Problem Solving in Mathematics

Content

1 Synopsis 2

1 Goals 3

2 Mathematical problem defined 4

3 What is problem solving? 7

4 Problem solving process 9

5 Teaching problem solving 11

Problem solving at the primary
6 12
level
7 Problem extension 14

8 Problem solving strategies 16

Newman’s Error Analysis
9 51
Procedure
10 References 57
 
 
 
 
 
 

SYNOPSIS
This topic enables the students to understand the definition of routine and non
routine problems. Subsequently the students are guided to explore the various
problem solving strategies. With regards to this the priority is given to the Polya
Model of problem solving. Application of Newman Error Analysis method in
identifying difficulties encountered in solving mathematical word problems is also
discussed.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 To explain the meaning of problem and problem solving.

 To apply the Polya Model in solving mathematical problems.
 To make and examine conjectures.
 To explore and investigate alternative solutions.
 To evaluate and select apparopriate strategies in solving mathematical
problems.
 To apply the Newman Error Analysis procedure in identifying difficulties in
solving mathematical word problems.

GOALS

1
The ultimate goal of any problem-solving program is to improve students'
performance at solving problems correctly. The specific goals of problem-solving
in Mathematics are to:

1. Improve pupils' willingness to try problems and improve their perseverance

when solving problems.

2. Improve pupils' self-concepts with respect to the abilities to solve

problems.

3. Make pupils aware of the problem-solving strategies.

4. Make pupils aware of the value of approaching problems in a systematic

manner.

5. Make pupils aware that many problems can be solved in more than one
way.

6. Improve pupils' abilities to select appropriate solution strategies.

7. Improve pupils' abilities to implement solution strategies accurately.

8. Improve pupils' abilities to get more correct answers to problems.

 
 

MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM DEFINED

2
A problem is a task for which the person confronting

it wants or needs to find a solution,

has no readily available procedure for finding a solution,

and must make an attempts to find a solution.

Charles & Lester (1982)

TYPES OF PROBLEMS

1. DRILL EXERCISE
Drill exercise provide students with practice in using an algorithm and help
maintain mastery of basic computational skills.

Example : 269 x 76

2. SIMPLE TRANSLATION
Simple translation problem provide students with experience in translating
real world situations into mathematical models.

Example:
Ahmad has 11 marbles and Cheah has 7 marbles. How many more
marbles does Ahmad has than Cheah?

3. COMPLEX (OR MULTI-STEP) TRANSLATION

Complex translation problems provide students with the same experience
as simple translation problems, except that more than one operation may
be involved.

Example :
Matches come in packs of 40. A carton holds 36 packs. If a shop owner
ordered 4320 matchsticks, how many cartons did he order?

3
4. PROCESS (or NON-ROUTINE) PROBLEMS
Process problems lend themselves to exemplify the processes inherent in
thinking through the solving of a problem. They serve to develop general
strategies for understanding, planning and solving problems, as well as
evaluating attempts at solutions.

Example :
A tennis club held a tournament for its 25 members. If every member
played one game against each other members, how many games were
played?

5. APPLIED PROBLEMS
Applied problem provide an opportunity for students to use a variety of
mathematical skills, processes, concepts and facts to solve realistic
problems. They make students aware of the value of usefulness of
mathematics in everyday problem situations.

Example :
How much paper of all kinds does your school uses in a fortnight?

6. PUZZLE PROBLEMS
Puzzle problems allow students an opportunity to engage in potentially
enriching recreational mathematics. They highlight the importance of
flexibility in attaching a problem.

Example :
A coin is in a “cup” formed by four matchsticks. Try to get the coin out of
the cup by moving only two matchsticks to form a congruent “cup” but in a
new position :

4
ROUTINE PROBLEM

Routine problems are those that merely involved an arithmetic operation with the
characteristics:

 Presents a question to be answered

 Gives the facts or numbers to use

 Can be solved by direct application of previously learned algorithms and

the basic task is to identify the operation appropriate for solving the
problem.

Example of problems :

What’s the area of a 100 meter x 1000 meter car lot?

An employee makes RM8.50 per hour. How much will the employee makes in 40
hours?

NON-ROUTINE PROBLEM

It occurs when an individual is confronted with an unusual problem situation, and

is not aware of a standard procedure for solving it. The individual has to create a
procedure. To do so, he or she must become familiar with the problem situation,
collect appropriate information, identify an efficient strategy, and use the strategy
to solve the problem.

Example of a non-routine problem :

Approximately how many hairs are there on your head?

Non-routine problems are those that call for the use of processes far more than
those of routine problems with the characteristics:

Use of strategies involving some non-algorithmic approaches

Can be solved in many distinct ways requiring different thinking processes.

5
WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

Problem solving is the process of applying previously acquired knowledge, skills,

and understanding to new and unfamiliar situations.
Problem solving is the process used to find an answer to a statement or a
question

(Hamada, R.Y. & Smith).

To solve a problem is to find a way where no way is known off-hand, to find a

way out of a difficulty, to find a way around an obstacle, to attain a desired end,
that is not immediately attainable, by appropriate means.

(G. Polya in Krulik and Reys 1980, p. 1)

WHY A SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON PROBLEM SOLVING?

In the classroom can lessen the gap between real world problem and the
classroom world and thuis set a more positive mood in the classroom.

Problem solving shows an interaction between mathematical ideas.

Problem solving is an integral part of the larger area of critical thinking, which is
universally accepted goal for all education.

Problem solving permits students to learn and practice heuristic thinking.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD PROBLEM SOLVER?

Characteristics exhibited by good problem solvers:

Have a desire to solve a problem.
Extremely perseverant when solving problems.
Show an ability to skip some of the steps in the solution orocess.
Not afraid to guess.

Good problem solvers are students who hold conversations with themselves.
They know what questions to ask themselves, and what to do with the answers
they receive as they think through the problem.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD PROBLEM?

6
A good problem contains some or all characteristics:
The solution to the problem involves the understanding of distinct mathematical
concepts or the use of mathematical skills.
The solution of the problem leads to a generalization.
The problem is open-ended in that it lead to extensions.
The problem lends itself to a variety of solutions.
The problem should be interesting and challenging to the students.

Example:
There are 8 people in a room. Each person shakes hands with each of the other
people once and only once. How many handshakes are there?

A farmer has some horses and some chickens. He finds that together they have
70 heads and 200 legs. How many horses and how many chickens does he
have?

7
PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

Steps in problem solving process

George Polya identified four steps in the problem solving

process :

 Understanding the problem

 Devising a plan
 Carrying out the plan
 Looking back

Burton (1984) identified four phases in the problem solving process :

 Entry
 Attack
 Review
 Extension

The Reality and Mathematics Education (RIME) program recommended the

following steps for mathematical problem solving :

 Introduce the problem

 Pose the problem
 Allow students to carry out initial investigations
 Encourage students to check their predictions
 Assist students to develop a summary and conclusion to what they have
been doing

8
Problem Solving Process (George Polya)

1. Understanding the problem

 Can you state the problem in your own words?

 What are you trying to find or do?
 What information do you obtain from the problem?
 What are the unknowns?
 What information, if any, is missing or not needed?

2. Devising a plan

 Find the connection between the data and the unknown.

 Consider auxiliary problem if an immediate connection can be found
 What strategies do you know?
 Try a strategy that seems as if it will work.

3. Carrying out the plan

 Use the strategy you selected and work the problem.

 Check each step of the plan as you proceed
 Ensure that the steps are correct

4. Looking Back

 Reread the question

 Did you answer the question asked?
 Is your answer correct?
 Does your answer seems reasonable?

9
TEACHING PROBLEM SOLVING

How to establish a positive climate in the classroom for problem solving :

 Be enthusiastic about the problem

 Have students bring in problems from their personal experiences
 Personalize problems whenever possible ( e.g. use students’ names)
 Recognize and reinforce willingness and preseverance
 Reward risk takers
 Encourage students to guess answers
 Accept unusual solutions
 Praise students for getting correct solutions
 Emphasize the selection and use of problem solving strategies
 Emphasize persistence rather than speed

Teaching problem solving

Before :

 Read the problem to the class or have a student read the problem.
Discuss words or phrases students may not understand.
 Use a whole-class discussion about understanding the problems. Ask
questions to help students understanding the problem.
 Ask students which strategies might be helpful for finding a solution. Do
not evaluate students’ suggestions. You can direct students’ attention to
the list of strategies on problem solving when asking for suggestions.

During :

 Observe and question students about their work.

 Give hints for solving the problems as needed.
 Require students who obtain a solution to check their work and answer the
problem.
 Give a problem extension to students who complete the original problem
much sooner than others.

After :

 Show and discuss students’ solutions to the original problem. Have

students name the strategies used.
 Relate the problem to previous problems and solve an extension of the
original problem.
 Discuss special features of the original problem, if any.

10
PROBLEM SOLVING AT THE PRIMARY LEVEL

 Children begin solving problems long before they enter the primary grades.
Some problems faced by pre-primary children require sophisticated problem
solving skills. By the time children enter the primary level, children have
developed their own personal approaches and strategies for solving these
complex problems. It is the primary teacher’s responsibility to assist children
in extending, refining and adding to their problem-solving approaches and
strategies.

 Problem solving at the primary level should be the focus of almost all
mathematics instruction the child will encounter. Computational skills are
taught so they can be used as tools in the problem-solving process.

 It is not enough that teachers teach problem solving by exposing children to

problems and hoping that somehow after working many problems the children
would automatically develop into problem solvers. Children usually solve
problems that used addition, division, fractions, etc.

 Teachers should utilize the results of research on how children learn to solve
problems. Students are systematically involved in examining various problem-
solving strategies which can be used in a wide variety of problem-solving
situations.

11
The strategies commonly delegated to the primary level are:

 Act it out. Teachers in kindergarten and first grade use this approach when
developing models for addition and subtraction. Rebus problems, which use
pictures to convey words, are used as basis for children physically “acting out”
a problem.

 Draw a picture. Children’s textbooks use drawings and pictures throughout

the early development of mathematical concepts, as well as beginning
problem-solving exercises. However, teachers must design activities that
encourage children to use this skill.

 Use a model. As early as kindergarten, teachers will be using representions

on the flannel-board or magnetic board to illustrate addition and subtraction
situations. Children also should have opportunities to use heir own sets of
materials (at their desks) to “act out” the problem using counters or number
lines.

 Collect and organize data. Children start making simple, teacher-directed

graphs as early as kindergartens. By second grade they should be
constructing bar graphs and getting information from tables.

 Look for a pattern. Bead-stringing, paper chains, and rhythm activities used in
kindergarten lay a foundation for this strategy. Children start identifying
patterns with pictures or symbols in the first grade. By the third grade,
students will extend these skills to include numerical patterns (odd/even
numbers, multiples of five etc)

 Guess and check. Children begin “guessing” even before the teacher
introduces this skill. Before a pupil can become very skillful with this strategy,
some number and measurement skills must be developed. The teacher
should be building estimations skills as children work with whole numbers,
operations, and measurement so children will have a fairly good foundation in
estimation skills before third grade.

12
PROBLEM EXTENSION

Goals for Extension

1) Lead pupils to generalisation

2) Introduce or integrate other branches of mathematics

3) Provide opportunities for divergent thinking and making value judgements

Principles for Extending a Set of Problems

At a party I attended recently, I noticed that every person shook hands with each
other person exactly one time. There were 12 people at the party. How many
handshakes were there?

Principle for Problem Variation New Problem

A. Change the problem context/ A. Twelve students in Ms.Palmer's fifth-

setting (e.g., party to a Ping-Pong grade class decided to have a Ping-Pong
tournament). tournament. They decided that each
students would play one game against
each other students. How many games
were played?

B. Change the numbers (e.g., 12 B. At a party I attended recently, I noticed

becomes 20 or n). that every,person shook hands with each
other person exactly one time. There were
20 people at the party. How many
handshakes were there? That if there
were n people at the party?

C. Change the number of C. At a party I attended recently I noticed

conditions(e.g., instead of the single that every person but the host,Tim, shook
condition that "every person shook hands with each other person exactly one
hands with each other person exactly time. Tim shook hands with everyone
one time," we add the condition "Tim twice (once when they arrived, once when
shook hands with everyone twice." they left). There were 12 people at the
party. How many handshakes were there?

13
 Principle for Problem Variation New Problem

D. Reverse given and wanted D. At a party I attended recently I noticed

information (e.g., in the basic problem that every person shook hands with each
you are given the number of people other person exactly one time. If I told you
at the party and you want to find there were 66 handshakes, could you tell
how many handshakes there are; the me how many people were at the party?
reverse is true in the new problem).

E. Change some combination of E. E. All 20 students in Ms. Palmer's fifth-

context, numbers' conditions, and grade class decided to have a Ping-Pong
given/wanted information (e.g., in tournament. They decided that each
problem E both the context and the student would play one game against
numbers have been changed). Note: each other student. How many games
There are 11 combinations possible! were played?

 
 
 
 

14
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

1. Guess and check

2. Draw a diagram or graph

3. Work backwards

4. Make a table

5. Identify patterns

6. Simply problems

7. Make an organized list

The list of problem-solving strategies above is by no means exhaustive. You may

like to read up on some other strategies such as

(i) Reading and restating problem.

(ii) Brainstorming

(iii) Looking in another way

(iv) Making a model

(v) Identifying cases

Note: Different strategies can be used to solve the same problem.

15
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY : GUESS AND CHECK

Process Problem 1

Marty did 2 of these activities. He paid for them with a RM10.00 bill. His change
was RM3.75. What 2 activities did Marty do? (Hint: Make a guess. Then check
your guess.)
Activity Cost
Movies RM3.50
Putt-Putt Golf RM3.00
Skating RM2.00
Go-Kart Rides RM2.75

Understanding the Problem

· How many activities did he do? (2)

· How much money did he have? (RM10.00)   
· What was his change? (RM3.75)

Planning a Solution

· How much money did he have? (RM10.00) What was the change? (RM3.75)
· How much did he spend? (RM6.25)
· If he saw the movies and golfed, how much money would he have spent?
(RM6.50) Did he do these 2 activities? (No, they cost too much.)

Finding the Answer

Guess and Check

· Try movies and skating—RM3.50 + RM2.00 = RM5.50. (too little)
· Try movies and go-karts—RM3.50 + RM2.75 -- RM6.25. (correct)
The activities that Marty did are the movies and the go-kart rides.

Problem Extension

Marty's friend Joe went also, but he was not limited to 2 activities. He took
RM10.00 and brought backRM2.25. What activities did he do? (golf, skating, go-
kart rides)

16
Process Problem 2

I wrote 5 different numbers on 5 cards. The sum of the numbers is 15. What
numbers did I put on the cards? (Hint: Make a guess. Then check your guess.)

Understanding the Problem

· How many numbers did I write? (5)

· What is the sum of the numbers? (15)
· How many numbers on each card? (1)
· Are any 2 numbers the same? (No, they are all different.)

Planning a Solution

· Could 1 of the numbers be 15? (No, because the rest would be 0 and we said
that all the numbers were different.)
· Select 5 numbers and check to see if their sum is 15.

Finding the Answer

Guess and Check

· Try 0,1,2,3,4—0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 (too little)
· Try 1,2,3,4,5—1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 - 15 (correct)
The numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Problem Extension

If the numbers are even and different and their sum is 30, what are the numbers?
(2,4,6,8,10)

17
Process Problem 3

David's age this year is a multiple of 5. Next year, David's age will be a multiple of
7. How old is David now?

Understanding the Problem

· What do we know about David's age this year? (multiple of 5)

· What do we know about David's age next year? (multiple of 7)

Planning a Solution

· List some multiples of 5. (5, 10, 15, . . .) Multiples of 7. (7, 14, 21, . . .)
· Guess what David's age might be this year and add 1 to it to see if that number
is a multiple of 7. (See solution.)

Finding the Answer

Guess and Check

· Try 10 and 11. (No, 11 is not a multiple of 7.)and so on

Make an Organized List

Multiples of
5 10 15 20
5
Multiples of
7 14 21 28
7

David is 20 years old now.

Problem Extension

In how many more years will David's age be a multiple of both 5 and 7? (In 15
years, when he is 35)
 
 
 

 Process Problem Worksheet: Guess and Check

18
1. Mary has 6 coins, which have a total value of 67 cents. What combinations
of coins could she have? Use denominations of 1cents, 5cents, 10cents
and 25cents.

2. Navigate your spaceship to the "Black Hole". The product of the numbers
along your path must be 2592.

Start
6
2 10
3 4
9 2
7 1
8 2
Black
4 5
Hole
  

3. The sums of numbers on each side of the magic triangle are all the same.
Find two solutions for the magic triangle using a different number in each
box. 
  
10

24

16

4. a) How many shots at this target are needed to make a score of 300?
b) Find four different combinations where the value of the shots on the
target totals 300.

19
5. If r is less than 10, what value of r makes r3749r0 divisible by 60? (there
are two possibilities.)

6. Find a set of 3 consecutive even numbers whose sum is 294.

20
SOLUTIONS

1. Mary has 6 coins, which have a total value of 67 cents. What combinations
of coins could she have? Use denominations of 1cent, 5cents, 10cents
and 20cents.

1cent 5cents 10cents 20cents Total

2 1 2 2 7
 

2. Navigate your spaceship to the "Black Hole". The product of the numbers
along your path must be 2592.

Start
6
2 10
3 4
9 2
7 1
8 2
Black
4 5
Hole

2 x 3 x 6 x 4 x 9 x 2 = 2592  
 

3. The sums of numbers on each side of the magic triangle are all the same.
Find two solutions for the magic triangle using a different number in each
box. 

   10

24 A

16 C B

Sum = 10 + 24 + 16 = 50

21
 A + B = 40 & B + C = 32

Fix a number for B and the  will

difference from the above sums
yield A and C

4. a) How many shots at this target are needed to make a score of 300?

b) Find four different combinations where the value of the shots on the
target totals 300.

Numbers 45 48 51 54 57 Total
No. of shots 0 3 2 1 0 300
No. of shots 2 1 1 1 1 300
No. of shots 2 2 0 0 2 300
No. of shots 2 1 0 3 0 300
 

5. If r is less than 10, what value of r makes r3749r0 divisible by 60? (there
are two possibilities.)

r3749r0 ÷ 60 ====> r3749r ÷ 6

A number divisible by 6 is even and divisible by 3.

So r must be even and r3749r is its divisibility by 3.

3 + 7 + 4 + 9 = 23
23 + r + r  is divisible by 3 and r < 10 and even

===> r = 2 and 8
 

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY : WORK BACKWARDS

22
Process Problem 1

Phil was given his allowance on Monday. On Tuesday he spent RM1.50 at the
fruit stand. On Wednesday, Jed paid Phil the RM1.00 he owed him. If Phil now
has RM2.00, how much is his allowance? (Hint: Using the facts given, start with
the amount Phil has now and work backwards.)

Understanding the Problem

· How much money did Phil have after Wednesday? (RM2.00)

· Do you know how much Phil's allowance is? (no)
· How much did Phil spend at the fruit stand? (RM1.50)
· Was Phil given any money after he got his allowance? (Yes, Jed gave him
RM1.00.)

Planning a Solution

· Did Phil have Jed's RM1.00 on Tuesday night? (no)

· How much money did Phil have at the end of Tuesday? (RM2.00 - RM1.00 =
RM1 00)
· Did Phil spend money on Tuesday? (yes, RM1.50) How much money did Phil
have before he spent the RM1.50? (RM1.00 + RM1.50 = RM2.50)

Finding the Answer

Work Backwards   

Start with ? End with

Subtract RM1.50 RM2.50
Add RM1.00 Add RM1.50
End with RM2.00     Subtract
So---> RM1.00
Start with
RM2.00

Phil's allowance is RM2.50.

Problem Extension

23
On Phil's birthday his father increased his allowance. Phil was so happy he went
to the store and bought 2 cans of spray paint for his model airplanes. The paint
cost RM1.50. After Phil bought the paint, he had RM3.50 left. How much of an
increase did Phil get in his allowance? (RM2.50, twice as much).
 
 
 Process Problem 2

Jacob, Jesse, and James uncovered a strongbox containing some gold nuggets.
They buried half of the nuggets in the Grand Canyon and divided the remaining
nuggets evenly among themselves. Jesse received 2,000 gold nuggets. How
many nuggets were in the strongbox? (Hint: Start with the number of nuggets
Jesse received and work backwards.)

Understanding the Problem

· Do you know how many gold nuggets were in the strongbox? (no)
· Do you know how many nuggets were left after they buried half in the Grand
Canyon? (no) After they divided the remaining nuggets evenly among
themselves? (yes, 2,000 each)

Planning a Solution

· If Jesse received 2,000 nuggets, how many did James and Jacob receive?
(2,000 each)
· Together, how many nuggets did the men have? (6,000)
· The money the men had is how much of what was in the strongbox? (Half,
because half of the money was buried in the Grand Canyon.)

Finding the Answer

Work Backwards

Start with 2,000 nuggets.

Multiply by 3, the number of men—3 x 2,005
= 6,000.
Multiply by 2 for the half they buried—2 x
6,000 = 12,000.

There were 12,000 gold nuggets in the strongbox.

Problem Extension

24
The men decided to place half of the nuggets in the bank first, bury half of the
remaining nuggets, and then divide the nuggets that were left evenly among
themselves. Again, each man received 2,000 nuggets. How many nuggets were
in the strongbox? (24,000)
 
 
 

Process Problem 3

Leon wanted to know the age of a black bear at the zoo. The zoo keeper told
Leon that if he added 10 years to the age of the bear and then doubled it, the
bear would be 90 years old. How old is the bear? (Hint: Using the facts given,
start with 90 years and work backwards.)

Understanding the Problem

· Did the zoo keeper tell Leon the bear's age? (no)
· What was the last thing the zoo keeper did to the bear's age? (He doubled it.)
· What was the first thing the zoo keeper did to the bear's age? (He added 10.)

Planning a Solution

· If you double a number and get 10, what number did you double? (5) What
operation did you use to get 5? (division—10 ÷ 2 = 5)
· The zoo keeper doubled a number and got 90. What operation could you use to
get the number he doubled? (division—divide by 2)
· Is the bear 45 years old? (no)
· What did the zoo keeper do before he doubled the bear's age? (He added 10 to
the bear's age.)
· Which operation would you use to find out how old the bear is? (subtraction—45
- 10 = 35)

Finding the Answer

Work Backwards
Start with 90, the final number given by zoo keeper.
Divide by 2 to get the number that was doubled—90 ÷ 2 = 45.
Subtract 10 to get the age of the bear before 10 years was added—45 - 10 = 35
The bear was 35 years old.

Problem Extension

25
Leon also wanted to know the age of a turtle he saw at the zoo. The zoo keeper
said that if he added 14 years to the age of the turtle and then doubled it, the
turtle would be 200 years old. How old was the turtle? (86)
 
 
 

Process Worksheet: Work Backwards

26
1. Rabbits multiply at an amazing rate. In year 1 there are X rabbits. The
rabbit population doubles each year. The forest is crowded in year 7 when
there are 3200 rabbits. How many rabbits were there in year one if the
population doubles each year?

2. I bought a bag of apples. I kept half of them for myself. I gave the rest to 3
friends. Each friend got 2 apples. How many apples did I buy?

3. What is the starting number?

Subtract
Add 12
6

Multiply
by 2 20

4.
?

Divide by 7

Multiply by 2

Add 2

20

SOLUTIONS

27
1. Make a table and work backward from year 7 when there are 3200 rabbits.
Since population doubles each year, working backward means halving it.

Year No. of Rabbots

7 3200
6 1600
5 800
4 400
3 200
2 100
1 50

There were 50 rabbits in year one.

 

2. Work backward from each of 3 friend having 2 apples.

Forward Step Backward Step

Total : 3 x 2 = 6
Each of 3 friends has 2 apples
apples
Total : 6 x 2 = 12
I kept half of them for myself
apples

I bought 12 apples.
 

3. Start with the end result 20.

Forward Step Backward Step Working

Final Result 20 20

28
 Multiplt by 2 Divide by 2 20 / 2 = 10
10 + 6 =
Subtract 6 Add 6
16
Add 12 Subtract 12 16 - 12 = 4

The starting number is 4.

  

4. Reverse the steps

Forward Step Backward Step Working

? ? 63

Divide by 7 Multiply by 7 9 x 7 = 63

Multiply by 2 Divide by 2 18 / 2 = 9

Add 2 Subtract 2 20 - 2 = 18

20 20 20

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY : MAKE A TABLE

Process Problem 1

Holly checked a book out of the library and read this notice about fines: It a book
is 1 day overdue, the fine is 1cents, 2 days overdue, 2cents, 3 days overdue,

29
4cents, and so on. It Holly's book is 7 days overdue, how much is her fine? (Hint:
Complete this table.)
Day 1 2 3 4 567
Fine 1cents 2cents 4cents 8cents      

Understanding the Problem

· How much is the fine for 1 day? (1 cents)

· How much is the fine for 2 days? (2cents)
· How much is the fine for 3 days? (4cents)

Planning a Solution

· How much would the fine be for 4 days if we double the previous day? (8cents)
· How much is the fine for 5 days? (16cents)

Finding the Answer

Make a Table
Da
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y
Fi 1ce 2ce 4ce 8ce 16ce 32ce 64ce
ne nts nts nts nts nts nts nts

Holly's fine is 64cents.

Problem Extension

Holly had 2 books overdue. One book was 10 days overdue and the other was 5
days overdue. What was her total fine? (RM5.28)

Process Problem 2

Seth and Bob each began reading a Hardy Boys book today. If Seth reads 8
pages each day and Bob reads 5 pages each day, what page will Bob be reading
when Seth is reading page 56? (Hint: Complete the table.)

30
 Seth's Bob's
Day
Page Page
1 8 5
2 16 10
3 24 15

Understanding the Problem

· How many pages does Seth read each day? (8) Bob? (5)
· Did they start reading their books on the same day? (yes)

Planning a Solution

· How many pages had Seth read at the end of the first day? (8) Bob? (5)
· When Seth has read 16 pages, how many pages will Bob have read?(10)
· Find the number of pages Seth read for the first 5 days. (8, 16, 24, 32, 40)

Finding the Answer

Make a Table   
Seth's Bob's
Day
Page Page
1 8 5
2 16 10
3 24 15
4 32 20
5 40 25
6 48 30
7 56 35

Bob will be reading page 35 when Seth is reading page 56.

Problem Extension

Mary reads 9 pages a day, Sue reads 10 pages a day, and Molly reads 8 pages a
day. What page will Sue and Molly each be reading when Mary is reading page
72? (Sue--Page 80, Molly--Page 64)
 

31
 Process Problem 3

Jerry was mowing his lawn when he noticed Christy was a so mowing her lawn
next door. They stopped to talk and Jerry learned that Christy mows her lawn
once every 8 days. Jerry mows his lawn once every 6 days. In how many days
will they be mowing their lawns together again?

Understanding the Problem

· How often does Christy mow her lawn? (every 8 days)

· How often does Jerry mow his lawn? (every 6 days)

Planning a Solution

· In how many days will Christy mow her lawn again? (8) Then the next time?(16)
· When will Jerry mow his lawn again? (in 6 days) Then again? (12)
· Try making a table. (See solution.)

Finding the Answer

Make a Table
Christy 8 16 24 32
Jerry 6 12 18 24

Jerry and Christy will be mowing their lawns together again in 24 days.

Problem Extension

Suppose Jerry's mom pays him RM1.50 each time he mows the lawn and
Christy's mom pays herRM1.75 each time she mows the lawn. Who will have
made the most money in 24 days? (Jerry)
 
 
 
 

Process Problem Worksheet: Make a Table

1. Mr Green has a small farm near Steinbach, Manitoba. He has chickens

and cows on his farm. If there are 32 legs altogether, what is the greatest
number of cows possible?

32
2. List the different combinations of 5-cents coins and 10-cents coins that
make 55cents.

3. Each time 2 dice are rolled, 2 numbers land flacing up.

(a) How many different combinations of numbers can there be?

Hint: Only count different sets of numbers. Example: 1, 3 and 3, 1 are
the same.
(b) How many different products can there be?

4. In a box there are twelve pieces of paper, each with a number. The first is
numbered 1, the second 2, the third 3, and so on until 12. The box is
shaken and the numbers drawn out in pairs. If the sums for each of the six
pairs are 4, 6, 13, 14, 20, and 21, what are the numbers that make up the
pairs?

5. Sally is having a early. The first time the doorbell rings, one person enters.
If on each successive ring a group enters that has two more persons than
the group thot entered on the previous wring, how many people enter on
the sixth ring?

6. A kennel owner has the following dogs: a blonde collie, a brown terrier, a
black poodle, a black collie, a blonde poodle, a while terrier, a brown collie,
a black terrier, a while poodle, and a blonde terrier. If he wants to have
one of each colour and breed combination, what types of dogs should he
get?

SOLUTIONS

1. Mr Green has a small farm near Steinbach, Manitoba. He has chickens

and cows on his farm. If there are 32 legs altogether, what is the greatest
number of cows possible?

33
 Always maintain a constant total of 32 legs in total.
If all the legs belong to cows only, then 8 cows (32÷4) are possible.
But there must be at least 1 chicken on the farm.
Exchange 1 cow for 2 chickens.

Chicken
Cows Legs
s
0 8 32
2 7 32

There are at most 7 cows.

 

2. List the different combinations of 5-cents coins and 10-cents coins that
make 55cents.

5-
cents 11 9 7 5 3 1
coins
10-
cents 0 1 2 3 4 5
coins

As there must be at least 1 coin of each, only 5 different combinations

exist.
 
3. Each time 2 dice are rolled, 2 numbers land flacing up.

(a) How many different combinations of numbers can there be?

Hint: Only count different sets of numbers. Example: 1, 3 and 3, 1
are the same.

(b) How many different products can there be?

Dice Dice Dice Dice Dice

x x x x
Pair Pair Pair Pair Pair

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY : IDENTIFY PATTERNS

Process Problem 1

A man was very overweight and his doctor told him to lose 36 kg. If he loses 11
kg the first week, 9 kg the second week, and 7 kg the third week, and he

34
continues losing at this rate, how long will it take him to lose 36 kg? (Hint: Look
for a pattern. Then complete the table.)

Total Kilograms
Week
Lost
1 11
2 11 + 9 = 20
3 20 + 7 = 27
4
5
                    

Understanding the Problem   

        
· How much does the man need to lose? (36 kg)            
· How much did he lose the first week? (11 kg)            
· How much did he lose the second week? (9 kg)            
· How much did he lose the third week? (7 kg)

Planning a Solution

· How much less does he lose the second week than the first week? (2 kg)       
· How much less does he lose the third week than the secornd? (2 kg)            

Finding the Answer

Make a Table/Look for a Pattern

Total Kilograms
Week
Lost
1 11

35
 2 11 + 9 = 20
3 20 + 7 = 27
4 27 + 5 = 32
5 32 + 3 = 35
6 35 + 1 = 36

Pattern: The number of kilograms lost decreases by 2 each week.

It will take the man 6 weeks to lose 36 kg.

Problem Extension

If the man gains his weight back at the rate of .2 kg the first week, 4 kg the
second week, 6 kg the third week, and so on, in which week will he have gained
back 36 kg? (the sixth)
 
 
 

Process Problem 2

Jose used 6 blocks to build this staircase with 3 steps. How many blocks will
Jose need to make a 6-step staircase? (Hint: Make a table and look for a
pattern.)

36
Understanding the Problem

· How many blocks are used to build a 3-step staircase? (6)

· Do you know how many blocks are used to make a 6-step staircase? (No, that
is what we are trying to find out.)

Planning a Solution

· How many blocks were used to build the first step? (1 )

· How many new blocks were used for the second step? (2)
· How many new blocks would be needed for the fourth step? (4) What would be
the total number of blocks used to build a staircase with 4 steps? (10)

Finding the Answer

Make a TablelLook for a Pattern

Blocks
Steps in Needed to
Total Blocks Needed
Staircase Build New
Steps
1 1 1
2 2 1+2=3
3 3 1+2+3=6
4 4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
5 5 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
1+2+3+4+5+6=
6 6
21

Pattern: The number of new blocks needed increases by 1 with eachnew step.
The total number of blocks needed for nth step is the sum of the number 1
through n.
It would take 21 blocks to build a 6-step staircase.

Problem Extension

37
How many steps would there be in a staircase using 78 blocks? (12)
 
 
 
 

Process Problem 3

Earl played a game using the figure below. First he covered the section
numbered 1. Then he covered the sections numbered 1 and 2. Next he covered
the sections numbered 1 and 4. What sections would he cover on his seventh
round?

38
Understanding the Problem      
  
· What numbers are in the circle? (1, 2, 4, 8)
· What number(s) did he cover first? (C') Second? (1, 2) Next? (1, 4)        

Planning a Solution

· What is the sum of the numbers he covered first? (1)

· What is the sum of the numbers he covered second? (3) Next? (5)
· Make a table and look for a pattern. (See solution.)   

Finding the Answer

Make a Table/Look for a Pattern

Round Sum
First 1
Second 1+2=3
Third 1+4=5
Fourth 1+2+4=7
Fifth 1+8=9
Sixth 1 + 2 + 8 = 11
Seventh 1 + 4 + 8 = 13

Pattern: The sum of the numbers increases by 2 in each round.

Earl would cover the 1, 4, and 8 on his seventh round.

Problem Extension

If he covered the 2 first, then the 4, then the 2 and the 4, what numbers would he
cover on hisseventh round? (2, 4, 8)

Process Worksheet: Identify Patterns

1. Find the next 3 numbers in the following sequence.

    2, 5, 11, 23, ____, _____, ______.

2. If this pattern was formed to make a cube, what numbers would appear
where the question marks are?

39
3. The number of line segments joining a set of points increases as the
number of points increases. Find how many line segments there will be
when there are 8 points; 10 points.

4. f the figure on the left is continued, how many letters will be in the J row?
   Which row will contain 27 letters?

             A
          BBB
        CCCCC
       DDDDDD

SOLUTIONS

1. Find the next 3 numbers in the following sequence.

    2, 5, 11, 23, ____, _____, ______.

Pattern : x 2 + 1

40
 Answer : 47, 95, 191
 

2. If this pattern was formed to make a cube, what numbers would appear
where the question marks are?

?=1 ?=4 ?=2

3. The number of line segments joining a set of points increases as the

number of points increases. Find how many line segments there will be
when there are 8 points; 10 points.

Points 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 n

Lines 1 3 6 10 28 36 45 n(n-1)/2

4. If the figure on the left is continued, how many letters will be in the J row?
   Which row will contain 27 letters?
           
A
          BBB
        CCCCC
       DDDDDD

41
 Letter A B C D E ...... J K L M N General
Numeral
1 2 3 4 5 ...... 10 11 12 13 14 n
Order
Total
1 3 5 7 9 ...... 19 21 23 25 27 2n-1
No.
 

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY : SIMPLIFY PROBLEMS

Process Problem 1

Sometimes a problem is too complex to solve in one step. When this happens, it
is often useful to Simplify the problem by dividing it into cases and solving each
one separately.

42
Use the hints provided to solve each of the following problems.

1. How many palindromes are there between 0 and Simplify the problem.
1000? Find the number of
(A palindrome is a number like 525 that reads the one, two, and three
same backward or forward.) digit palindromes
separately.Make a list.
Use the list I've started,
and look for a pattern!

a. How many of the numbers 1 through 9 are

palindromes?
All nine numbers are palindromes.

 
b. How many of the numbers 10 through 99 are Make a
palindromes? List
11
22            nine
:
:
99

c. Find the number of palindromes from 100 through Use the list I've started,
999. and look for a pattern!
1 0 1 2 0 2 ......... 9 0 9  
1 1 1 2 1 2 ......... 9 1 9
1 2 1 2 2 2 ......... 9 2 9
131 : :
: : :
: : :

43
1 9 1 2 9 2 ......... 9 9 9

9 columns x 10 palindromes/column = 90
90 palindromes from 100- 999

d. What is the answer to this original question?

There are 108 palindromes between 0 and 1000
 
 
 
 

Process Problem 2

Tony's restaurant has 30 small tables to be used for a banquet. Each table can
seat only one person on each side. If the tables are pushed together to make one
long table, how many people can sit at the table?

Strategies involved

 Simplify the problem

44
  Draw a picture
 Make a table
 Look for a pattern
 

No. of tables No. of people

2 6
3 8
4 10
5 12
6 14
: :
: :
30 62
 

Pattern: 2 times the number of tables plus 2  ===>  2 x 30 = 60  ===> 60 + 2 = 62

62 people can sit at the table.
 
 
 
 

Process Worksheet: Solve a Simpler Problem

1. How many squares are in this figure?

     
     
     

45
2. A total of 28 handshakes were exchanged at a party. Each person shook
hands exactly once with each of the others. How many people were
present at the party?

3. Find the thickness of one page in your mathematics text book.

4. Mike is paid for writing numbers on pages of a book. Since different pages
require different numbers of digits, Mike is paid for writing each digit. In his
last book, he wrote 642 digits. How many pages were in the book?

SOLUTIONS

1. Make a table and work backward from year 7 when there are 3200 rabbits.
Since population doubles each year, working backward means halving it.

Possible size of Square No. of each size

9

46
 1

Total = 14
 

2. Make a table and start with the least possible number of people and find a
pattern.

No. of people 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No. of
0 1 3 6 10 15 21 28
handshakes
Pattern 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7

8 people were present at the party.

  

3. Method: Measure the thickness of say, 100 pages of the text book. Then
divide the result by 100 to obtain the thickness of one page.
 

4. Divide the pages of the book into groups of 1-, 2- and 3-digit pages and
count them separately in batches.

Page No. of digits

No. of pages No. of digits
Number per page
1 to 9 1 9 1x9=9
10 to 99 2 99 - 9 = 90 2x90=180
Total = 99 Total = 189

No. of digits left excluding the 1- and 2-digit pages = 642 - 189 = 453

47
 No. of pages with 3-digit numbers = 453 / 3 = 151

Total no. of 1-, 2- and 3-digit pages totalling 642 digits = 99 + 151 = 250

There were 250 pages in the book.

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY : EXPERIMENTATION AND

SIMULATION/ACTING OUT

Acting out a problrm forces an understanding of the nature of the problem. If

someone is capable of acting out the problem, we can almost best be certain that
he or she understands it.

Some manipulative such as bottles caps can be used in place of snowbalss,

chips can be represent by people. We can simulate the action with pencil and
paper, by making a drawing or a table.

PROCESS WORKSHEET : EXPERIMENTATION AND SIMULATION/ACTING

OUT

1. A man bought a goat for RM 60, sells it for RM 70, buys it back for RM
80 and sells it for RM 90. How much does the man make profit or lose
in the goat trading business?

48
 2. A dog chasing a rabbit, which has a lead of 15 meters, jumps 3 meters
for every time the rabbit jumps 2 meters. In how many lepas does the
dog overtake the rabbit?

3. Determine the largest number of boxes of dimensions 2 X 2 X 3 that

can be placed inside a box 3 X 4 X 5.

NEWMAN ERROR ANALYSIS

Reasearches :

 WATSON (1980)
 CLARKSON (1983)
 FINDINGS : 50% OF ERRORS OCCURS IN THE READING,
COMPREHENSION AND TRANSFORMATION STAGES.

 MARINAS & CLEMENTS (1990)

 RESEARCH DONE ON FORM ONE STUDENTS IN PULAU PINANG
 FINDINGS : 90% OF ERRORS OCCURS IN THE COMPREHENSION AND
TRANSFORMATION STAGES

BACKGROUND

49
 M. ANNE NEWMAN
AUSTRALIA
1977

 Analysis of students errors in written mathematical tasks

 According to Newman, a problem solving item could be solved according to

the hierarchy below :

o Able to read the problem given

o Able to comprehend the given problem
o Able to transform the problem to specific mathematical statements
o Able to solve the problem using correct algorithm
o Able to transfer the answer to the space provided
o Avoiding carelessness
o Have high motivation

 Newman’s research

o 124 YEAR 6 low achievement students

o Findings :

 13% errors in the reading stage

 22% errors in the comprehension stage
 12% errors in the transformation stage
 total of 47% errors occurs before the process skill stage

DIRECTIONS SUGGESTED BY THE NEWMAN PROCEDURE IN ANALYSING

STUDENTS’ ERROR IN PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Please read this question. (READING)

2. Explain to me what is needed by the problem. (COMPREHENSION)

3. Suggest one way to solve the problem. (TRANSFORMATION)

4. Show and explain how you solve the problem in getting the answer.
(PROCESS SKILL)

5. Now write your answer. (ENCODE)

50
HIERARCHY IN THE NEWMAN’S ERROR ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

READING

COMPREHENSION CARELESS MISTAKES

TRANSFORMATION

MOTIVATION

PROCESS SKILL

ENCODE

NEWMAN PROCEDURE

1. Reading Recognition

 Please read the question to me

2. Comprehension

 What does this word/sign mean?

 What is the question asking you to do?

3. Transformation

 Tell me or show me how you start finding an answer to the

question.

51
4. Process Skills

 Show me how you work the answer out for this question.

5. Encoding Ability

 Write down the answer to the question.

NEWMAN’S ERROR CATEGORIES

1. Reading Error

 Words
 Symbols
 Numerals

2. Comprehension Error

 Specific terminology understanding

 General meaning

3 Transformation Error

 Verbalization or showing how the item can be translated into a

mathematical form which allow a correct answer to be worked out at
the process skill stage.

52
4. Process Skill Error

 Wrong operation
 Faulty algorithm
 Faulty computation
 Random response (guessing)
 Fail to attempt

5. Encoding Error

 Can verbalize the answer to the task at (4) but write the answer
incorrectly.

REMEDIATION

1. Teaching reading skills in mathematics

 Word and symbol identification

 Interpreting terminology

2. Teaching comprehension skills

 Gathering stated information

 Interpreting terminology
 Interpreting concepts and terminology
 Comprehension of main ideas literally stated
 Interpreting graphic materials
 Disregarding irrelevant information

3. Teaching transformation skills

 Stepwise solution approach to solving word problems

53
 o Read the problem
o Write or underline the unknown word
o Show the problem in picture
o What is the main question being asked
o Reread. Write given information.
o Work out the answer.
o Reread to check the answer.

 Symbols for words

o Children translate mathematical word problems into symbolic

form.
 Example : eighty divided by four equals
80  4 =

 Creative word problem

o Allow children to write their own word problems which can

then be acted out as real life situations and simultaneously
recorded in symbolic form.

 Reverse transformation

o Pupils are given symbolic sentences and are asked to write a

story to illustrate the concepts.

EXAMPLE OF INTERPRETING ERRORS

Sam goes to bed at 10 minutes to 9.

John goes to bed 15 minutes later than Sam.
What time does John go to bed?

Pupil 1 : Glenn
Initial error cause : Reading recognition : word recognition

From the pupil’s response column, it can be seen that Glenn answered the item
incorrectly (No response) on the second attempt. He was then unable to read the
item accurately – the words “minutes” and “later” being read incorrectly. Following
this he was unable to give meaning to these terms and was unable to verbalise
an understanding of the general meaning of the item. Glenn made no attempt to

54
work the problem out. The pupil’s reading ability was not adequate to allow him to
proceed to the comprehension stage.

Pupil 2 : Micky
Initial error cause : Comprehension : Specific terminology understanding

On the second attempt at the item Micky answered the item incorrectly, giving 10
minutes to 9 as his answer. He read the item accurately. However, when
questioned as to the meaning of “later than” Micky showed no understanding of
the term though he knew the meaning of “minutes”. This pupil did appear to
understand the general meaning of the item but he has no idea how to work out
the item. In this example, even though the pupil appeared to know the general
meaning of the item, his lack of understanding of an essential term caused him to
guess the answer.

REFERENCES

Charles, R. I. & Barnet, C.S. (1992). Problem-Solving Experiences in Pre

Algebra. USA: Addison-Wesley.

Dolan, S. & Everton, T. (1994). Problem Solving. Cambridge : Cambridge

University Press.

Dolan, D.T. & Williamson, J. (1983). Teaching problem Solving Strategies.

USA : Addison-Wesley Publishing Company

Hamada, R.Y. & Smith, B. (1989). Problem Solving in mathematics Skills and
Strategies. LA : Unified School District Office of Elementary Publications
No. EC-569

55
http://www.library.thinkquest.org/learning/problem

Krulik, S. & Rudnick, J.A. (1989). Problem Solving A handbook For Senior
High School Teachers. Massachusetts : Allyn and Bacon A Division of
Simon & Schuster.

Stein, B. & Lotf, L. (1990). A problem Solving Approach To Mathematics for

Elementary School Teachers. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing
Companny.

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