Fourier’s Law

and the
Heat Equation

Chapter Two
Fourier’s Law

Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium

• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:

→ →
q ′′ = − k ∇ T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).

– Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the

⎛ → → ⎞
medium ⎜ k ≡ − q′′/ ∇ T ⎟
⎝ ⎠

– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant

temperature (isotherms).

– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

Heat Flux Components

• Cartesian Coordinates: T ( x, y , z )
→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ = − k i −k j−k k (2.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
q x′′ q ′′y q z′′

• Cylindrical Coordinates: T ( r,φ , z )

→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ = − k i −k j−k k (2.22)
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
qr′′ qφ′′ q z′′

• Spherical Coordinates: T ( r , φ ,θ )
→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ = − k i −k j−k k (2.25)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
qr′′ qθ′′ qφ′′
Heat Flux Components (cont.)

• In angular coordinates (φ or φ , θ ) , the temperature gradient is still

based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of °C/m and not °C/deg.
• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:

– Cylinder
qr = Ar qr′′ = 2π rLqr′′
or,
qr′ = Ar′ qr′′ = 2π rqr′′

– Sphere
qr = Ar qr′′ = 4π r 2 qr′′
Heat Equation

The Heat Equation

• A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a
stationary medium.
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
• Cartesian Coordinates:

∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ • ∂T
⎜ k ⎟ + ⎜ k ⎟ + ⎜ k ⎟ + q = ρcp
(2.17)
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t

Net transfer of thermal energy into the Change in thermal

Thermal energy
control volume (inflow-outflow) energy storage
generation
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ & ∂T
⎜ kr ⎟+ 2 ⎜ k ∂φ ⎟ + ∂z ⎜ k ∂z ⎟ + q = ρ c (2.24)
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r ∂φ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
p
∂t

• Spherical Coordinates:

1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
2 ∂r ⎜
kr +
⎟ 2 2 ⎜ k +
⎟ 2 ⎜ k sin θ ⎟ + &
q = ρ c (2.27)
⎠ r sin θ ∂φ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠
p
r ⎝ ∂r ∂t
Heat Equation (Special Case)

• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties

and No Generation

∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x 2 α ∂t

k
α≡ → thermal diffusivity of the medium
ρcp
Boundary Conditions

Boundary and Initial Conditions

• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T ( x, t )t = 0 = T ( x, 0 )
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:

T ( 0, t ) = Ts

Constant Heat Flux:

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

∂T ∂T
−k |x = 0 = qs′′ |x = 0 = 0
∂x ∂x

Convection:

∂T
−k |x = 0 = h ⎡⎣T∞ − T ( 0, t ) ⎤⎦
∂x
Properties

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes

in its thermal environment.

Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Properties (Micro-
(Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

Micro- and Nanoscale Effects

• Conduction may be viewed as a consequence of energy carrier (electron or
phonon) motion.

• For the solid state:

1
k = Cc λmfp (2.7)
3

energy carrier mean free path → average distance

specific heat per traveled by an energy carrier before
unit volume. a collision.
average energy carrier velocity, c < ∞.

• Energy carriers also collide with physical boundaries, affecting their propagation.

¾ External boundaries of a film of material

Properties (Micro-
(Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

For L / λmfp < 1,

k x / k = 1 − 2λmfp / ( 3π L ) (2.9a)

k y / k = 1 − λmfp / ( 3L ) (2.9b)

¾ Grain boundaries within a solid

Measured thermal conductivity of a ceramic material vs. grain size, L. λmfp at T ≈ 300K = 25nm.

• Fourier’s law does not accurately describe the finite energy carrier propagation
velocity. This limitation is not important except in problems involving extremely
small time scales.
Problem: Thermal Response of Plane Wall

Problem 2.46 Thermal response of a plane wall to convection heat transfer.

KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.

FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t ≤ 0), steady-
state (t → ∞), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at the two
surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m3).

SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal

heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

∂ 2T 1 ∂ T
=
∂ x2 α ∂ t

⎧ Initial, t ≤ 0 : T ( x,0 ) = T uniform temperature

i
⎪⎪
and the ⎨ Boundaries: x=0 ∂ T/ ∂ x 0 = 0 adiabatic surface
conditions are: ⎪
⎪⎩ x=L − k∂ T/ ∂ x L = h ⎡⎣ T ( L,t ) − T∞ ⎤⎦ surface convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

c) The heat flux, q′′x ( x,t ) , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and
x = L.

d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as

∞
Ein = ∫ q′′conv As dt
0
∞
Ein = hAs ∫
0
( T∞ − T ( L,t ) )dt

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h ∞
⎡T∞ − T ( L,t ) ⎤⎦dt ⎡ J/m3 ⎤
V L ∫0 ⎣
=
⎣ ⎦