What Is Gestalt Organization

& Systems Development?

All About the O, the S, the D
…and of course, Gestalt

Mary Ann Rainey

 “Gestalt, OD, and general systems theory are distinct in some ways and similar in others. With
them, OSD stands on a sound body of knowledge with a deep legacy of practical application.”

What is Gestalt Organization

& Systems Development?
All About the O, the S, the D…
and of course, Gestalt
By Mary Ann Rainey Tolbert

OSD is unclear to many people. It puz- the influence of Gestalt psychologist Kurt Lewin. Both OD and

T
HIS THING CALLED
zles them, including some who have attended OSD pro- OSD share a value stance of humanistic change and a concern
grams. They cannot quite get it, beginning with the brand for creating better organizations by helping people who work in
Organization & Systems Development. Is it organization devel- them. Intervening from an OSD perspective falls within the
opment (OD) and if not, what is it? The truly uninformed looks domain of process consultation (Nevis, 1987).
at OSD practitioners as “odd,” “cultists,” even “outdated” General systems theory supports the OSD consultant in
because of the association with Gestalt therapy. The more curi- organizing the multiplicity of dynamics in organizations by
ous and polite tend to value the distinctiveness of the OSD viewing each human configuration — person, pair, group,
practitioner. Part of the reaction and response is warranted. Lit- region, etc. — as a clearly bounded, self-contained organism
tle is written about OSD outside of Gestalt Institute of Cleve- that interacts with an external environment.
land internal publications, documents, and educational materi- Gestalt, OD, and general systems theory are distinct in
als. This paper attempts to provide some clarity about OSD. It some ways and similar in others. More importantly, they are
explores the conceptual, theoretical, and methodological roots compatible. With them, OSD stands on a sound body of knowl-
of OSD and presents a summary of key OSD principles. edge with a deep legacy of practical application.
The OSD Program is based in Cleveland, Ohio. It is the first
training program of its kind to integrate principles of Gestalt, OD,
and general systems theory into a coherent curriculum for the THE BEGINNING
development of organizational change consultants, managers,
and administrators. Guided by the phenomenological premises The OSD story is a fascinating one. It is always a privilege
of Gestalt theories of learning and perception, OSD places the to listen to Edwin Nevis talk about how it all started. He speaks
consultant’s awareness at the center of the consulting process. with great pride as he recounts the day in the mid 1970s when
The strong emphasis on use of self suggests that OSD is more John Carter and Carolyn Lukensmeyer walked into his office at
a stance than a concrete set of tools and techniques. the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland and said, “Let’s do something
The OSD consultant has two goals in mind: serious about applying Gestalt to organizations” (Nevis, 2004).
1. To teach the client how to use Gestalt principles to At the time, Carter and Lukensmeyer, along with Leonard
improve its functioning Hirsh, were doctoral students of organizational behavior at
2. To create a compelling presence that captures the Case Western Reserve University. They had developed a pas-
client’s interest and excitement in the work. sion for Gestalt therapy and had become familiar with the OD
Enhancing organizational effectiveness is the idea behind consulting work of Nevis and Elaine Kepner who were faculty
OSD. As such, it has much in common with OD, beginning with at GIC. Hirsh was the most visible and vocal advocate for a

6 OD PRACTITIONER | VOL. 36 | NO. 4 | 2004

Gestalt focused training program. Everyone involved under- Key concepts and methods of Gestalt therapy that are
stood that unlike working with individuals, intervening in organ- central to OSD are:
izations involved the consideration of a broader scope of
The organism as whole
social, political, cultural, and economic forces. An approach
Presence and use of self
that integrated Gestalt principles, OD, and general systems
The unity of organism and environment
theory seemed to be what was needed. The OSD Program
Explication of here-and-now reality
filled the bill. The first brochure was distributed in 1977; the first
The dominance of the most urgent need
session began in January 1978.
The contact boundary as the locus of psychological
events

Aggression as a biological force
FRITZ PERLS AND GESTALT THERAPY
Creative indifference

The withdrawal into fertile void
“Gestalt” is a German term with a loose English translation
of “organized whole.” Gestalt psychology was a movement in
psychology founded in Germany in 1912 by Max Wertheimer, KURT LEWIN AND GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka. Formed in response to the-
ories of perception that analyzed perception and experience by What goes without debate is the relationship between
breaking them into parts, Gestalt psychology explained per- Gestalt psychology and OSD, though the connection between
ception in terms of gestalts. For example, it demonstrated that psychologist Kurt Lewin and Gestalt is seldom acknowledged.
when an individual sees an image of disconnected parts, there In many ways, Kurt Lewin can be regarded as the grand gen-
is an attempt to connect the parts and create something com- tleman of OSD. His reach extends across two OSD strands:
plete and whole — say, make it an animal or an object. The Gestalt (psychology and therapy) and OD.
same phenomenon occurs when one encounters disconnected While studying at Berlin University between 1924 and
dots or lines, even stars in the sky. Gestalt psychologists 1926, Lewin became intrigued by the emerging Gestalt psy-
sought to show that the human mind naturally seeks to per- chology, most notably, the notion of goal achievement and its
ceive things in wholes, not in parts. Gestalt principles would go impact on the release of tensions. One famous study con-
on to be used in numerous other fields, including learning, aes- ducted by protégé Bluma Zeigarnick found that people remem-
thetics, and psychotherapy. bered for a longer period of time the unfinished parts of a task
Fritz Perls created Gestalt therapy in the 1930s as a much better than they remembered finished parts. Lewin
protest against psychoanalysis. His experience as a Freudian explained this by saying that psychological tension is retained
analyst afforded him the insight and experience to critique and in the unfinished situation and this causes the task to be
influence the field of psychotherapy. Because Gestalt psychol- remembered. The phenomenon known as the “Zeigarnick
ogy preceded Gestalt therapy and because of the common Effect” was important to Lewin because it proved his theory of
name, Gestalt, many assume a strong connection between the psychodynamics and eventually led to his field theory. As ear-
two. This is the subject of some debate. According to Smith lier stated, Perls was also impressed with these findings.
(1976), Perls drew upon several disciplines — psychoanalysis, Lewin’s popularity grew. He began traveling in Europe and
Reichian character analysis, existential philosophy, Eastern the United States but had to flee Nazi Germany for the United
religion, and Gestalt psychology — as he developed “his” ther- States for good in 1933. By 1940, he was regarded as one of
apy. A lack of consensus exists about the extent to which the leading experimental and theoretical psychologists in the
Gestalt psychology influenced him (Henle, 1961). Enright country. The scope of his work was vast, ranging from mathe-
(1975) argues that Gestalt psychology was the least important matics to social science to leadership and management. It was
theoretical influence on Perls, but possibly the most current. while leading a conference on racial and religious prejudice in
Perls had more than a passing interest in the studies of
perception and learning being conducted by Gestalt psycholo- A UTHOR
gists at Berlin University. He credited Gestalt psychology with MARY ANN RAINEY TOLBERT, PhD, is an external
the concept of holism (Perls, 1969), which is a basic premise of
consultant specializing in executive coaching and
Gestalt therapy. Other major links between Gestalt psychology
development. She was a Vice President for Exelon Cor-
and Gestalt therapy can be found (Barlow, 1981).
poration. She holds a Ph.D. in Organizational Behavior
Perls collaborated with Paul Goodman, Laura Perls and
Isadore From to build a practice that focused on individual from Case Western Reserve University. Mary Ann co-
development and the treatment of neurosis (Nevis, 1987). Over chairs the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland’s International
time, principles of Gestalt therapy began to be applied to work OSD Program and teaches at Benedictine University.
with couples, families, groups, and eventually organizational She can be reached at: [email protected].
consulting.

OD PRACTITIONER | VOL. 36 | NO. 4 | 2004 7

What is Gestalt Organization & Systems Development? All About the O, the S, the D… and of course, Gestalt

Connecticut in 1946 that Lewin discovered the laboratory train-
Group process
ing or T-group methodology. The process involved feedback
Team building
and reflection about behavior in groups. The findings led Lewin
Organizational culture
to a theory of experiential learning and further confirmed the
Diversity and multiculturalism
phenomenological perspectives of Gestalt psychology.
Participative management
A theme that runs through all of Lewin’s work is the inte-
gration of theory and practice. His studies on authoritarian,
democratic, and laissez faire leadership styles seemed to be a GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY
personal quest for practical understanding of the psychological
dynamics of oppression and freedom (Kolb, 1984). Although The terms ‘system’ and ‘systems’ have been used in this
Lewin died in 1947, his ideas about education continued to be paper. What is meant by system is any autonomous entity that
studied and refined in Bethel, Maine, where the National Train- interacts with and is interdependent with its external environ-
ing Laboratories would be founded as a tribute to his work. ment as well as its own subsystem (Carter, 2000). For our pur-
In summary, principles of OSD from Gestalt psychology poses, we are speaking of human systems. Any system can be
and Lewin include but are not limited to: conceptually divided into levels of system. In organizations,

Zeigarnik Effect (completion) levels can be used to describe the organization, a division, a

Law of Pragnanz (closure) department, or a project group. The CEO or any individual is a

Theory of psychodynamics level of system with subsystems. Two people can constitute a

Field theory clearly demarcated level. The importance of this discussion is

Experiential learning theory that general systems theory equipped the organizational con-

Action research sultant with this frame of reference.

Leadership styles As Gestalt therapy was taking root, general systems the-

Stages of change ory was gaining acceptance. The idea that seemingly discon-

Organization development nected disciplines, including those focused on the study of
human behavior, could have something in common was yet
another radical movement of the early twentieth century. Gen-
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT eral systems theory ascended due in part to the erosion of
Newtonian physics. It was under the guidance of biologist Lud-
Lewin’s studies of group dynamics, action research, field wig von Bertalanffy that a “general systems” theory emerged
theory, and stages of change have earned the most practical that linked both hard and soft sciences. This theory sought to
acclaim and led many to regard him as the father of OD. Orga- describe the complexity of nature and the world by using a
nization development took shape during the sensitivity and T- common set of characteristics and terms. Instead of reducing
group movement in the 1960s. It is a process of planned an entity to the sum of its parts, it emphasized the relationship
change concerned about both people and organizational among the parts and their connection to the broader environ-
needs. Using theories and technologies of sociology, psychol- ment. A somewhat related notion was emerging in Gestalt cir-
ogy, education, economics, and management, OD attempts to cles. General systems theory has had an enormous impact on
manage or resolve real organizational problems. To its credit, how we think about organizations. We now recognize that
OD has retained the basic values related to human beings, organizations can be seen as “open” systems dependent upon
learning, and change that were so dear to Lewin. their environment for the satisfaction of various needs.
Organization development is a component of the underly-
ing process of OSD. When we think of OSD, we naturally think
of OD. After all, the three letters “OSD” represent OD with “Sys- ORGANIZATION AND SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
tems” in the middle. The founders had OD as a major lens
through which they imagined OSD. They were practicing OD Organization and Systems Development is a tapestry of
and had embraced the values, assumptions, and aspects of Gestalt psychology and therapy, organization development,
OD methodology. However, they did not want to restrict their and general systems theory. These threads inform OSD in dif-
vision to OD. In fact, the intent was to stretch beyond the orga- ferent ways yet exist with a degree of harmony. Gestalt psy-
nizational boundaries of OD. They were seeking a way to chology provides the knowledge of Gestalt while Gestalt ther-
enhance the way individuals intervene in all human systems, apy demonstrates ways in which that knowledge can be
whether large or small, whether working with an individual, a applied and practiced. Organization development offers a tem-
couple, a group, an organization, or beyond. plate for applying that knowledge in organizations whose func-
Basic concepts of OD important to OSD: tioning we now better understand because of general systems

Experiential learning theory. It is impossible to detail every influence on OSD. Those

Laboratory training central to the methodology will be discussed.

8 OD PRACTITIONER | VOL. 36 | NO. 4 | 2004

 F i g u r e 1: THE GESTALT CYCLE OF EXPERIENCE client sort through the maze of competing priorities. The Cycle
can be adapted for use in organizations. Although the process
of the Cycle is essentially the same for all levels of systems,
the activities are different. The steps reflect the degree of com-
plexity at a particular level. The steps involved in the Cycle at
Withdrawal Sensation
the organizational level — scanning, conceptualization,
energy, action, change, closure, and withdrawal — are con-
sistent with OD survey feedback methodology that relies on
Closure Awareness
data as an energizing force (Nevis, 1987).
Unit of Work. The cycle of experience is a model for track-
Energy ing naturally occurring, here-and-now phenomena. The OSD
model for more strategic, planned change is ‘unit of work.’ A
Contact unit of work is a clearly coherent and bounded experience,
Action process, or event. In an organizational context, unit of work can
represent completion of a project, a finished meeting, or the
The Gestalt Cycle of Experience is used to track the progress end of a conversation. Even moving from start to finish through
of an individual in satisfying needs and wants.
the Cycle is a unit of work.
A unit of work proceeds in four steps (Figure 2): 1) assess-
Organism/Environment Interaction. Concern for the ing what is 2) choosing what to attend to 3) acting on the choice,
relationship between the organism and environment is basic to and 4) closing out the activity. It is a model for designing change
Gestalt, OD, and general systems theory. Therefore, it is not initiatives and is similar to planned change models in OD. It
surprising that this is a core principle of OSD. In Gestalt, the involves working with intent, looking at change in its wholeness,
interplay between organism and environment is driven by the and completing tasks. It stems from the work of Gestalt psy-
attempt by the organism to satisfy some need or want. Need chologists, particularly regarding the Ziegarnick Effect.
satisfaction is a process that involves a series of steps as high- Awareness and Presence. At the core of Perls’ transition
lighted in the following example: from psychoanalysis was the value he placed on here-and-now
behavior. Working in the here and now is also a primary char-
In the healthy organism, many needs are present at acteristic of OD. To work in the here and now, one must have
any given time. These needs emerge (sensation) an active state of consciousness. In other words, one must be
from the ‘ground’ and naturally organize themselves aware. Awareness is the centerpiece of OSD. The OSD mantra
into a hierarchy of importance. The most dominant could very well be “awareness, awareness, awareness.”
need develops clarity (awareness) and becomes Effective use of awareness involves a strong presence on
uppermost ‘figure.’ The organism searches its envi- the part of the intervener. Personal, subjective, here-and-now
ronment for the object to satisfy the need (energy). experience is selectively shared in the service of the work. The
When the object is found, the organism acts to satisfy goal is to make a difference in the client system by providing a
the need (action). The organism interacts with the presence and teaching the Cycle. Presence compels the inter-
object and change occurs (contact). Once the need vener to bring herself fully to the consulting process. The enor-
is satisfied (closure), the figure diminishes in impor- mous emphasis that OSD places on awareness and presence is
tance (withdrawal) and eventually recedes back into one element that differentiates OD and OSD with all things equal.
the ground. A state of equilibrium is reached until Resistance and the Paradoxical Theory of Change.
another figure forms. The energy required for satis- Yet, with the most engaged and helpful intervener, uninhibited
faction of this need is now available to be directed movement through the Cycle is rare. Nevis (1987) assumes
toward the next dominant need (Barlow, 1981). that when people say they want to satisfy a need or change in
one direction, some part of them, however small, wants to stay
Cycle of Experience. The process of need fulfillment is the same or move in another direction. Humans have a need
depicted in Gestalt as a ‘Cycle of Experience’ (Figure 1). The to both seek and resist change.
Gestalt intervener uses the Cycle to track an individ-
F i g u r e 2: UNIT OF WORK
ual’s movement or non-movement through the steps
and heightens awareness about observed behavior.
Throughout organizations, individuals are Completed task
Choosing Acting Closing
attempting to satisfy a multiplicity of needs — close a Assessing Resolved issue
what to on the out the
“what is”
merger, install a new technology system, eat lunch. attend to choice activity Learning experience
Numerous Cycles are also at play at various levels of
system. It is the job of the OSD consultant to help the Beginning Middle End

OD PRACTITIONER | VOL. 36 | NO. 4 | 2004 9

What is Gestalt Organization & Systems Development? All About the O, the S, the D… and of course, Gestalt

Gestalt honors this ambivalence as indicative of the exis- standing of OSD by providing an overview of its conceptual,
tence of multiple realities. In fact, resistance is best understood theoretical, and methodological underpinnings. Organization
as energy in multiple directions. One part of the system values and Systems Development represents a unique blend of prin-
and wants to move in this direction while the other part values ciples of Gestalt therapy and psychology, OD, and general sys-
and wants to move in that direction. Each side experiences the tems theory. OSD is practiced in human systems at all levels,
other as resisting, which clearly illustrates that resistance is in in a variety of fields, and across numerous professions, cul-
the eye of the beholder. tures, and countries.
The OSD practitioner is further guided by the paradoxical Principles of OSD can be incorporated into any type of inter-
theory of change (Beisser, 1970). It states that change begins vention, consultation or management style. The Gestalt Institute
not by attending to the future state of “what might be” but by of Cleveland is a pioneer in the application of Gestalt theory and
attending to the present state of “what is.” The point is, change methodology to the field of OD and consultation. For more than
does not occur through an effort to be something else. It begins 30 years, professionals have come to Cleveland and its satellite
with acknowledgement of the “status quo.” The theory is para- locations (many international) to become better interveners.
doxical because it encourages us not to change but to become Hopefully, they will continue to come for 30 years more. ■
more fully who we are.
Boundaries. The influence of general systems theory on
OSD is evident in a discussion of boundaries. Here we have
organism, environment, and subsystems — all defined though REFERENCES
the bounding process. The nature of the relationship between
the organism and its environment is a condition of boundaries. Barlow, A. R. (1981). Gestalt therapy and Gestalt psychology:
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place at the boundary between the organism and its environ- Journal, Vol. IV, No. 2.
ment, which is referred to as the “contact boundary.” Inter- Carter, J. (2000). OSD 2000: Organization & Systems Devel-
vening from a Gestalt perspective is a very intentional act of opment program 1998-2000. Cleveland: Gestalt Institute
disturbing this contact boundary. internal educational document.
Any change made to the boundary or in the bounding De Board, R. (1978). The psychoanalysis of organizations: A
process will always provoke resistance. Of all the boundaries psychoanalytic approach to behaviour in groups and organ-
to influence, the OSD practitioner must determine the one that izations. London: Tavistock Publications Limited.
holds the greatest potential for learning and growth. Enright, J. B. (1975). An introduction to Gestalt therapy. In
The OSD Consulting Stance. The following summarizes Stephenson, F. D. (Ed.). Gestalt therapy primer. Springfield,
the OSD consulting stance: IL: Thomas.

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supporting the completion of units of work, modeling the Vol. 8, No. 4.
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Copyright © 2004 by the Organization Development Network, Inc. All rights reserved.