Timber Structures 2 CIE 5124

Durability of timber and timber

structures

• Degradation phenomena
• Protection of wood/structure

Objective of the lecture

Explain how deterioration phenomena of
timber structures can be characterized,
delayed and avoided.

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Wolfgang F. Gard Delft University of Technology

Bio structures and materials, Delft / The Netherlands
 Required knowledge from
Timber Structure 1
Some keywords:
• Durability classes
• Service classes
• Microstructure of wood
• Equilibrium moisture content
• Fibre saturation
• Free and bonded water
• Hysteresis
• Shrinkage, swelling
• Anisotropy
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 Overarching Subject: Service Life
Anatomy
Micro structure Cell wall
of wood
Service Life
Cell wall chemistry
Extractives
Chemical
composition
Wood UV radiation
durability Moisture
Temperature
Degradation Corrosion
mechanisms Micro-organisms
Marine organisms
Insects
Structural
design Protection and
maintenance Wood modification
Wood preservation

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 Design of Timber Structures
Environment Durability
• CO2 emission • Structural safety
• Energy consumption • Serviceability
• Emission to air, • Robustness
soil & water

Service Life Prediction & Assessment

LCA, durable, renewable, sustainable
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 Durable Design of a Structure

Function & Safety

Loads
Service Life Prediction
Resistance/strength Model (SLPM)
(consists of sub-models)
Deterioration
time

Maintenance

‘Environmental impact

End of Service Life

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SLPM is a tool to comply with Design Codes (Eurocode) and

Environmental Product Declaration EPD
 Service Life Modelling

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 Cumulative damage model considering ‘Service Life’

dα  σ(t) 
1)

 exp  a  b 
dt  f s (t ) 
dα/dt degradation (0 no degradation; 1 failed)
σ stress; ƒs strength (short term); t time

ƒs(t) = f ((u (r.H.,T), T, D (r.v.,T, s, i, h,…), …..)t)

u wood moisture content, s fungi
D degradation by micro-organism i insects
T temperature h wood species
t time r.H. relative humidity
1) Gerhards C.C, Link L.C. (1987): A CUMULATIVE DAMAGE MODEL TO PREDICT LOAD
DURATION CHARACTERISTICS OF LUMBER; Wood and Fiber S cience. 19(2), 1987, pp. 147-164

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 Durability (EN 1990)

The structure shall be designed such that

deterioration over its design working life does not
impair the performance of the structure below that
intended, having due regard to its environment and
the anticipated level of maintenance.

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 EN 1990 Basis of Structural Design
Eurocode 0
Fundamental requirements
• structural safety
• serviceability
• robustness
Reliability differentiation
Design working life
Durability
Quality Assurance

EN 1995 Design of timber structure

Eurocode 5 Paragraph 4: Biological degradation

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 Terms
Deterioration
• Latin: deteriorare "to make worse“
• falling from a higher to a lower level in quality
Degradation
• processes by which organic substances are broken down by living
organisms (biodegradation) and/or decomposition of chemical
compounds (polymer degradation)
Decay
• to be slowly destroyed by natural processes
• to slowly lose strength, health, etc.
Damage
• the occurrence of a change for the worse
• an event that occurs when something passes from one state or
phase to another
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Source Merriam Webster dictionary
 What does DEGRADATION of wood mean ?

To change the wood properties, in

particular mechanical properties in a
negative sense.

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 What does durability mean ?

• Resistance against degradation

• Biological durability (material related)

• Durability of a structure (resistance to loads and actions)

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 Ambient conditions causing
degradation of wood properties
• Radiation (e.g. UV)
• Polluted air (e.g. acids)
• Elevated temperatures
• Water and/or polluted water
• Moisture
• Fire
• Over loading
• Micro organisms

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 Overloaded or aging of glue line
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 Degradation by UV radiation

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 Degradation by UV radiation

shingles
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 Degradation by moisture

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 Degradation by fungi

Brown Rot
Gloeophyllum; Blättling
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 Degradation by fungi

Brown Rot

Discoloration: Blue Stain

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 Water
Front
Structure
s

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Degradation by fungi, marine organisms, mechanical damage

 Decay by marine
organisms

CT- scan
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Degradation by marine organisms

 Degradation by insects

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 Termites

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 What is changing in the wood when it’s
degrading ?

• Macro structure

• Micro structure

• Chemical composition

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 Chemical
Cell wall structure
constituents:
• cellulose
• hemicellulose
• lignin

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 Degradation mechanisms

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 Degradation by UV Radiation

After 500 hours exposure After 1000 hours exposure

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Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites 2013
 Early and late wood after UV aging
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 Mechanism of free radical formation from lignin degradation
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Polymer Degradation and Stability
Volume 88, Issue 2, May 2005, Pages 268–274
 1. Step
absorption UV-photon  free radical

2. Step
2 H2O + O2  2 H2O2

3. Step
2 H2O2 + free radical  chain scission reactions

Mechanism of free radical formation from lignin degradation

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Polymer Degradation and Stability
Volume 88, Issue 2, May 2005, Pages 268–274
 Degradation by UV Radiation

• P wall and S1 layer with high Lignin content

• Surface phenomenon (0.05mm – 2.5mm depth)
• Depolymerisation of Lignin by UV light (peak at
280 nm) caused by free radicals
• Visible light has low energy (400nm-700nm)
• Cellulose is relatively stable against
depolymerisation processes
• Surface is highly concentrated by cellulose

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 Degradation by higher Temperatures

Coefficient of thermal expansion

(x 10-6, per 0C change)

longitudinal transverse
Spruce Wood 5.4 34.1
Pine • at 0% MC 4.0 72.7
Oak • 80x10-3 shrinkage coefficient 4.9 54.4
Glass fibre 10
Mild steel 12.6
Aluminium alloy 22.5
Nylon 125
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 Influence of Temperature on Mechanical Properties

MOE MOR

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Source: Wood Handbook. Madison, US, 2010
 Degradation by higher Temperatures

• Strength losses are effected by the combination of

temperature, moisture and time

• Depolymerisation of hemicellulose and cellulose at

65°C maintained for 3 month

• At 102°C for 300 days MOE will be reduced by 17%

and MOR by 45%

Example: thermal treated wood (at 160°C - 200°C) has

high strength losses.

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 Influence of moisture content on softening temperature
Softening Temperature (°C)
Glass transition temperature
(at 0% moisture content)

lignin 150°C - 200°C

hemicellulose 160°C - 220°C
cellulose 230°C - 250°C

Moisture Content (%)

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Source: Van der Wiel, A (1984) The influence of water on the glass transition temperature of wood
components: cellulose, hemicelullose and lignin. TUDelft Stevin Lab Report 4-84-5.
 Property e.g. viscosity, modulus

Tg

Tm

Tg Glass transition temperature Temperature

Tm Melting temperature

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 Influence of moisture content on softening temperature
Softening Temperature (°C)
Glass transition temperature (Tg)

• The glass transition is not the same as melting.

• Glass transition is the critical temperature where

the properties of the amorphous polymers
Moisture Content (%)
change.

• Above the Tg, it is possible that the matrix

changes and for example the lignin undergoes
thermoplastic flow.

• The wood moisture content influences the glass

transition temperature of lignin, hemicellulose but
not of crystalline cellulose.

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Source: Van der Wiel, A (1984) The influence of water on the glass transition temperature of wood
components: cellulose, hemicelullose and lignin. TUDelft Stevin Lab Report 4-84-5.
 Pyrolysis temperatures

Cellulose from about 180°C

Hemicelluloses at about 270°C

Lignin from about 330°C to 400°C

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2001 Pyrolyse von Biomasse-Abfall: Thermochemische Konversion mit dem Hamburger-Wirbelschichtverfahren
 Degradation by
MOE
moisture

Properties
MOR

hardness

compression strength

MC (%)
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 Degradation by moisture

Hydrolysis

• Decomposition of Carbohydrates (cellulose,

hemicelluloses, lignin)
• Reaction with water molecules

Naturally a slow reaction !

Catalysed by dilute acids and enzymes.
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 Degradation by Chemicals

pH changes in wood by:

For example
• Fire retardants
• Wood preservatives
• Polluted Air
• Corrosion

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 Degradation by Chemicals

• Average pH of wood is between 3 and 5.5

• Heart wood is generally more resistant to acid than sapwood

• Hardwoods are more susceptible to degradation by acids and alkalis

• Alkaline solutions are more destructive to wood fibres than acidic

solutions because wood adsorbs alkaline solutions more readily than
acidic solutions

• Waterborne wood preservatives and fire retardants (salts) could

undergo a fixation with the cell wall by reducing sugars, subsequently
strength is affected up to 20% depending on the agents

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 Degradation by Chemicals

pH<2 and pH>11

degradation of amorphous constituents by oxidation
and/or hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds
lignin, hemicellulose

In principle wood has a high tolerance against acids

and alkaline substances.
e.g.
HCl (hydrochloric acid)
NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
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 Overarching Subject: Service Life Anatomy

Micro
Cell wall 
Service Life structure of
wood
Cell wall chemistry

Chemical
Extractives

composition
UV radiation
Wood
durability
Moisture
Temperature

Degradation Corrosion
mechanisms Overloading
Micro-organisms
Marine organisms
Structural Protection and
Insects
design maintenance
Wood modification
Wood preservation

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 Degradation of wood by corrosion

Corrosion of metal (connectors such as dowels, bolts)

Corrosion of wood (degradation of cells)

• Electrochemical reaction

• Water as electrolyte

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 Degradation of wood by corrosion
Water as electrolyte

Oxidation of iron Fe → Fe2+ (aq)+ 2 e−

Fe2+
Fe2O3 2e− Metal
anode
contact zone
cathode Wood
OH-
Oxygen (O2) (wet)
Water (H2O)
Alkaline medium

Reduction of oxygen O2 + 4 e- + 2 H2O → 4OH-

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Electrolyte effect could be increased by wood extractives.

 Loss of capacity as a function of time for different
corrosion rates (μm yr-1) of a 3.4-mm nail in
diameter

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Samuel L. Zelinka (2014). Corrosion of Metals in Wood Products. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57296
 EN 1995-1-1:2004 Protection against corrosion

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 Degradation by over loading
tension

shear

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 Question
How can the stress-strain behaviour be
explained at molecular level.

Orientation of the cell wall polymers

Stress

(A)Elastic region
crystalline polymers (rigid)

A B C
(B) Viscoelastic/-plastic region
Strain Ba partially viscoelastic
(C) Plastic region Bb partially viscoplastic
non-crystalline polymers non-crystalline polymers (deformation)
(permanent deformation)
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Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and

elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation over time.
 (A)Elastic region
crystalline polymers (rigid)
Stretching C-C, C-O bonds, uncoiling

(B) Viscoelastic/-plastic region

non-crystalline polymers
(deformation, time dependent, creep)
hydrogen bonds: sliding, rebounding between
the polysaccharide chains

(C) Plastic region C-C, C-O: bond breakage not recoverable e.g.
non-crystalline polymers lignin-hemicellulose separation, depolymerisation
(permanent deformation) amorphous constituents

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 Resistance against micro-organisms

Since wood is an organic material, it is

more or less biodegradable by micro-
organisms (fungi, bacteria) and insects !

In addition there are:

• Marine borers
• Termites

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 Life Cycle of Fungi

Spore
Fruit body Hypha

Mycelium

Substrate mycelium Surface mycelium

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 Spore Hypha

diameter of hyphae reaches from 0.1–0.4μm

length reaches from about 5 μm

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 Surface Mycelium

Serpula lacrymans; Dry rot; Echter Hausschwamm

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 Hypha in fibres

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 • Web made from string, diameter 2 μm
• Growth up to 11 mm per day
• Decomposition by enzymes
• 600 million spores per minute (Dry rot)
• EN 350: Durability Classes for wood species

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 Living Conditions

• Moisture Content (20% - 60%)

• Temperature (20°C - 30°C)
• Oxygen (Air volume at the lumina 10%-20%)
• pH-value (5-6)

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 Overview of WHITE ROT
fungal types Lignin & Cellulose

BROWN ROT
Cellulose & (lignin)

SOFT ROT Cellulose and (lignin)

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 Brown Rot (Basidiomycetes)

• Dry Rot (Serpula lacrimans)

• Wet Rot Cellar fungus
(Coniophara puteana)
• Poria vaillantii
• Gloeohyllum spp.

Softwood
Cellulose & hemicellulose & (lignin)
MC 30%-60%
T 24°C – 35°C
pH 4-6 brittle crack
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 White Rot (Basidiomycetes)

• Coriolus versicolor
• Fomes fomentarius
• Stereum spp.

Hardwood
Lignine & cellulose & hemicellulose
MC 30%-60%
T 24°C – 35°C
pH 4-6

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 Soft Rot (Ascomycetes)
Chaetomium species
Soft-,Hardwood in ground contact
Cellulose & hemicellulose & (lignin)
MC 30%-200%
T 24°C – 35°C
pH up 11

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Polysaccharides digestibility (%)
(mix of all constituents)

Lignin content (%)

132
 Components (% of original)
lignin
White rot
Brown rot

lignin hemi-
hemi- cellulose
cellulose

lignin Soft rot

hemi-
cellulose

Total weight loss (%)

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 Influence of fungi on strength
Compression strength after decay initiation
120
Relative compression strength Pore fungi / Poria vaporaria
Cellar rot / Coniophora cerebella
100 Dry rot / Merulius lacrymans
Dry rot / Serpula himantioides
80

60

40

20

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Time (hours)

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 Bacteria

size of many bacteria is between 0.4 and 5μm.

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 Lab test for durability

EN 113 16 weeks

Foto: TNO

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 Brown-rot fungi decay

Degree of polymerisation [units]

Residual weight [%]

Incubation time [weeks] Weight loss [%]

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Rowell, R.M. (2013) Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites. CRC Press Taylor & Francis , New York
 Field test for timber in ground contact

EN 252
5 years

SP/ Sweden 2012

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 Lap-Joint
L-Joint

Foto: TNO/BFH

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 Horizontal (Double layer)
Foto: Rapp, Augusta (2000)

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 Vertical covered Vertical not covered
Foto: Rapp, Augusta (2000)

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 4 Pine
Results
vertical
(out of ground contact)
Larch
Assessment according to EN 252

0 = sound Spruce
4 = broken

3 Oak

Acacia

0
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6

year
Source: Rapp, Augusta (2006)
 Durability of larch
vertical covered
vertical
horizontal
EN 252

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Bron: Rapp, Augusta (2006)

Natural durability
juvenile wood Heart wood

sapwood
Natural durability

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Robinia (hardwood)
 Biological (natural) Durability of wood

Resistance against fungi and insects.

EN 350 Annex B
Classification system and Durability classes of about
120 wood species
1 (high resistant) – 5 (low resistant)

CEN/TS 15083-1&2 (procedure how to determine)

Durability tests (lab- & field-test)

EN 113, ENV 807
EN 252

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 Durability Classes (EN 350)

• spruce 4
• pine 3-4
• oak (European) 2
• oak (American) 4
• larch 3-4
• azobe 1-2
• acacia 1-2
• Western Red Cedar 2-3

durable 1, not durable 5

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 8 weeks
8 weeks-leached
16 weeks
16 weeks-leached
frequency

Mass loss (Coriolus versicolor) [%]

Van Acker, J. 2006 Presentation Wood protection 2006, New Orleans, USA

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 Wood species for hydraulic structures
Trade name Botanical name Durability class
(DC)
Azobé Lophira alata 1-2
Angelim vermelho Dinizia excelsa 1
Bangkirai Shorea spp. 2
Billinga Nauclea diderrichii 1
Basralocus Dicorynia spp. 2-1
Demerara Groenhart Ocotea rodiaei 1
Purperhart Peltogyne spp. 3-2
Massaranduba Manilkara spp. 3-1
Okan Cylicidiscus gabunensis 1
Muiracatiara Astronium spp. 1
Piquia Caryocar villosum 2-1
Cumaru Dipteryx spp. 1
Cloeziana Eucalyptus cloeziana 1
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 Insects

eggs
beetle
larva

Evolution cycle cocoon

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 Insects in the forest
standing trees
high moisture content
high content of nutrients

Insects in timber
moisture content below FS

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 Living conditions
• Nutrients in the wood

• Moisture content

• Temperature

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 Nutrients
• Sapwood and/or heartwood

• Selected wood species

• Cambium and sapwood (selden heart wood)

• Often decayed wood by fungi

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 Longhorn beetle
Hylotrupes bajulus

1. Softwood
2. Sapwood
3. In and under roof structure
4. 28°C ... 30 °C
MC 28 .. 30 %
(minimum level 8 ... 10%)
5. 3 – 5 years in larva stage

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 Common furniture beetle
Anobium punctatum

1. Soft- and hardwood

2. Sapwood also heart wood if infested by
fungi
3. 22°C ... 23 °C; MC ca. FSP
4. 4 - 8 years in larva stage

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 Powder-post beetle
Lytus brunneus

1. Hardwood
2. Sapwood
3. 26°C ... 27 °C, MC 16 %
4. 5 - 18 month in larva stage

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 Callidium violaceum /
Phymatodes testaceus

1. Soft- and hardwood

2. Timber with bark
3. MC 30 % and lower
4. 2 – 3 years in larva stage

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 Death watch beetle
Xestobium rufovillosum

1. Soft- and hardwood

2. Hardwood, if decayed by fungi
3. MC 30 % and higer, Temperature 30°C
4. 8-10 years in larva stage

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 Insects
• Wood Wasps
• Marine Borers (hydraulic works)
• Termites (e.g. South Europe)

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 Shipworm
Teredo spp.
Family: Sea shells

Salt water (7ppt- 35ppt) sometimes

fresh water.
A pair of boring shells

Gribble
Limnoria spp.
Family: Lobster
________
1 cm Salt water (min.15ppt) .

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 Termites Life cycle

colony
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2017 May http://flrec.ifas.ufl.edu/termites-in-florida/life-cycle/
 Termites

Subterranean and Non-subterranean Termites

Protection
• Physical barriers e.g. metal caps between
foundation and building.
• Bait systems with acting insecticides.
• Chemical treatment of the soil. colony
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 Wood protection

prevent fungi attack suppress fungi attack

design measures chemical measures modification measures

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 Increasing resistance of timber against micro-
organisms
Wood preservation with chemicals
Full cross-section treatment
Surface treatment
Substances: CCA (chromate copper arsenate), …..

Wood modification
Thermal treatment
Acetylating of the wood

……….

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 Objectives of Wood Modification
regarding biological durability

Decrease hygroscopic behavior of wood

 EMC becomes lower

 Less shrinkage en swelling

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 Modification of the wood cell wall
- modifying the hydroxyl-groups -

Hydroxyl-groups
Blocking (attracting water molecules) Substitution

Swelling/Shrinkage
Melamine Acetic
-resin anhydride

Cross-linking Degradation

N-Methylol
Cellulose/hemicellulose heat
-resin
chains

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 Treatment with resins (e.g. Belmadur)

Acetylation (e.g. Accoya)

Acetic anhydride Acetylated wood Acetic acid

Furfuryl alcohol reaction with lignin (strong cross-linking) (e.g. Kebony)

Lignin component

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 Thermal treated timber

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 40
Scotch pine
Equilibrium Moisture Content (%) Lowering the EMC at high
35
Heat-treated adsorption RH (below 20%)
30 Heat-treated desorption

Non-treated adsorption
25
Non-treated desorption

20
Non-treated
Swelling/Shrinkage
15

10

5
Heat-treated
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Relative Humidity (%)

Hysteresis
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 Brigde near Sneek/NL
made of chemically
modified timber (Radiata
Pine). Completely
exposed to the weather.

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 Design measures to protect the
timber

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 Water absorption of Radiata Pine.

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Eric Yunxin Wang (2009) Properties and Distortion of Douglas-fir with Comparison to Radiata Pine. University of Canterbury
 Moisture content (%)

Pine sapwood

Pine heartwood

Immersed in water (h)

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Longitudinal direction
 Research from CATAS/ Italy

water absorption/desorption – end‐sealed specimes

35

30

25
g/block

20

15

10

0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 336 360

time (h)

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 Thatch & Glued Laminated Timber

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after ca. 2 years

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Pedestrian bridge
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 Essential guidance for improving durability of
timber structures.

• Keep and let timber dry !

• Avoid timber in ground contact !
• Cover the cross-section of timber !
• Use the appropriate wood species regarding natural
durability !
• If necessary, treat or modify the wood properly !
• ……..

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 Use classes EN 335
3.1 outdoor,
sometimes wet
1 indoor, dry regluar >20%
Foto: A. Mooiman

less 20%
3.2 outdoor
uncovered
regular >20%

2 indoor,
4 ground contact
sometimes wet
out of/in water
always >20%
sometimes
5 ground contact
>20% in salt water

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 How to design a durable timber structure ?

What should be considered to

increasing service life of the structure
• Use classes (EN 335)
• Biological durability class of wood (EN
350 Annex B)

Service Classes according to Eurocode 5

• Modification factor for design values for
structures caused by timber moisture
content

Source Houtblad August 2008

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 Service classes ? In relation with mechanical properties
(3 classes) of timber (modification factors)

In relation with biological durability

Use classes ? of wood and wood products
(5 classes)

Durability classes ? In relation with biological durability

(5 classes) of wood

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 Performance
A Material resistance parameter
Insects, fungi, termites, marine borers, moisture

B Exposure dose parameter

Moisture, temperature, time, wetness of the material

C Biological hazard (where is it used: UC)

Indoor, outside, soil contact, etc.

Performance class = f(A,B(t),C(t))

Indoor, outside, soil contact, etc.

Consequence of failure
Injury to persons, serviceability, maintenance, replacement, etc.

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 Keywords
• Degradation phenomena (e.g. corrosion, UV radiation)
• Service Classes vs Use Classes
• Biological Durability (e.g. fungi, insects, etc.)
• Durability Classes
• Timber Protection (e.g. preservatives, chemical modification,
design measures, etc.)
• Viscoelasticity

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 Overarching Subject: Service Life
Micro
Anatomy
Cell wall

structure of
Service Life wood

Cell wall chemistry

Extractives 
Chemical
composition
UV radiation
Wood Moisture
durability Temperature

Degradation
Corrosion
Overloading 
mechanisms Micro-organisms
Marine organisms
Insects
Structural
design Protection and
maintenance Wood modification
Wood preservation

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