Raymond A.

Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 1
Introduction
 Theories and Experiments
• The goal of physics is to develop theories based on
experiments
• A physical theory, usually expressed mathematically,
describes how a given system works
• The theory makes predictions about how a system
should work
• Experiments check the theories’ predictions
• Every theory is a work in progress

Introduction
 Fundamental Quantities and Their
Dimension
• Mechanics uses three fundamental quantities
– Length [L]
– Mass [M]
– Time [T]
• Other physical quantities can be constructed
from these three

Introduction
 Units
• To communicate the result of a measurement
for a quantity, a unit must be defined
• Defining units allows everyone to relate to the
same fundamental amount

Section 1.1
 SI System of Measurement
• SI – Systéme International
– Agreed to in 1960 by an international committee
– Main system used in this text

Section 1.1
 Length
• Units
– meter, m
• The meter is currently defined in terms of the
distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a
given time
– Also establishes the value for the speed of light in
a vacuum

Section 1.1
 Mass
• Units
– kilogram, kg
• The kilogram is currently defined as the mass
of a specific cylinder kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures

Section 1.1
Standard Kilogram

Section 1.1
 Time
• Units
– seconds, s
• The second is currently defined in terms of the
oscillation of radiation from a cesium atom

Section 1.1
 Approximate Values
• Various tables in the text show approximate
values for length, mass, and time
– Note the wide range of values
– Lengths – Table 1.1
– Masses – Table 1.2
– Time intervals – Table 1.3

Section 1.1
 Other Systems of Measurements
• cgs – Gaussian system
– Named for the first letters of the units it uses for
fundamental quantities
• US Customary
– Everyday units
– Often uses weight, in pounds, instead of mass as a
fundamental quantity

Section 1.1
 Units in Various Systems

System Length Mass Time

Section 1.1
 Prefixes
• Prefixes correspond to powers of 10
• Each prefix has a specific name
• Each prefix has a specific abbreviation
• See table 1.4

Section 1.1
 Expressing Numbers
• Numbers with more than three digits are
written in groups of three digits separated by
spaces
– Groups appear on both sides of the decimal point
• 10 000 instead of 10,000
• 3.141 592 65

Section 1.1
 Structure of Matter
• Matter is made up of molecules
– The smallest division that is identifiable as a
substance
• Molecules are made up of atoms
– Correspond to elements

Section 1.2
 More structure of matter
• Atoms are made up of
– Nucleus, very dense, contains
• Protons, positively charged, “heavy”
• Neutrons, no charge, about same mass as protons
– Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks
– Orbited by
• Electrons, negatively charges, “light”
– Fundamental particle, no structure

Section 1.2
Structure of Matter

Section 1.2
 Dimensional Analysis
• Technique to check the correctness of an
equation
• Dimensions (length, mass, time,
combinations) can be treated as algebraic
quantities
– Add, subtract, multiply, divide
• Both sides of equation must have the same
dimensions

Section 1.3
 Dimensional Analysis, cont.
• Cannot give numerical factors: this is its
limitation
• Dimensions of some common quantities are
listed in Table 1.5
• Allows a check for calculations which can
show up in the units

Section 1.3
 Uncertainty in Measurements
• There is uncertainty in every measurement, this
uncertainty carries over through the calculations
– Need a technique to account for this uncertainty
• We will use rules for significant figures to
approximate the uncertainty in results of calculations

Section 1.4
 Significant Figures
• A significant figure is a reliably known digit
• All non-zero digits are significant
• Zeros are not significant when they only locate the
decimal point
– Using scientific notion to indicate the number of significant
figures removes ambiguity when the possibility of
misinterpretation is present

Section 1.4
Operations with Significant Figures
• When multiplying or dividing two or more
quantities, the number of significant figures in
the final result is the same as the number of
significant figures in the least accurate of the
factors being combined
– Least accurate means having the lowest number of
significant figures
• When adding or subtracting, round the result
to the smallest number of decimal places of
any term in the sum (or difference)
Section 1.4
 Rounding
• Calculators will generally report many more digits
than are significant
– Be sure to properly round your results
• Slight discrepancies may be introduced by both
the rounding process and the algebraic order in
which the steps are carried out
– Minor discrepancies are to be expected and are not a
problem in the problem-solving process
• In experimental work, more rigorous methods
would be needed
Section 1.4
 Conversions
• When units are not consistent, you may need to
convert to appropriate ones
• See the inside of the front cover for an extensive list
of conversion factors
• Units can be treated like algebraic quantities that can
“cancel” each other
• Example:

Section 1.5
 Estimates
• Can yield useful approximate answers
– An exact answer may be difficult or impossible
• Mathematical reasons
• Limited information available
• Can serve as a partial check for exact
calculations

Section 1.6
 Order of Magnitude
• Approximation based on a number of
assumptions
– May need to modify assumptions if more precise
results are needed
• Order of magnitude is the power of 10 that
applies

Section 1.6
 Coordinate Systems
• Used to describe the position of a point in
space
• Coordinate system consists of
– A fixed reference point called the origin, O
– Specified axes with scales and labels
– Instructions on how to label a point relative to the
origin and the axes

Section 1.7
 Types of Coordinate Systems
• Cartesian (rectangular)
• Plane polar

Section 1.7
 Cartesian coordinate system
• x- and y- axes
• Points are labeled (x,y)
• Positive x is usually
selected to be to the
right of the origin
• Positive y is usually
selected to be to
upward from the origin

Section 1.7
 Plane polar coordinate system
• Origin and reference line
are noted
• Point is distance r from
the origin in the direction
of angle 
• Positive angles are
measured ccw from
reference line
• Points are labeled (r,)
• The standard reference
line is usually selected to
be the positive x axis

Section 1.7
Trigonometry Review

Section 1.8
 More Trigonometry
• Pythagorean Theorem
– r2 = x2 + y2
• To find an angle, you need the inverse trig
function
– For example,  = sin-1 0.707 = 45°

Section 1.8
 Degrees vs. Radians
• Be sure your calculator is set for the
appropriate angular units for the problem
• For example:
– tan -1 0.5774 = 30.0°
– tan -1 0.5774 = 0.5236 rad

Section 1.8
 Rectangular  Polar
• Rectangular to polar
– Given x and y, use Pythagorean theorem to find r
– Use x and y and the inverse tangent to find angle
• Polar to rectangular
– x = r cos 
– y = r sin 

Section 1.8
Problem Solving Strategy

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving Strategy
• Problem
– Read the problem
• Read at least twice
• Identify the nature of the problem
– Draw a diagram
• Some types of problems require very specific types of
diagrams

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving cont.
• Problem, cont.
– Label the physical quantities
• Can label on the diagram
• Use letters that remind you of the quantity
– Many quantities have specific letters
• Choose a coordinate system and label it
• Strategy
– Identify principles and list data
• Identify the principle involved
• List the known(s) (given information)
• Indicate the unknown(s) (what you are looking for)
– May want to circle the unknowns

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving, cont.
• Strategy, cont.
– Choose equation(s)
• Based on the principle, choose an equation or set of
equations to apply to the problem
• Solution
– Solve for the unknown quantity
– Substitute into the equation(s)
• Substitute the data into the equation
• Obtain a result
• Include units

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving, final
• Check
– Check the answer
• Do the units match?
– Are the units correct for the quantity being found?
• Does the answer seem reasonable?
– Check order of magnitude
• Are signs appropriate and meaningful?

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving Summary
• Equations are the tools of physics
– Understand what the equations mean and how to
use them
• Carry through the algebra as far as possible
– Substitute numbers at the end
• Be organized

Section 1.9