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TOXICOLOGY

DRUG ANALYSIS
A drug analysis is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair, blood,
breath air, sweat, or oral fluid / saliva – to determine the presence or absence of specified
parent drugs or their metabolites

NATURE OF TOXICOLOGY

Toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of drugs and chemicals on biological
systems. It is understood as that branch of science which deals with poisons, and
a poison can be defined as any substance that causes a harmful effect when
administered, either by accident or design, to a living organism. Toxicology does
embrace the study of deleterious effects of substance exposure not only to the
human body but also to the environment and all other organisms existing in the
environment. Whereas, Forensic toxicology, is the use of toxicology and other
disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to
cases and issues where those adverse effects have administrative or medico‐legal
consequences, and where the results are likely to be used in court.

POISONS

Poison is any substance (solid, liquid, gas) which if assimilated in the living body or
brought into contact with any part thereof, will lead to deterioration of health or
may eventually lead to death by its constitutional or local effects. Every agent may
be harmful if acting on an organism at a high enough dose. Thus, almost anything
is a poison.

A very high percentage of all the poisonings happen at home. The most common
domestic products associated in poisonings cases are: cleaning solutions, fuels,
medicines, and other materials such as glue and cosmetics. Certain animals have
the tendency to secrete xenobiotic poison commonly referred to as venom; which
is usually injected with a bite or a sting, while some others animals harbor
infectious bacteria. Some household plants can also prove to be noxious to
humans and animals.
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CAUSES OF POISONING

The poisoning may result from many of the reasons, some of them are stated
below:

1) Poisoning may be caused by the administration of poison for criminal purposes.

2) The swallowing of poison in mistake for harmless substances can also lead to
poisoning

3) The inhalation of the vapors of a poison either accidently or by ignorance.

4) The improper formulation of medicines containing a poison

5) The accidental intake of large dose of medicine containing a poison

6) Excessive self-medication

7) Addiction of drugs

8) Bite by a poisonous animal

9) Food infected with bacteria or their toxins. (CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM)

CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS

Classification of poisons can be done according to

A) Mode of action

B) Chemical nature

According, to their mode of action, poisons are classified into three groups which
are as follows:

A) Mode of Action

A mode of action defines a functional or anatomical modification, at the cellular

level, stemming from the exposure of a living organism to a material or a
substance. In comparison, a mechanism of action describes such changes at the
molecular level.
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6.1 Corrosive Poisons

A corrosive poison is simply a highly active irritant and not only produces
inflammation but also actual ulceration of the tissues. Basically, a corrosive poison
fixes, destroy and erodes the surface with which it comes in contact i.e. they
produces local action. They act by extracting water from the tissues and coagulate
cellular proteins and convert hemoglobin into haematin.

This group consists of strong acids and strong alkalis. These include mineral acids,
such as sulphuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid; organic acids, such as oxalic
acid, carbolic acid, acetic acid, salicylic acid; concentrated alkalis such as, caustic
soda, carbonates, ammonium, sodium and potassium.

6.2 Irritant Poisons

Irritant poisons causes pain in abdomen, vomiting and purging. In post-mortem

appearance they are usually evident to the naked eye and shows redness or
ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract. This group is further divided into;
inorganic, organic, and mechanical substances. Corrosives in dilute solutions act
as irritants.

6.2.1 Inorganic irritant poisons

The inorganic subgroup consists of non-metallic and metallic poisons. Examples of

nonmetallic poisons are phosphorous, chlorine, bromine and iodine etc. The
metallicpoisons include arsenic, antimony, mercury, lead, copper, thallium, zinc,
manganese, barium and radioactive substances.

6.2.2 Organic irritant poisons

This group of poisons comprises of animal and plant poisons. Examples of plant
poison are abrus precatorius, castor, marking nut, ergot, calotropis etc. The
animal poisons include snakes, insects, cantharides, spider etc.
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6.2.3 Mechanical substances

This group includes coarsely powdered glass, chopped hairs, dried sponge and
diamond dust.

6.3 Systematic poisons

This class of poisons directly affects the main organs of the body system and
therefore they are referred to as systematic poisons. It includes nervous system
(neurotics), cardiovascular system (cardiac), Respiratory system (asphyxiate).

6.3.1Neurotics Poisons

Neurotic poisons act chiefly on the nervous system though some neurotics have a
local irritant action. All alkaloids poisons fall into this group. This group consists of
poisons that have specific action on the cerebrum, spinal cord and peripheral
nerves, the poisons being known as cerebral, spinal and peripheral respectively

6.3.1.1 Cerebral Poisons

The poisons acting on the cerebrum may have a somniferous, inebriant or

deliriant effect. The somniferous poisons include opioids; the inebriant ones
include alcohols, anaesthetics, sedatives and hypnotics, fuels and agrochemical
compounds. The deliriant are dhatura , belladonna, cannabis indica.

6.3.1.2 Spinal Poisons

The poisons acting on the spinal cord include nux vomica and its alkaloids and

gelsemium.

6.3.1.3 Peripheral Poisons

The poisons acting on the peripheral nerves include curare and conium.

6.3.2 Cardiac Poisons

These are poisons acting on the heart and it includes digitalis, oleander, aconite
and nicotine.
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6.3.3 Asphyxiant Poisons

These poison acts on the respiratory system and it include irrespirable gases such
as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sewer gases and some war gases.

6.3.4 Miscellaneous Poisons

The poisons having different pharmacological action are put together in this
group. It includes analgesics. Antipyretics, antihistaminic, tranquilizers,
antidepressants, street drugs and designer drugs.

B) Nature of Poison

The poisons are also classified on the basis of their nature in to the following
types:

1. Gaseous Poisons: These types of poison are in gaseous state and if inhaled,
hamper the competence of the blood as a carrier of oxygen and may damage the
tissues of the air passages and lungs. Some the examples of gaseous poisons are
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur oxide, chlorine,
nitrous oxide, tear gas etc.

2. Volatile Inorganic Poisons: Acute poisoning with volatile substances usually

follows the slow inhalation of vapors in order to become intoxicated. Cyanide,
phosphine, arsine, phosgene, chloride, etc. are few Volatile Inorganic Poisons.

3. Volatile Organic Poisons: These are organic chemicals that have a high vapor
pressure at ordinary room temperature. The high vapor pressure which results
from a low boiling point, causes large numbers of molecules to sublimate from
the liquid or solid form of the compound and enter the surrounding air. Examples
of Volatile Organic Poisons are ethanol, ethanol, formaldehyde, and
acetaldehyde.

4. Non-Volatile Inorganic (anions) Poisons: Examples are halides, dichromate,

chlorates, azides , nitrites ,sulphate, phosphide , cyanide etc.

5. Non-Volatile Inorganic (cations) Poisons: Examples are mercury, arsenic,

barium, thallium, lead, antimony, bismuth etc.
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6. Non-Volatile Organic Neutral Poisons (pesticides): Examples of Non-Volatile

Organic Neutral Poisons are organophosphates, organochlorates, carbmates,
pyrethroides.

7. Non-Volatile Organic Acidic Compound (acidic drugs). Drugs/ Poisons, which

are acidic in nature, are called Acidic Drugs. These drugs readily reacts with bases
to form salts. Few of the examples are barbiturates, sulpha, phenolic compounds
(Phenol, Cresols etc.), salicylates.

8. Non-Volatile Organic Alkaline Compounds (basic drugs): If the drugs contain a

nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons available for reaction with protons
they will behave as bases only Examples alkaloids, benzodizepine.

9. Plant Poisons: The active constituents of plants that exert toxic effects are
organic compounds and non-volatile in nature. Examples: - Dhatura, aconite,
oleander, nux vomica, jimsonweed etc.

10. Miscellaneous Poisons: These poisons may be organic or norganic, volatile or

non-volatile and or animal, plant origin or toxins produced thereof.

ANTIDOTE

An antidote is a substance that can counteract a form of poisoning. The term

ultimately derives from the Greek term (pharmakon) antidoton, "(medicine) given
as a remedy". Antidotes for anticoagulants are sometimes referred to as reversal
agents.

The antidotes for some particular toxins are manufactured by injecting the toxin

into an animal in small doses and extracting the resulting antibodies from the host
animals' blood. This results in an antivenom that can be used to
counteract venom produced by certain species of snakes, spiders, and other
venomous animals. Some animal venoms, especially those produced
by arthropods (such as certain spiders, scorpions, and bees) are only potentially
lethal when they provoke allergic reactions and induce anaphylactic shock; as
such, there is no "antidote" for these venoms; however anaphylactic shock can be
treated (e.g. with epinephrine).
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Some other toxins have no known antidote. For example, the poison aconitine – a
highly poisonous alkaloid derived from various aconite species – has no antidote,
and as a result, is often fatal if it enters the human body in sufficient quantities.

Ingested poisons are frequently treated by the oral administration of activated

charcoal, which absorbs the poison and flushes it from the digestive tract, thereby
removing a large part of the toxin. Poisons which are injected into the body (such
as those from bites or stings from venomous animals) are usually treated by the
use of a constriction band which limits the flow of lymph and/or blood to the
area, thus slowing the circulation of the poison around the body.