2 =| z |2 .

Examples:
−1+3i (−1+3i)(2+i) −5+5i −5+5i
1. 2−i = (2−i)(2+i) = |2−i|2
= 5 = −1 + i

6
1.6 Exponential Form
Let r > 0 and θ be polar coordinates for z = (x, y), then

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

then p
| z |= r cos2 θ + sin2 θ = r
Definition: The value θ = arg(z) is an argument for z, and it is the angle z = (x, y) makes
with the real axis. Infinite arguments exist for z, namely,

θ + 2π, θ + 4π, ..., θ + 2kπ, ...

but we call Θ = Arg(z) with −π < Θ ≤ π the principal argument of z.

Examples:

1. The complex number −1 − i has



Arg(−1 − i) = −
4
but

arg(−1 − i) = + 2kπ
4
for n ∈ Z.

Definition: The symbol eiθ is defined by Euler’s formula as

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

and hence
z = reiθ = r(cosθ + i sin θ)

Examples:

7
1. Writing −1 − i in exponential form we have
√ −3π
−1 − i = 2ei 4

or √ −3π
−1 − i = 2ei( 4
+2πk )

2. The set of numbers z = eiθ are the set of numbers on the unit circle. Accordingly,

eiπ = −1 and eiπ/2 = i and ei4π = 1.

Also,
z = Reiθ where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
is a parametrization of the unit circle, moving counter-clockwise, and

z = z0 + Reiθ where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

moves the circle to be centered at z0 .

Some basic properties of exponential forms:


0 0
• eiθ eiθ = ei(θ+θ )
0
• reiθ · r0 eiθ = (rr0 ) · ei (θ + θ0 )
reiθ r i(θ−θ0 )
• r0 eiθ0
= r0 e

• If z = reiθ then
1 1
z −1 = iθ
= e−iθ
re r
and
z n = rn einθ .

Examples:

1. From the properties above we see that

arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

but this doesn’t necessarily hold when arg is replaced with Arg. For example, z1 = −1
and z2 = i, then
π
Arg(−1) = π and Arg(i) =
2
so
π 3π
Arg(−1) + Arg(i) = π + =
2 2
but
−π
Arg(−1 · i) = Arg(−i) =
2

8
2. Find the principal argument of
i
.
−1 − i
π √ 3π
We already know that i = 1ei 2 and −1 − i = 2e−i 4 and so
π
i ei 2 1 i(π/2+3π/4)
=√ 3π = √ e
−1 − i 2e−i 4 2
Therefore  
i π 3π 5π
arg = + =
−1 − i 2 4 4
and hence  
i 5π −3π
Arg = − 2π =
−1 − i 4 4

3. Let’s write the expression (−1 + i)7 in rectangular form. First, for z = (−1 + i) we have
√ √
| z |= 1 + i = 2

and

Arg(z) =
4
√ 3π
so −1 + i = 2ei 4 , and
√ i3π
7 √ i21π √ iπ √ iπ
(−1 + i)7 = 2ei 4 = 8 2e 4 = 8 2ei5π e 4 = −8 2e 4

But we can easily see that √ iπ


(1 + i) = 2e 4
and so
(−1 + i)7 = −8(1 + i)

4. When r = 1, for any value n ∈ Z, we have


 n
eiθ = einθ

but this means


(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
this is known as De Moivre’s formula.

5. Using the above with n = 2, we reclaim known identities

cos2 θ − sin2 θ + 2i cos θ sin θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)2 = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ.

Now equating real and imaginary parts, we have

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ and sin 2θ = 2 cos θ sin θ

9
1.7 Roots of Complex Numbers
Two non-zero complex numbers can be arrived at in infinitely many ways, for example
0
z = reiθ and z 0 = r0 eiθ

are equal precisely when


r = r0 and θ = θ0 + 2πk
for k ∈ Z. We also know that z n = rn einθ , so we should know something about nth roots.
Definition: An nth root of z0 ∈ C is a complex number z = reiθ such that

z n = z0

that is
r0 eiθ0 = rn einθ ,
and hence
r0 = rn and nθ = θ0 + 2πk.

• Since r0 is real, this just means r = n r0 .

• For k ∈ Z, we know that


θ0 2πk
θ= +
n n
So the nth roots of z0 are given by the infinite family
  
√ θ0 2πk
z = r0 exp i
n
+
n n

all lying on the circle | z |= n r0 .

10
So n of them should be more special than the others, namely, those with
  
√ θ0 2πk
ck = r0 exp i
n
+
n n

and k ∈ 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1.

• When z0 is a positive real then n r0 means the familiar unique positive root.

• When θ0 = Arg(z0 ) then we call c0 the principal root.



• When z0 is a positive real, its principal root is n r0 .

Examples:
1
1. Let’s find all values of (−16) 4 , that is, the 4th roots of −16. Since

−16 = 16ei(π+2kπ)

so the roots are just


π kπ
ck = 2ei( 4 + 2 )

where k = 0, 1, 2, 3. So we have

 
i( π4 ) i( kπ
 π π  i( kπ ) 1 1 kπ kπ
ck = 2e e 2 ) = 2 cos + i sin e 2 =2 √ + i√ e i( 2 )= 2(1 + i)ei( 2 )
4 4 2 2
and therefore
√ √
c0 = 2(1 + i) · 1 =
2(1 + i)
√ √
c1 = 2(1 + i) · i = 2(−1 + i)
√ √
c2 = 2(1 + i) · −1 = 2(−1 − i)
√ √
c3 = 2(1 + i) · −i = 2(1 − i)

11
2. Let’s examine the nth roots of 1, called the nth roots of unity. We start with

1 = 1 · ei(0+2πk)

where k ∈ Z. Then,
√ 2πk
ck =
n
1 · ei(0+ n ) = ei( 2πk
n )

where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1}. When n = 2 we get c0 = 1 and c1 = −1. For larger n, we
get roots lying on the regular n-gon inscribed in the circle | z |= 1.

1.8 Regions in the Complex Plane


Definition: We define an  neighborhood around a given point z0 by

| z − z0 |< 

we can also define the deleted neighborhood, that is the neighborhood minus the point z0 itself,
by
0 <| z − z0 |< 
For a given set S contained in C,
• A point z0 is called interior if there exists a neighborhood containing only z0 and points
of S.

• A point z0 is called exterior if there exists a neighborhood containing z0 and no points in


S.

• If z0 is neither of these, then it is a boundary point.

• A set is open if it contains none of its boundary points.

• A set is closed if it contains all of its boundary points.

• A set is a closure of S if it contains S plus its boundary points. For example, | z |≤ 1 is


the closure of | z |< 1.

• Some sets like 0 <| z |≤ 1 is neither open nor closed.

• An open set S is connected if every pair of points in S can be joined by a polygonal line.

12
• A domain is an non-empty open connected set.

• A domain with some, none, or all of its boundary points is called a region.

• A set S is bounded if every point of S lies in some circle | z |< R.

Examples:
1

1. Consider the set Im z > 1 in relation to these properties, for z 6= 0 we have

1 z z x − iy
= = = 2
z zz | z |2 x + y2
so we want  
1 −y
Im = 2 >1
z x + y2
and therefore
x2 + y 2 + y < 0.
Completing the square, we get
1 1
x2 + y 2 + y + <
4 4
which means
1 2
   2
2 1
(x − 0) + y + < .
2 2
This is the region whose boundary is the circle centered at x = 0 and y = −1/2 with
radius 1/2.

• A point z0 is an accumulation point, or limit point, of a set S if each deleted neighborhood


of z0 contains at least one point of S.

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