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A Himalayan Books Presentation
Published in 2006 by Pawan Chowdhri and Bhupinder Chowdhri
for Himalayan Books, New Delhi 110013
Distributed by
The English Book Store
17-L, Connaught Circus, New Delhi- 110001
Tel: 2341 7126,23415031,2341 7936
Fax: 091-11-23417731
E-mail: [email protected]
© IC Joshi (Group Captain Retd)
Dedicated to
First Published 2007
Second Edition 2008

My parents, family members and
First Reprint 2009

specially to Mehak, Uday, Nitya and Gauri
Third Edition 2010
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any
information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher
Typeset by
Mindways Design
I.'
Printed and Bound at
Thakur Enterprises, Delhi
ISBN 81-7002-099-9
CON,TENTS
. ~ . . ' .
Acknowledgements
xi
Preface
xiii
. 1.. Atmosphere
1
.''1.. Atmospheric Pressure
12
3. Temperature
26
4.. Air Density
36
5. Humidity 40
6. Winds 44
7. Visibility and Fog 65
8. Vertical Motion and ClolJds. .
73
· .9.. .Stability and Instability of Atmosphere
85
···10. . OpticalPhenomen~ 93
· \ 11.' Precipitation 100
. ·)2... Ice Accretion 105
13. Thunderstorm 110
~4~: \ Air Masses .Fronts and Western Disturbances 125
15. <Jet Streams. .. 136
16. Clear Air Turbulence 143
17. Mountain Waves 145
18. Tropical Systems.
150
19.· Climatology of India
164
ZOo . General Circulation . .
181
21. Meterological Services for Aviation 188
·.'22.. Weather Radar and Met Satellites 198
23.. Met Insttufuents· ... 204
24 . Stat:ion'Model . 206
I
I
CONTENTS CONTENTS
25. Aviation Weather Reports and Codes of Metar Sped and Trend 217 Appendix]
26. Aviation Weather Forecasts (Codes of Aerodrome Forecast,
231 . Synoptic Systems 274
Area Forecast and Route Forecast)
AppendixK
27. Radar Report, Sigmet Message and Satellite Bulletin 244 Fujita Scale of Tornado, Saffir-Simpson Scale and
T Classification of CS 276
28. Flight Forecast (Tabular Form) and Cross Section Forecast 250
AppendixL
of Route Conditions (Samples)
International Station Code Names 277
AppendixM
Appendix A
Miscellaneous Terms 278
Meteorological Charts 253
AppendixN
AppendixB 279
'v Meteorological Scales and Meteorological Divisions of India
Satellite Imageries 255
AppendixC
Synoptic Chart (Computer Plotted) 257 Index 281
AppendixD !- References 286
Clouds 258
AppendixE
Abbreviations in Weather Bulletin;
Rainfall Distribution and Intensity 260
AppendixF
ICAO Abberviations 262
AppendixG ~
Plotted station models for practice 266
Appendix H-l
Mean Sea Level Pressure Analysis 267
Appendix H-2
850 hPa Winds 268
Appendix H-3
850 hPa Streamline Analysis 269
Appendix H-4
500 hPa Contour Chart 270
Appendix H-5
300 hPa Winds 271
Appendix H-6
Prognostic Significant Weather Chart 272
Appendix I
Weather Associated With Fronts 273
ACKNOWLEDG EMENTS
"\
My sincere thanks are due to the trainees of Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi,
Raebareli (UP) for inspiring me to compile this book. The odd questions they and
other students used to ask from time to time, made me to refer to the available
literature in Meteorology in various libraries, websites and Publications of IMD,
WMO and ICAO. .
Thanks are due to my daughter-in-Iaws Vibha and Abha· for helping me in
computerizing the text, tables and
. . diagrams.
~
To my wife Kamla and sons Jiten and Pankaj for encouraging me to write this book.
Last but not the
I
least to thanks to.. Mr B Chowdhry of English Book Stores for
motivation and valuable suggestions.
(Ie Joshi)
PREFACE
,r
Meteorology is the, science of atmosphere. All weather activities occur in the

lowest portion of the atmosphere, called the Troposphere. International and local
flying activities are confined to this region only. An aviator has, therefore, to
understand the weather phenomenon which occur in the region and influence Air
Operations.
.This book deals in brief with the various aspect of weather which are essential for
an aviator. The Definitions, Terminology, Codes used in the book are based on the
standard publications of World Met Organisation, International Civil Aviation
:'-
. . Meteorological Department.
Organisation (Annex -3) and India
The chapters cover syllabus prescribed by the Director General of Civil Aviation
(India) for Pilots and by the Chatrapati Sahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur for BSc
(Aviation). Frequently asked qu~stions by the trainees and their answers have also
been included. Important chapters like Met Services for Aviation and Aviation Codes
are considered useful for the trainees to interpret Met information provided to them
by the Met Offices.
The compiler of this book has experience in Aviation Meteorology, of about 34 years
in the Indian Air Force as a Forecaster and as a Mednstructor. He has served for
seven years as Ground Instructor (Aviation Met) and for one year as Chie( Ground
Instructor at Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (IGRUA), Fursatgang, Raebareli,
Up, which is a premier and reputed Flying Akademi in India for imparting training .
to the Pilots and to the BSc (Aviation) students. The author has closely observed
the weather from the ground and equally from the air. Some of the material in the
book is his own experience and some from the interaction with the air crew and
their debriefings.
PREFACE
It is hoped that the book will be of value and guidance for the aspiring pilots, BSc
(Aviation) students, for those appearing in various examinations for licences, and
for the Met personnel.
The contents of this book are intended to be of general guidance· and are not to
be quoted as authority. Readers are advised to refer to the original documents and 1
standard books on meteorology and IMD web sites www.imd.gov.in or

www.mausam.gov.in for detailed information. Suggestions for improvement are
welcome.
ATMOSPHERE
Encouraged by the response for the book from CPUATPL aspirents, Met personnel
and aviators, the Third Edition, a revised and imp,oved version, of the book is
presented.
This Third Edition and one Reprint in three years period is clear indication of its COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
popularity and usefulness. In fact a personal copy of the book would be useful
throughout the career of an Aviator.
· Atmosphere
Atmosphere of the earth is an envelop of homogeneous mixture of gases, called Air.
(IGJoshi)
It surroundsthe. earth and is attached to it due to earth gravitation. The atmosphere
Group Captain (Retd)
· moves with the earth at the same speed and direction. It appears to have no upper
March,.2010 E-mail: [email protected]
limits~.H9wever,a very Jarge portion of the atmosphere is confined within a few
kilometers of the surface.
Characteristics
. The "tmosphere has weight and hence exerts pressure. It is compressible and
· expandable. It Qccupies space and h"s no definite
, . shape. It is mobile in which
transfer of heat and moisture occurs;
Composition
Air. Air isa mixture of gases~ For allpractical purposes dry air is,a uniform, mixture
of rhe followings gases:
· Nitr9gen 78.08%, Oxygen ib.9S%, Argon 0.93% and Carbon dio~ide 0.0350/0.
Traces' of: Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton,' Nitrous Oxide, Hydrogen, Ozone
(0.000007%) and Xerion.
1
AVIATION METEOROLOGY
ATMOSPHERE
Nitrogen and Oxygen constitute almost 990/0 of the air. Their ratio by proportion is
Carbon Dioxide (C02)
Nitrogen: Oxygen : : 4 : 1 by Volume CO2 is produced by burning of fuel, wood etc. Its concentration is substantial in
Nitrogen: Oxygen : : 3 : 1 by Weight industrial areas, whereas in Polar regions and higher qltitudes it is negligible. A large
Due to rapid reduction of gases with height, supplementary Oxygen is needed above amount of COzis dissolved in the oceans. Plants absorb CO2, use its carbon as food
and release 02 into the atmosphere.
10,000 ft.
The atmosphere is generally well mixed. It has a nearly similar composition up to Ozone (03)
a height of about 80 km, due to earth gravitation. The atmosphere up to 80 km Ozone forms in the upper atmosphere. It absorbs the Ultra Violet (UV) radiation
is called the Homosphere and above it the Hetrosphere. At about 20-25 km, from the Sun, and raises temperature. 0 3 molecules then becomeheavier and sirik
however, there is high concentration of Ozone. and accumulate in the lower levels. Appreciaple ozone is found between 10 and 50
km, with maximum concentration at 20 to 25 km.
Important Variable Gases. In addition to the above gases the atmosphere also
contains: Water Vapour, Carbon Mono Oxide, Sulphor di Oxide, and Nitrogen di °
Ozone Hole. In recent times the 3 layer has thinned and large holes have developed
Oxide. These gases vary in amount from place to place, being concentrated more . mainly over the Polar and other latitudes due to atmospheric pollution and excessive
in industrial areas, cities having heavy vehicular traffic, water bodies, etc, than in use of Chlorofluoro Carbons.
open areas.
Solid Particles
Though very small in quantity, Water vapour, CO2 and Ozone are very significant In addition to the above gases the atmosphere contains particles such as salt from
for weather and life. They cause green house effect which keeps the earth warm. evaporating sea water, dust from arid regions, industrial and similar other
These gases are also known as Green House gases. Ozone protects us from the ill particles. They obscure solar radiation and affect visibility and temperature.. They
effects (like skin cancer) of Ultra Violet radiation from the Sun. also act as nuclei which promote condensation of water vapour, prematurely. In
larger cities and industrial areas frequent fog and smog (a mixture of fog and smoke)
Dry Air and Saturated Air
is due to the high concentration of such particles.
Water in the. atmosphere can exist in three states-solid (Snow, Ice, Hail), liquid
(Drizzle, Rain, Shower) and gas (Water Vapour). The concentration of water vapour Green House Gases
rapidly decreases with height. The amount of water vapour that air can contain Water vapour and CO2 absorb certain wavelengths of terrestrial (earth) radiation,
largely depends on its temperature. Warmer air can hold greater amount of water and reradiate them towards the earth. They cause green h.ouse effect, which keeps
vapour. the earth warmer than it would have otherwise been. Water vapour, CO , Ozone
2
and some other gases are called Green House gases. These are causing Global
The water vapour amount can be as much as 4% in the tropics ( region between
Warming, which is a serious threat to our life and needs to be limited.
23 % N to 23 % S), and almost negligible in the Polar regions or higher altitudes
above 30,000 ft, due to very low temperatures. Vertical Distribution of Air Mass
With 4% water vapour the air termed as Saturated Air and has 100 % Relative Due to gravitational attraction, the approximate distribution of airmass with height is:
Humidity (RH). When RH is < 100 %, the air is Unsaturated and is called Dry Air.
1/2 of the air mass is contained below 6 km,
3/4 below 10 km and 99 % below 35 km
2 :!
ATMOSPHERE
AVIATION METEOROlOGY
does not continue till the end ofthe atmosphere. There are changes in the temperature
THERMAL STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE in various layers of the atmosphere.
Solar rays heat the earth and the earth in turn heats up the atmosphere by c6nduction, Satellite and Space flights have confirmed that based on temperature distribution,
convection, radiation and release of latent heat by condensation of water vapour. the atmosphere has reasonably well defined horizontal layers, as follows:
The flow of heat from the earth surface to the atmosphere is due to: Troposphere
Sensible Heat (Conduction, Convection, Radiation) 230/0 Troposphere is the lowest portion of the atmosphere. It extends to 16-18 km over
Latent Heat (Evaporation, Condensation, Sublimation) the Equator and 8-10 km over the Poles. In this layer the temperatures generally
77 0/0
falls with height, called lapse rate, at about 6.SoC/km. However, in the actual
Due to absorption of.solar radiation, the atmospheric layers close to the ground atmosphere the lapse rate could be quite different. It may fall or rise with height
are warmer than the layers above. Hence temperature falls with height. This trend (inversion) or remain the same (isothermal). Troposphere is generally unstable. Most
... of the weather is confined to this region and so is the flying. About 70% of the
atmosphere lies within troposphere.
I
I<
c· C The Troposphere from surface to 2.1 km is called Lower Troposphere, 2.1 km to
o.
r
1\ 7.6 km Mid Troposphere and 7.6 km to tropopause Upper Troposphere.
-I 0
r S The equator is much warmer than the poles, and tropopause' is much higher at
... p
r equator. Hence warmer the surface higher is the height of the tropopause.
80 H
[
":/ The solar radiation heat up the earth surface, which in turn heats the lower atmosphere.
.. E Also the surface hot air rises up and transfers heat to the atmosphere by conduction
, convection, radiation and release of latent heat due to condensation. The atmosphere
E
.::I. ] is thus heated from below and not from above, and temperature falls with height.
I .50 ,use /
.r:
- The word tropos means turning and the frequent overturning causes weather,
1 /// S
.r::. namely the gusts, bumpiness, clouds, thunderstorms, rain, depressions, cyclones etc.
CD P
'ij) f- Tropopause It is the top of the troposphere and marks the boundary between
% E
I~ troposphere and str~tosphere. At this level the lapst rate reduces to 1-2°C/km or
F temperature stops falling with height. Above tropopause the temperatures are higher
10 over the poles than over the equator. Thus, there is reversal of temperature and
TIO density above 8 km.
Sometimes there are two or more tropopauses, one overlapping the other. The height
·qO· C .56.S" C 15" C of tropopause varies season to season and also from one synoptic situation to the other.
Temperature There are breaks in tropopause, at different levels, at about 40° lat and 60° lat, where
Jet streams occur. These breaks broadly divide the tropopause into three sections.
Figure 1.1. Thermal Structure ofAtmospher
5
4
ATM0SPHERE
Polar Tropopause. This occurs near 300 hPa level polewards of Lat. 45° to 60°. It Thermosphere
, .J':"'~ .
may be noticed occasionally over Sri~agar Gammu and Kashmir) during winters
Thermosphere extends from Mesopause to the outermost fringe of the atmosphere,
when polar air incursion takes place. The Polar Front Jet Stream is found at the
in which temperatures increase with height; It is also called the Exhosphere. In this
southern end of this Tropopause, at the break.
layer the air is very thin and few molecules are present. These molecules may be
Tropical Tropopause. This is usually at 100 hPa level. It extends from the equator very active and have very high temperature. But since these are few and are far apart,
to Lat. 35°-40°. Over India it is found at about 16-16.5 km. Above this there is very little heat is present in this layer. At 200 km temperature is about 600° C and
inversion. during sunspot maxima 'about 2000° C. In this layer UV and X rays cause io~isat1on
of gases, and the portion above 60 km is called the Ionosphere. The density of ions
Middle Tropopause. This occurs near 200 hPa and is sandwiched between the Polar increases with height, being maximum at 250-500 km. Ionosphere is-important for
and Tropical Tropopause. In India it occurs over ~he extreme N at about 11.5 km radiowavepropagation by reflecting them back to th~ earth and propagating them
with temperature of about -45°C. It may be noticed as south'as 23~ in winters. The hundreds of kilometers away from their origin. Serious interference in radio
Sub Tropical Jet Stream is found at the break between Middle and Tropical Tropopause. prorogation occurs during solar disturbances, during which there is absorption
ofradio waves.
Stratosphere {)
The layer above the tropopause, up to 50 km, is the stratosphere. Initially for 8-10 (Note :The Tropopause, Stratopause and Mesopause merely represent zones between the layers
km the layer is isothermal. Above this height temperature increa:se s~owly and then where vertical temperature distribution changes. The above vertical temperatur~ distribution
sharply towards the top of the layer. The rise in t,emperature is due to the absorption is of an average atmosphere. In day to day situations it can be quite different ~ue to the systems
of UV rays by ozone and oxygen. Stratosphere is a very stable region with low like cyclones, air pollution, clouds, thunderstorm, frost, dew, Volcaoi~ Ash etc.)
humidity and no weather. Nacreous Clouds or Mother of Pearl Clouds,are seen International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
infrequently in upper stratosphere in higher latitudes in winters. They are probably
composed of ice crystals and water vapour. A standard average atmosphere has been specified for various purposes like the
desigri and testing of aircraft, evaluation of aircraft performance, calibration of
Stratopause. It is the upper boundary of the Stratosphere. 'altimeters, etc. It is a hypothetical atmosphere, which approximately corresponds
to the average state of the atmosphere.
Mesosphere
The most widely used atmosphere is the one defined by the ICAO, known as the
It extends from Stratopause to 80 km. Lack of absorption of solar radiation and
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Its specifications are:
weak vertical mixing causes temperatures to fall with height in this layer. On rare
occasions Noctilucent Clouds are seen in the upper Mesosphere at about 80 km, • Air is Dry
in Polar regions. These clouds care probably composed ofice crystals or supercooled • Temperature at Mean sea level 15°C (288.15 K)
water droplets. • Pressure at Mean sea level 1013.25 hPa
• Density at ,Mean Sea Level 1225 g / 'uJ3
Mesopause • . Acceleration due to gravity 980.665 cm/s2
The top of the mesosphere is mesopause. At this level temperatures stop falling. • Lapse rate up to 11 km . 6.5°Clkm
The Lowest temperatures, about - 90° C, in the atmosphere occur at Mesopause. • . Temperature is assumed constant -56.5°C from 11 km to 20 km.
• From 20 km t;.o 30 km there is a rise of temperature at the rate of 1°C/ km
with a temperature of -44.5°C at 32 km
6
1
ATMOSPHERE
Q9.. CO2 and H 20 are also called ...........
ISA Deviation: For evaluating aircraft performance or making corrections to

(a) Green House Gases (b) Rare Earth Gases
instruments, the actuals are compared with ISA values, called ISA D.eviation. If the
QI0. Troposphere is generally ...........
ob~erved temperature is 08°C warmer than ISA, the deviation is + 08°C.
(a) Stable. (b) Unstable- (c) Neutral

(To find ISA Deviation subtract ISA value from Actual value)
Q11. Stratosphere is ...........
(a) Unstable (b) Neutral (c) Stable

Jet Standard Atmosphere GSA)
The ISA values are quite satisfactory for aircraft operating below 30,000 ft, but not
Q12. Tropopause is discontinuous at about " ........ ..
above this level. For space flights and very high altitude flying and engine manufacturing
(a) 30 lat
0
(b) 40 1at0
(c) 60 lat
0
additional specific values are required. To meet these requirements JSA was introduced,
Q13. Most of atmospheric mass. is contained in ....... : ...
as follows:
(a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere (e) Hetrosphere
• Mean sea level temperature 15°C (288. 15°K) Q14. Stratosphere extends from Tropopause, to ........... .
• Lapse Rate 2°CI 1000 ft (a) 50 km (b) 60 km (c) 40 km

• There is no Tropopause Q15: The middle atmosphere layer with' temperature inversion and stability ...........
(a) Troposphere . (b) Tropopause (c) Stratosphere

Q!JESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERE
Q16. Mother of P~arl clouds occur ifi ...........
Q1. Lowest layer of atmosphere is ...........

. .(a) Mesosphere (b) Thermosphere (c) Stratosphere
(a) Troposphere (b) Tropopause (c) Stratosphere Q17. The temperature in ISA at 17 km is ...........
Q2. Height of Tropopause at equator is ......... ..

(a) -56.5°C (b) .,..65.5° C (c) -35.5° C
(a) 10-12 km (b) 16-18 km (c) 12-14 km Q18.By weight, approximate ratio of 02 to N2 in the atmosphere is ............
. Q3. Height of Tropopause at Poles is ...........

(a) 1:3 . (b) 1:4 (c) 1:5
(a) 12-14 km (b) 12-13 km (c) 08-10 km Q19. By volume, the approximate ratio of 02 to N2 in the atmosphere is ......... ..
Q4. Higher the surface temperature ....... ~ ... would be the tropopause
(a) 1 : 3 ' (b) 1 : 4 · (c) 1:5
(a) Higher (b) Lower (c) Same Q20. By volume, the proportion of CO 2 in the atmosphere is ......... ..
Q5. Height of tropopause ...........

(a)3% (b) 0.3% (c) 0.030/0
(a) Is constant (b) Varies with altitude (c) Varies with Latitude
Q21. In IsA; the mean sea level- temperature is ...........
Q6. Above 8 km the lower temperatures are over ......... ..

(a) 15°C '(b) 10° C (c) 25°C
(a) Equator (b) Mid Latitudes (c) Poles
Q22. Maximum concentration of ozone is at a height of ...........
Q7. Atmosphere is heated by ...........

(a)10-15 km (~) 20-25 km . (c) 30~35 km
(a) Solar RadiatiolJ. (b) Heat from earth surface (c) From above
. Q23. Additional oxygen is needed while flying above ...........
Q8. Tropos means ...........

(a) 5000 ft (b) 7000 ft (c) 10000 ft
(a) Turning (b) Under current (e) Convection
9
o
ATMOSPHERE
" ANSWERS
Q24. CO2 and H 20 keep the atmosphere .....•.....
(a)Warm (b) Cold (c) Have no effect 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Q. 1 2 3 4
a c a b a a b c b a
Q25. Noctilucent clouds occur in A. a b c
(a) Thermosphere (b) Mesosphere (c) Stratosphere 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Q. 14 15 16 17
c a a b c a b c a b c
Q26. Temperature at 2 km is 05°C what is ISA deviation. Hint : (Actual - ISA) A. a c
(a) -OSOC (b) -02° C (c) 03°C 31 32 33 34 35
Q. 27 28 29 30
Q27. Pressure at MSL is 1002.25 hPa. Find the ISA deviation Hint: (Actual - ISA) a c c b a a c a c
A.
(a) -11 hPa (b) 10 hPa (c) 12 hPa
Q28. In actual atmosphere temp. at 19 km is -60°C. Find the ISA deviation?

(a) -4.SOC (b) -05.5° C (c) -03.5°C
Q29. Nacreous clouds occur in

(a) Thermosphere (b) Mesosphere (c) Upper Stratosphere
Q30. The atmosphere up to 80 km has a nearly similar composition and is called the
Homosphere. Its uniform composition is due to
(a) Pressure (b) Gravitation of earth (c) Mixing due to turbulence
Q31. Half of the atmospheric air mass is contained ........... below
(a) 20,000 ft (b) 15,000 ft (c) 10,000 ft
Q32. In jet standard atmosphere the Lapse Rate is :'

(a) 2°C 11000 ft (b) 2°C 1 km (c) 5°C 1 km
Q33. The rate of fall of temperatures with height, called

(a) Isothermal rate (b) Inversion Rate (c) Lapse Rate
Q34. In actual atmosphere the lapse rate could

(a) assume any value (b) fall up to 8 km. (c) rise up to 50 km
_Q3S. Tropical Tropopause extends from the equator to Lat. 35°-40°. Over India it is
found at about ... ........... Above this there is inversion.
(a) 20-21 km (b) 14-15 k m . r (c) 16-16.5kmAnswers
11
10
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Vertical Variation of Pressure
Heidht in km
. ATMOSPHERIC P.RESSURE
6km
Static and Dynamic Pressure
When air is at rest its molecules are in random motion all over. The pressure 'exerted Pressure '..
by these molecules is uJ;1iform in all directions. This pressure is called Static,Pressure
Figure 2.1 Variation ofPressure with Height
or Barometric Pressure. If the air is in motion an addi.tional pressure is exerted in
the direction opposite to the flow. This is called Dynamic Pressure or Wind Pressure.
Wind pressure is used in the design of air speed indicator. The pressure decreases with height, at a decreasing rate, from sea level to 600 m
at 40/0, up to 1.5 km at 3% and'up to 3 km 2.5%. At 6 km it reduces to half the
Pressure as Weight of the Air Above value at sea leveL At 100 km it is negligible and can be regarded as vacuum.
The atmospheric pressure at any level is the weight of the column of air of unit'
cross-section extending vertically upwards to the top of the' atmosphere. As the
Feet per hPa change of pressure = 96 TIp feet
weight decreases with height, the pressure also decreases with height. leAO, has Using above equation, a pressure changes of 1 hPa at pressure 1000 hPa with
adopted hecto ~ascal (hPa) as the unit ofatmospheric pressure, in place of millibar temperature 300K, would be:
(mb). The other units are em, mm or inches. '
96*300/1000 =:= 28.8 ft
The'Air pressure changes cause ears to pop up when traveling over significantly
varying topography and during rapid desce~t of an aircraft. Variation of Pressure in Warm and Cold Air
Warm air is less ·dense than the cold. The pressure will fall at a faster pace over
Relationship between Pressure and Altitude a cold column of air than over a warm column of air. A pressure value, say 850
Roughly, 1 hPa change in pressure is equivalent to: hPa, will be at a higher height over a warm column than over a c61dcolumn,see
Figure 2.2. Therefore, where:: upper air mean temperatures are higher, upper air
atMSL 27 ft at 20,000 ft 50 ft pressur~ are high and where mean temperatures are low, the upper air pressures
at 4.000 ft 30 ft . • at 40,000 ft 100ft. are low.
12 .....
AVIATION METEOROLOGY ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
WARM 850 hPa ma~

COLD max
5000 Ft 5000 Ft
WARM
850 hPa
COLD
1000 hPa min
WARM min
1000 hPa COLD
ISA
Isobaric Levels are at Lower Height over

PRESSURE
Cold Column than over Warm Column
Hence at higher Levels Low Over Cold

O.l.(l(l 1000 l<lOO 2201) -----...
Column and High over Warm Column
Local Time
Figure 2.2 Variation ofPressure in Warm and Cold Air Figure 2.3 Semi-Diurnal Variation ofPressure
Semi Diurnal Variation of Pressure Measurement

The atmospheric pressure follows a wavy pattern during 24 h, showing maximum Pressure is accurately measured by Mercury barometer in which atmospheric pressure
at 1000 hr (primary) and 2200 hr (secondary) and minimum at 0400 hr and 1600 is balanced by the height of the mercury column. Aneroid barometer is another
hr .local time, as shown in Figure 2.3. The variation cbuld be as much as 3-4 hPa instrument which is used for measuring pressure. Although aneroid barometer is
between maximum and minimum. Such variations are very small at the Poles and not as accurate as mercury baromet-er, but for its ease of handling and coilVenience,
large at Equator due to solar 'influence. It is of little importance in mid and high it is widely used. Altimeter is an aneroid barometer in which the scale is graduated
latitudes, being over shadowed by the travelling weather systems. In low latitudes to read altitude instead of pressure. Altimeter has a sub-scale, which can be set to
it assumes considerable importance. the desired value of pressure. For continually recording the pressure a Barograph
,is used. It could be a Daily Barograph or Weekly Barograph.
When the temperature is highest in the afternoon, the density of air dose to the
ground is low. Hence the pressure is lowest. At about sunrise when the temperature Altimeter Correction (Alticor/D Value)
is lowest, the pressure is highest. There is however, a p~ase difference of about 3 The correction applied to the indicated altitude to obtain the true altitude is called
hour between the temperature and the pressure. A departure from these regular' altitude correction/altimeter correction or in short ALTICOR. This is frequently
oscillations is often an indication of the apprQaching bad weather/ storm. required during mountain flying and bombing operations.
~
Semi diurnal variation of pressure is probably a natural oscillation of the atmosphere, Alticor = Indicated Altitude - True Altitude
having a period of almost 12 hours. It is excited and maintained by the temperature Negative of Alticor is termed as D Value
variation during 24 hr. As the air is continuous, if there is ahigh pressure on one
side of the globe, there should be a low on the other side. With the rotation of the I.e D Value = True Altitude - Indicated Altitude
earth, the pressures also rotate. Hence, two maxima and two minima during 24 hr. D value decreases when aircraft flies from High to Low
14
15
Rough calculations of Altimeter Correction
Pressure Tendency and Isallobars
(a) Due to Pressure difference from ISA. Add 30ft for every 1 hPa difference
. The change of pressure with time is called pressure tendency. In India pressure
when MSL pressure is higher than 1013.2 hPa and subtract 30 ft when
tendency is worked out for the past 24 hr and in the higher latitudes for the past
lower than 1013.2 hPa.
three hours of the current observation. The lines joining equal pressure change are
(b) Due to Temperature difference from ISA. Add 10/0 of indicated altitude
called Isanobars. At a glance the isallobars, indicate areas of rising or falling pressure.
for every difference of 3°C when actual temperature is higher than ISA
These a~e used as forecasting aid for movement and intensification! weakening of
at the Flight Level and subtract when lower than ISA.
a pressure system. The region of greatest fall enclosed by isallohars is termed as
(c) Add these algebraically to get the final correction.
Isallobaric Low and the r~gion of highest rise, the Isallobaric high.
Contours and Thickness
ALTIMETRY
The mean temperatures of vertical columns of air differ from .,station to station.
Accordingly the height of the columns, of a pressure value (say 850 hPa), would
Definitions
also differ. The lines joining places of equal height are called Contours. Since low
mean temperature corresponds to Low pressure at higher levels, the areas of low A.ltitude. It is the vertical distance from the mean sea level (MSL).
contour would also be areas of low pressure and vice versa. The Contour lines may Height. It is the vertical distance from a specific datum (e.g. from the ground).
also be treated as isobars.
Elevation. It is the vertical distance of a point or a level on the surface of the earth
In Contour Charts isopleths of contours are drawn at an interval of 40 gpm from MSL. .
(geopotential meter) in ~OO hPa and 500 hPa level charts and at 80 gpm in 300 hPa
and 200 hPa level charts. A gpm is gravitational potential energy per unit mass, called Transition Altitude (TA). This is the highest altitude below which an aircraft will
geopotential meter. 1 gpm = 9.8 jules/kg. The contour lines are numbered in . always fly on local QNH. At or below TA the vertical position of an .aircraft is
geopotential decametres e.g. 5280 gpm is indicated as 528. If the gpm is 700, then controlled with reference to height above the aerodrome.
an air parcel is located approximately 700 m above msl. Centres of Low and High Transition Level (TL). The lowest Flight Level above which an aircraft will always
are marked as in surface pressure charts. (Sample Contour chart at Figure fly on standard QNH 1013.2 hPa. Above TL the vertical position of an aircraft is
Appendix H.4).' from datum 1013.2 hPa. TL is expressed in hundreds of feet.
The height interval between the lower and the upper level is called Thickness of Transition Layer. The airspace between T A and TL.
the layer. Low thickness occurs where mean temperature of the layer is low and
high thickness where mean temperature of the layer is higher. Thus the isopleths Flight Level. These are levels of constant pressure at 'or above the TL separated
of thickness coincide with the isotherms of mean temperature of the layer. by a pressure interval corresponding to 5000 ft, with MSL pressure as 1013.25 hPa.
(e.g. FL5Q = 5,000 ft, FL300 = 30,000 it, FL200 ::;:;, 20,000 ft).
Pressure Gradient
Pressure Altitude. When the altimeter sub-scale is set to 1013.2 hPa the altimeter
It is the horizontal.rate of change of pressure perpendicular to the isobars, directed indicates Pressure Altitude. Using 1013.2 hPa setting avoids the need to update
from high to low pressure. Isobar is the line joining places of equal pressure. It is QNH.
steep or weak according as the isobars are close or far apart. Pressure gradi~nt is
Pressure Altitude is expressed as e.g. 3500, 19000,40000, etc., whereas the altitude
said"to be flat when it changes slowly and isobars are far apart..
is expressed (by avoiding last two zeros) as FL 35, FL190, FL 400.
16
17
ATMOSPHEIUC PRESSURE
Pressure Settings If the Altimeter is set to QNE of 1013 hPa, the altimeter would indicate the
Station level = (QNE - QFE) * 30 ft = (63 hPa) * 30 1890 ft
A barometer provides pressure reading. To this reading certain corrections are
applied. These correctibns are: Index correction (to compensate for instrumental (ii) if QNE < QNH i.e sea level is higher than MSL
error), Gravity correction (gravity being different at different latitudes) and For: QFE 970 hPa, and QNH 1020 hPa, the altimeter would indicate the Stn
elevation = (QNH - QFE) .~ 30 = ( 50 hPa) * 30 = 1500 ft
Temperature correction (it changes continually). The pressure is then reduced to
If Altimeter is set to QNE of 1013 hPa, the altimeter would indicate the'Station
a c.ommon level, called the mean sea level (ms1).· Such practice is called pressure
level = (QNE - QFE) * 30 ft = (1013 - 970)* 30 = 43 >. 30 = 1290 ft
setting. The pressure settings are QFE, QFF and QNH.
QFE. It is defined as the actual pressure at the aerodrome elevation (which is the As a rule:
highest point on the landing area), also called Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP).
When the subscale is set to a value Jess than QNH, the altimeter indicates lower
If QFE is set on the sub-scale of an altimeter, the altimeter would read zero or height than the actual height above sea le~el.
of aircraft altimeter from the ARP. It is also called zero ~etting.
When the subscale is set to a value greater than QNH, the altimeter indicates higher
QFF. It is defined as the barometric pressure of a place reduced to ms!. The existing than the actual height above sea level.
temperature of the place is assumed to be the temperature of a column extending
from the barometerlevel to the ms!. This value is used for plotting on Synoptic charts Standard Isobaric Levels. Corresponding to ISA pressure the Pressure Altitude (Ft)
and drawing isobars. and Flight Levels are as follows:
QNH. It is' defined as the station level pressure, reduced to the msl assuming ISA Level (hPa) 8.50 700 500 400 300 200 I 100
conditions. When QNH is set on the sub-scale, the altimeter indicates the station
elevation, the vertical distance of the station above msl. This setting is useful for
Pressure 5,000 10,000 18,000 24,000 30,000 38,000 I 53,000
Altitude (Ft)
vertical separation between aircraft and from terrain. QNH should be updated from
Flight Level 50 100 180 240 1300 1380 I 530
time to time, as it keeps changing with time and place due to change in temperature
and pressure. It is also called Absolute Altitude. Table 2.1
Regional QNH. This is the forecast value of the lowest pressure expected in an
Under Reading Over Reading
Altimeter Setting Region (ASR). It is issued every hour and is valid for one hour.
Correct use of regional QNH ensures adequate terrain clearance. An Altimeters has a subscale on which the desired pressure can be set on the ground
or in the air. On this setting altimeter indicates height as per ISA specifications. The
QNE. It is the altitude indicated on an altimeter on landing when the sub-scale is altimeter over reads if the pressure falls during the flight and under reads if it rises.
set to 1013.25 hPa (29.92 inches). The altitude is known as QNE value. Normally
QNE is used for high altitude airfields. As a gener~l rule:
(H-L-H) and (L-H-L)
Relation between QNH, QFE and QNE
High to Low - Over Read Low to H igh - Under Read
(i) If QNE > QNH i.e. sea level is lower than MSL Warm to Cold - Over Read Cold to Warm - Under Read
For: Station Level Pressure (QFE) 950 hPa, and Sea Level Pressure
In ISA 1.5 km altitude corresponds to a pressure of 864 hPa and 2 km to 795 hPa,
(QNH) 1000 hPa and 1 hPa = 30 ft, the Elevation of Station
see Figure 2.4. When an aircraft flies into a column of warm air from 864 hPa level,
= (QNH - QFE) * 30 ft = (1000 - 950) *30 = 50 * 30 = 1500 ft
19
18
AVIATION METEOROLOGY ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
the pressure being lower over warmer column will have the same pressure at a higher
. When flying "with winds from port the altimeter will over-read, and with winds from
level, say at 2 km (where ISA pressure is 795 hPa). Hence the altimeter will indicate
starboard under·read. The error increases with strength of the wind and length of
an altitude lower than true altitude, as in figure below.
the route. In S hemisphere ·opposite is true.
True Height Pressure Patterns "

True Altitude
795 hPa .:2 Km To represent the spatial distribution of pressure at a given time, all pressures are
920 hPa reduced to the msl. When pressures at different stations are plotted on a chart and
864 hPa
940 hPa isobars are drawn at 2 hPa interval the following patterns, Figure 2.6 and Figure
960 hPa
980 hPa
990 hPa
Altitude t WARM
2.7, emerge:
Low (lowpar). It is an area enclosed by an isobar, with lowest pres~ure at the centre.
When there are two or more closed isobars at 2 hPa interval, it is called a Depression.
1010 hPa 1012 hPa 1013.2 hPa SURFACE A further intense system is Cyclone or Severe Cyclone. Winds around a low blow
AlC from Low to High will Under Read in anticlockwise direction in N hemisphere, converging towards the centre. There
Aircraft from Cold to Warm will Under Read
is convergence and upward motion at a low. Hence a low is associated with bad
Figure 2.4 Altimeter Response with changing Pressure and Temperature weather, visibility is better than a High. Winds back in a low. wind speed on the
surface is less than 17 kt.
Results of this type can be related with the wind also, Figure 2.5. In the case of Trough of Low. A tongue like extension of isobars from a low is called trough of
winds the general rule in the N hemisphere is: low. Pressure along the trough is lower than on either side. Isobars along the trough
Port DrIft or Aircraft
H
+-r Cyclone Anticyclone
For Port DrIft Wind Is from right to left. In the NHemIsphere, low Is to the left or the Wind and
High to the right. AIC Ia thus moving from Lto H. Hence, AltImeter WOUld UNDER read.
1000hPa
TROUGH
RIDGE
Figure 2.5 Altimeter Response to Wind/rom Starboard Figure 2.6 Pressure Patterns
20 21
AVIATION MeTEOROLOGY
. Q!}ESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

H
Ql. Winds in a low pressure
(a) Converge (b) Diverge (c) Go straight
Q2. Low pressure is associated with
1000 hPa (a) Good Weather (b) Bad Weather (c) None
Q3. In a high pressure area winds are
----iI> (a) Normal (bY Strong (c) Weak
-
1002hPa·
Q4. Flying from Low to High an altimeter would read
(a) Over , (b) Under (c) constant
QS. Isallobars are lines of equal
(a) Pressure (b) Temperature Tendency (e) Pressure Tendency
Figure 2.7 Pressure Patterns in Isobaric Analysis
Q6. What kind of a barometer is an altimeter
(a) Aneroid (b) Mercury (c) Alcohol.
are "V" shaped and wind direction abruptly changes and backs. It is also assoCiated Q7. A region between two Lows and Two Highs is
with bad weather. The monsoon trough along the Indo-Gangetic plains is an example (a) Depression (b)Secondary Low (c) Col
of a trough. Q8. Bad weather and better visibility is associated with
High. It is a region enclosed by isobars with highest pressure at the centre. High (a) High (b) LOW (c) Col
pressure is associated with fair weather hut visibility is poor due to subsidence. Q9. The relationship between height and pressure is made use in construction of
Winds blow in a clockwise direction and diverge outwards. Winds veer in a high. (a) Altimeter (b) ASI (c) V S I
Ridge. It is a wedge like extension of isobars from a high pressure area. Pressure Ql0. Altimeter always measure the height of aircraft above
is higher along the ridge than on either side. Isobars along the ridge are rounded (a) MSL
and not "V" shaped as in a trough. It is a region of fair weather. Wind.s veer ata (b) datum of 1013.2 hPa
ridge. (c) datum at which its sub-scale is set
Col. Col is a region enclosed between two highs and two lows. The isobars towards Qll.TwQaircraft flying at same indicated altitude with altimeters set to 1013.2 hPa.
high pressure. areas are 2 hPa higher than towards lows. Weather within a Col is One is fly-illg over coldair mass and other over warm air mass. Which of the
a mixture of high and low, winds are light variable. Pressure at Col is uniform. two ha:s greater altitude:
(a) Ac flying over warm air mass (b) Ac flying over cold air mass
Synoptic Systems.
Q12. The. rate of fall of pressure with height in a warm air mass compared to cold
See Snoptic Systems at Appendix], and Met Scales and Divisions at Appendix N. . air mass will. be
(a) Same (b) More (c) Less
22
'l'l
Q25. 18,000 ft height in ISA corresponds to pressure level

Q13. An increase of 1000 feet in elevation near the earth is associated with decrease
(a) 700 hPa (b) 200 hPa (c)500 hPa
of pressure of
(a) 100 hPa (b) 1000 hPa (c) 3 h P a ( d ) 33 hPa Q26. 200 hPa in ISA corresponds to the level
(a) 20,000ft (b) 30,000 ft (c) 40,000 ft
Q14. Lines drawn through places of equal pressure are known as
(a) Isobars (b) Isotherms (c) Isogonal (d) Isoclinal Q27. 24,000 ft height in ISA corresponds to pressure level
(a) 400 hPa (b) 500 hPa (c) 300 hPa
Q15. Which is true
(a) Trough has frontal characteristics Q28. 700 hPa in ISA corresponds to the Flight level
(b) After crossing the axis of trough winds back in N-hemisphere (a) 20,000ft (b) 10,000 ft (c) 18,000·ft
(c) After crossing the axis of trough winds veer in N-hemisphere
Q29. 40,000 ft height in ISA approximately corresponds to pressure level
Q16. Semi diurnal pressure changes are most pronounced in, (a) 400 hPa (b) 500 hPa (c) 200 hPa
(a) Polar region (b) Middle latitudes (c) Tropics
Q30. 850 hPa in ISA corresponds to the height
Q17. Flying from Delhi to Kolkata at constant indicated altitude but, experiencing a (a) 7,000ft (b) 5,000 ft (c) 10,000 ft
drift to Starboard. The actual altitude will be (Vis-a.-vis) indicated altitude
(a) Lower (b) Same (c) Higher ANSWERS
Q18. In the Southern Hemisphere, around a Low Pressure Area wind blows
(a) In clockwise direction Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(b) In anticlockwise direction A. a b c b c a C b a .c a c d
(c) Across isobars towards· the centre Q. 14 15 16 17 18. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Q19. Altimeter of ale on ground reads aerodrome elevation, its sub-scale is set to A. a b c a a a b a a a b c c
(a) QNH (b) QNE (c) QFF
Q. 27 28 29 30
(d)QFE
A a b c b
Q20. Instrument for recording pressure is called
(a) Anemograph (b) Barometer (c) Hygrograph
Q21. Poor visibility is associated with
(a) High (b) Low (c) Col
Q22. On either side, perpendicular to the ........... pressures rise

(a)Trough (b) Ridge (c) Low
Q23. Fall of pressure with height is more rapid in
(a) Cold areas (b) Warm areas (c) Humid areas
Q24. 300 hPa in ISA corresponds to the level
. (a) 20,000ft (b) 30,000 ft (c) 35,000 ft
"lA 25
TEMPERATURE
Instruments for Measurement

Dry Bulb Thermometer, Wet Bulb Thermometer (the bulb is covered with a muslin
cloth which is kept moist), Maximum Thermometer (like Doctors Thermometer),
Minimum Thermometer and Thermograph, are used for measuring temperature ..
Mercury is used in thermometers,· except that in Minimum thermometer Alcohol
3
is used instead of mercury; In Thermographs and in Upper Nr temperature .
measurements Bi-metallic strips are used. Thermograph gives a continuous record·
of temperature, A minimum thermometer has a dumbbell shaped iron index, which
TEMPERATURE
permits alcohol to pass through when temperature ris(~s. When temperature faUs .
the alcohol, which has a concave meniscus, drags the index back to indicate minimum .
temperature.
Surface Temperature
. .
Temperature is a measure of heat. It is measured by a thermometer in degrees Itis thetemperature recorded at a height of 4 ft (1.25m) abovethe ground in shade
Celsius (Centigrade) or Fahrenheit. These scales are arbitrarily fixed with reference
(inside a Stevenson's Screen).
to the melting point of\ ice and the boiling point ofpure water at normal pressure.
On the Celsius scale these are respectively as 0° C and 100° C and in the Fahrenheit Ambient Temperature. The temperature of the surroundings is caUed Ambient
scale 32° F and 212° F. Celsius scale is used internationally, in aviation and science. Temperature.
Use of the Fahrenheit scale is confined to a few English.,speaking countries only.
A third scale is based of the following argument. Heat and Temperature
Heat is the sum total of the KE of all molecules and atoms of a substance. Temperature
Heat is a form of e1).ergy. As heat is extracted from a substance, its internal energy
is the average KE of all the molecules and atoms of a substance. The water in a
is reduced and the random motions of its molecules slows down. The molecules.
bath tub at 60° C will have more heat. than the boiling water in a cup. In the
get arranged in a more orderly pattern than before. As more heat is extracted the
thermosphere although the temperatures are very high yet the heat content is less
cooling and the orderliness increases. Finally a state is reached when the molecules
as there are very few particles and they too far apart. Hence there is hardly any
attain their maximum orderliness and the molecular motion almost ceases. After
effect of high temperatures to the rockets and spacecraft in the region.
this state no more heat can be extracted and the temperature reaches its lowest
possible value. This minimum temperature is the same for all substances, and.is Specific Heat. It is defined as the heat required· to raise the temperature of unit
accordingly called the absolute zero (K). 1 K = _ 273.16 ° C mass of a substance by 1° C. The speci.fic heat of water, regarded.asthe highest,
Conversion to C,F and K is 1, that of ice 0.5 and of the soil 0.2. Hence land gets heated/cooledmuch faster
than the water.
The conversion from one scale to another can be done by the following equations:
Latent Heat. Latent heat is defined as the "amount of heat absorbed or released
F = !9C/5) + 32; C = 5/9 (F-32) I; K = C + 273 during change of phase from/to solid! li'luid/vapour". It is absorbed during change
It may ,be noteq that -40° C = -40° F of solid to .1iquid and liquid to gas and released during the reverse processes.
26 27
TEMPERATURE
Evaporation, Condensation and Latent Heat

Insolation
Total amount of solar radiation received over a particular area is called insolation.
When water changes to vapour, a certain quantity of heat is supplied. To change
The insolation depends on the obliquity of sun's rays, Figure 3.1. Hence, insolation
boiling water into vapour, more then five times as much heat is required as is needed
at any place is maximum when sun is overhead and least during sunrise and sunset.
to bring the same amount of ice cold water to the boil. Once boiling has begun,
-Similarly maximum insolation is received over the Tropics, the region between
the temperature remains constant and the heat supplied in this stage becomes latent.
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, and least at the Poles.
It is released as latent heat when the vapour condenses to water.
Heat Transfer
SUN
iL
Heat is transferred from one place to the other by conduction, convection, radiation
and some other methods, as follows. In the atmosphere all these processes are
important. However, radiation plays a significant role in heat transfer.
SUN~
Conduction. In this process heat is physically transferred by the molecules by
More Insolation
Less Insolation
contact. Conduction is an important process of heat transfer very close to the
ground.
Figure 3.1 Insolation and Obliquity ofSun Rays
Convection. In this process hot fluid is bodily transferred to the colder part of the
fluid. As more than 70 % of the earth is covered with water, hence the importance
of convection. In the atmosphere Free Convection is triggered by intense solar

BlackBody
heating and the Forced Convection by topography. The hot air lifts to higher levels
Every body, emits radiation, at its temperature in the from of electromagnetic waves
and transfers heat.
over a wide range of wavelengths simultaneously. A radiating body is called a black
Radiation. Every body radiates heat at its temperature. In this process of heat
body.
transfer the medium is neither affected nor required. The solar radiation directly
Laws of Radiation
heat up the earth without affecting the atmosphere.
Stefan Boltzman's Law. The law states that the total amount of energy radiated by
Other Methods of Heat Transfer. Advection, Latent heat release, Turbulence, Up and a black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Hence
Downward motion of air are some of the the other'methods of heat transfer. The intense radiation are emitted by hot bodies like the sun.
advection transfers heat horizontally by winds. The irregular eddy motion of the E a T4
atmosphere, called turbulence, causes redistribution of heat. The latent heat which
is absorbed by the melting of ice or evaporation of water, mostly at the earth's surface, Wien's Law. The wavelength of most intense radiation is inversely proportional to
_is subsequently released as latent heat in the atmosphere by condensation or freezing. the absolute temperature. Hence hot bodies (like sun) radiate Short Waves and
colder bodies like earth, radiate Long Waves.
In the troposphere all the above processes transfer heat. In the stratosphere, however,
Planks Law. This law describes the distribution of radiated energy with absolute
neither convection nor latent heat have any influence but short wave radiation heat
it up, due to absorption by ozone. temperature. The curve is a right skewed central distribution.
28 29
"
TEMPERATURE
'AVIATION METEOROLOGY
Solar Radiation About 300/0 of the solar radiation is reflected back or scattered, by .the earth
. ' .
atmosphere, 19% is absorbed by atmospheric constituents (such as ozone) and S1 % .
The temperature of the sudace of the sun is about.6000 9 C. The solar radiation is, are absorbed by the earth surface. . .
therefore, mainly Short Waves. In the solar spectrum the white visible light consists
of various wavelengthcolourl! (VIBGYOR), inwhich the longest waves appear red, . Absorbed by Total
the shortest violet. In addition to visible light, the solar spectrum consists of wavelength . Earth surface S1 %
too short to be seen by the eye. The wavelength beyond the violet end of the spectrum Water Vapour, Dust, Ozone 160/0
areciilled Ultra-Violet (UV) and those on the other extreme beyond the red wavelengths
Clouds 3% 70%
are called Infra-Red (IR) waves. The complete solar radiation, including visible light, .
Back Scattered by
UV and JR, is responsible for all the heat that the earth receives from sun as short
wave radiation. The solar radiation consists of about: Air
. 6% .
Clouds 20%
IR 46 0/0, Visible 45 % andUV 09 0/0'
Earth Sut'face . 4% 30%
Terrestrial Radiation
The earth,radiates at its own temperature and looses heat. These are called terrestrial Table 3.2
radiation; which are long wave radiation. These are invisible' and are mostly IR
· The 30% of the solar radiation which are reflected back to the space by the earth
radiation. The earth receives heat as short-wave radiation from, the sun and loses
heat as long wave radiation. and clouds is the reflecting power of earth.. It is called 'Wbedo".
Nocturnal Radiation
Albedo =Reflected Radiationllncident Radiation
In clear weather about S/6 of the solar radiation reach earth surface. Ofthis,energy
At night when the short-wave radiation is absent only the earth radiates and looses
.' earthrefletts about'1 0%. Snow s~rface reflects about 800/0 of the incident energy.
.heat. The radiation emitted by the earth at night are called Nocturnal Radiation.
Green House Effect . -.Diurnal Variation ofSurface Temperature
Water vapour and toa lesser extent carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrous Due to the nature of surface the diurnal temperature changes are much smaller over
oxide absorb terrestrial radiation in certain wavelengths and permit remaining to the sea .than over land. The sea surface temperature shows a variation from day
. .
escape. These gases, therefore, keep the atmosphere warmer, causing an effect · to night of less than 10 C, whereas over land, the diurnal variation may. average
similar to the Green House effect: These gases als~rre-radi~te part of the, a~sotbed . as much as· 20 0 C. Near the coast the diurnal variation .depends on the direction
heat towards the earth. The water:vapour and CO2, thus reducethenocturnai . ofthe wind. With a wind off the land the diurnal variation near the coast may be
cooling of the ground to a certain extent. In the absence of watervapo~rarid CO
as large as inland, but with a wind off the sea it will be small. The sea breezes have
2
a pronounced cooling effect.
in the atmosphere the earth .would have been much cooler.
.' Radiation and 'Heat Budget' · The diurnal variation is maximum when the wind is calm. With strong wind; the
. , .
surface air mixes with the air above and iheheat gained by day and lost ~y night
Since the mean temperature of the earth has remained almost unchanged for a long .
•.spreads through the Friction Layer (up to 1 km above), Consequently the diurnal
period, it follows that heat received from the sun as Short wave radiation is returned
variation is small when winds are· strong.
to the ~paceby the earth as Terrestrial Radiation and are equal.
31
30
TEMPERATURE
Due to nocturnal cooling the surface temperatures continue to fall even after the Q!)ESTIONS ON TEMPERATURE
sunrise, till a balance is reached between the incoming and outgoing radiation. The
balance occurs a little after the sunrise, when temperature is minimum at the surface. . Diurnal variation of temperature is greatest when wind is
Thereafter some time may elapse for this temperature to reach the screen level (a) caltn (b) light (c) 'strong
(1.25m). The minimum temperature, therefore, occurs 1h to 1 hour after the sunrise
Diurnal variation of temperature is maximum over
(a) forest (b) ocean (c) land
On a clear day the amount of solar radiation received by earth surface is
(a) % (b) 30% (c) 5/6
ALBEDO is
(a) Radiation received by earth
(b) Amount of heat
(c) Reflecting power of earth
During Day the ambient temperature is ........... than ground
/ Minimum (air)
Minimum (a) Lower (b) Higher . . (c) Same
(ground)
Diurnal variation of temperature over ocean is ...........
SWtRise MidDay SWtSet (a) More than land (b) Above 3°C (c) Less than 1°C
Figure 3.3 Diurnal Variation ofSurface Temperature At a coastal station the diurnal variation of temperature depends on ...........
(a) Wind direction (b) Wind speed (c) Radiation

or dawn. Thereafter, the incident radiation exceed until mid day. The surface
Snow 'surface reflects about ........... % of solar radiation.
temperature is the highest at noon. It takes another 2-3 hours for transfer of this (a) 75% (b) 80% (c) 90%
temperature to the screen level, when the maximum temperature is recorded.
Q9. Amount of Solar radiation received per unit area is .......... ~
Effect of Clouds on Surface Temperature (a) Insolation (b) Convection (c) Radiation
A cloud cover obscures the sun and reflects major part of the radiation back to space.
Ql0. Solar radiation received by the earth is
A thin sheet of cirrostratus cloud can cut off a fair proportion of the solar radiation, (a) Long Wave (b) Albedo .(c) Shortwave
and a thick layer of lower cloud or a deep layer of fog may completely block the
radiation and reduce the heating of the earth by day. During night, the cloud cover Ql1. Rise in temperature of a surface is proportional to its specific heat
absorbs most of the outgoing radiation from earth. At the same time the lower (a) Directly (b) Inversely
surface of the dO)4d radiates towards the earth. Hence cloudy nights are warmer.. Q12. Specific heat of land is ........... than that of water
When sky is covered with low clouds the diurnal variation of temperature at the (a) Lower (b) Same (c) Higher
ground is small. The lower the cloud the more effectively it reduces the nocturnal Q13.Minimum temperature is reached at ...........
cooling. (a) sunrise (b) midnight (c) 1/2 -1 hour after dawn
32 33
TEMPERATURE
Q28. Surface Temperature is recorded at a height of ........... above ground
Q14. An air parcel is lifted till it gets saturated. The temperature attained by it is called (a) 1.5 m (b) 1.25m (c) 2 m
(a) Potential temperature (b) Dew Point (c) Wet bulb
Q29. The door of Stevenson's screen should open
Q15. Cloudy nights are ......... (a) opposite to sun (b) into sun (c) any direction
(a) cold' (b). normal (c) warm
Q30. The liquid used in Minimum Thermometer is
Q16.Water vapour is transparent to terrestrial radiation (a) mercury (b) alcohol (c) sprit
(a) completely . (b) partially (c) indifferent
Q17. Higher the temperature ........... would be the wavelength of emitted radiation
.(a) longer (b) shorter
ANSWERS
Q18. Air is a bad conductor of heat. A parcel of air can therefore be regarded as insulated
from the environment Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(a) False (b) True A a c c c a c a b a c b a c
Q19. Warmer the earth............ will be the Nocturnal radiation

Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
(a) intense (b) weaker (c) moderate A. b c b b b a a b c a a a b
Q20. Heat is the ~ ..... of the KE of all the molecules and atoms of a substance Q. 27 28 29 30
(a) sum total (b) average A a b a b
Q21. The solar radiation consists of about 46 %.....
(a) UV (b) IR (c) Visible
Q22.Th~ total energy radiated by a black body is proportional to its temperature(T)
(a) P (b) T3 (c) T4
Q23. Intense radiation are emitted by

(a) Hot bodies (b) Cold bodies (c) Stars
Q24; The wavelength of most intense radiation is inversely proportional to its ...........
(a). Absolute temperature (b) Humidity (c) Albedo
Q25 . .Hot bQdies (like sun) radiate
(a) SQort. Waves (b) Long Waves (c) Both
Q26. The flow of heat from earth surface is 770/0 by
(a) Sensible Heat (b) Latent Heat
Q27. -:- 40° C =- 40° F
(a) True .(b) False
35
34
AIR DENSITY
Density of Dry Air

The air density (p) can be is obtained by substituting observed values of the pressure
(P hPa) and temperature (T Kelvin) in the fundamental gas equation:
PV = RT
4
Since for a unit mass of gas density p is the reciprocal of the volume V, therefore:
Pip = RT or p = P/RT
AIR DENSITY
.
where V is the volume, T the absolute temperature and R the gas constant for the.
particular gas.
Substituting the values of the gas constant for dry air R = 2.87 * 10\ ISA surface
pressure 1013 .25 hPa and temperature 15° C (288° K), the equation gives the density
Atmospheric density is an important factor in aviation. Density affects performance as 1225 glm3 •
of an aircraft significantly. It affects lift, thrust, drag, climb rate and airspeed of an Density of Moist Air
aircraft. In low density the climb outs are slower, both landing and take-off speeds
Being a gas, water vapour obeys the fundamental gas equation. The v.alue of the'
are greater, the thrust of the engine is reduced ,and longer runways are required
gas constant for water vapour is 8/5 times that for dry air. The total pressure P of
for take off and landing. Allowance has to be made for these effects in planning
moist air may be regarded as the sum of the partial pressure (p) exerted by the dry
the length of runway and calculating the all-up weight of an aircraft.
air and the partial pressure exerted by the water vapour (e). Then from the gas
Definition and Units equation:
The atmospheric density is defined as the mass of air contained in a unit volume. Density of water vapour 5 e/8 RT
Its unit is glm 3 or kglm 3. Density dry air, having partial pressure (p - e) (p-e)/RT
Density of the moist air ( the sum of the above two) 348.4 (p - 3e/8) IT
Density is also expressed as the Density Altitude.
Thus the moist air has a lower density than dry air under similar conditions of
Density altitude is defined as the altitude above msl at which a given atmospheric
pressure and temperature. Since the effect of humidity on density is small, it can
density occurs in the ISA. The Pressure altitude and the Density altitude have the
be ignored for the aviation purposes. .
same value in the ISA.
Factors affecting Density. Air density is affected by the following three factors:
For every 10 rise in temperature above ISA, the Density altitude increases by about
120 ft above the Pressure altitude. Altitude. The higher the altitude, the less dense the air is.
The Density altitude is higher if the atmosphere is warmer than the ISA. High Temperature. The warmer the air, the less dense it is.
density altitude would mean taking off from or landing at an airfield located at a Humidity. It is not a major factor in affecting density, yet humid air is lighter
higher altitude.
than dry air. At high temperature, the atmosphere can retain a high water vapor
36
37
AVIATION METEOROLOGY AIR DENSITY
content. If humidity is high, it is wise to add 100/0 to the computed take off Q1JESTIONS ON AIR DENSITY
distance and anticipate reduced climb rate.
Variations in Surface Density Q1. Density is ........... at poles than equator
(a)Higher (b) Lower (c) Same

At a given pressure, the density is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.
The warm air is thus comparatively lighter and the cold air is heavier. Variations Q2. Above 8 km density is ........... at poles than at equator
in density during a day occur due to the diurnal variation of temperature. The lowest (a)Higher (b) Lower (c) Same
densities occur in the afternoon and the highest just after sunrise. Seasonal density .
Q3. The altitude in ISA at which air density is the same as the observed density is
changes occur due to variations in temp. and pressure.
called
It is noteworthy that a decrease of density of about 1 per cent is produced by a (a) Density Altitude ,'(b) ISA Density (c) Real Density
fall of pressure of 10 hPa, by an increase of temperature of 3 0 C, or by an increase
Q4. Density is usually expressed as ...........
in height of 300 feet. (c) N/sq m

{a} Kglsq m (b) glcu m
Variation of Density with Height Q5. Higher density altitude means ........... density
In ISA the density decreases with height at all levels. The decrease at lower levels (a) Higher (b) Lower (c) Same
for 1000 ft is approximately 3 % of the value for any given level. This rule give
Q6. For given pressure and temperature moist air has density
good approximation up to about 20,000 feet. (a) Higher (b) Lower (c) Same
If the density of the air was to remain uniform with height, the atmosphere would
Q7. Air is less denser in
extend up to 8 km. But since density decreases with height, at every 5-6 km it reduces (b) War.m Air (c) High humidity
(a) High Altitudes
to its previous half value. (d) All Ithese
It is 1/2 of the surface value at 6 km, 1/4 at 11 km and 1/8 at 17 km. However, Q8. Density altitude may be defined as:
at 240 kin also there is sufficient density to offer resistance. It is, therefore, believed (a) The altitude in a standard atmosphere at which the prevailing pressure occurs.
that the atmosphere extends up to about 800 km. (b) The altitude in a standard atmosphere at which the prevailing density occurs.
(c) Surface of constant atmospheric pressure related to standard atmosphere of
Latitudinal Variation
1013.2 hPa
Density of air at sea level is lowest near the equator and greatest at the poles. This
distribution is maintained unto about 8.0 km. Above 8.0 km a reversal occurs and ANSWERS
the density becoming more near the equator than at poles(higher latitudes), This
will mean: . Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A. a b a b b b d b
For aircraft with low cruising altitudes (piston-engine type) the operational efficiency
at any level would be greater in high latitudes than in the tropics.
For aircraft with high cruising altitudes (jet aircraft) the operational efficiency would
be greater in the tropics than at high latitudes.
38 39
HUMIDITY
Vapour Pressure. The partial pressure exerted by water vapour in the air is called
vapour pressure. If p is the total pressure of air and e is the vapour pressure, then
(p-e) i~ the pressure of dry air.
Saturation Vapour Pressure. It is the pressure exerted by water vapour when air
is saturated
5
Absolute Humidity. It is defined as the actual amount of water vapour contained
in a given volume of air at a given temperature. It is expressed in glm 3.
HUMIDITY
Humidity Mixing Ratio. It is defined as the mass of water vapour ,contained in a'
given mass of air. It is expressed as glkg.
Humidity Mixing Ratio for Saturated Air. It is defined as the maximum mass of
water vapour that can be contained in a given mass of air at a particular temperature
and pressure. It is also expressed as glkg of dry air
Water vapour is always' present in the air to a greater or lesser extent, in the
troposphere. This water vapour plays a very important role in all the atmospheric Relative Humidity. It is defined as the ratio, in percentage, of the actual water vapour
processes. 'present in the air to the maximum it can contain at the same temperature and
pressure.
Water evaporates into the air from oceans, lakes, rivers, vegetation etc. It ascends
and forms clouds which cause precipitation. The water cycle is thus completed. RH (%) = (H~midity Mixing Ratio x 100) / (Humidity ~ixing Ratio for
Satij,rated Air) .
Water exists in three phases: the gas (water vapour), liquid (rain, drizzle, shower)
RH (0/0) . = (Vapour pressure of Air x 100) / (Saturation Vapour Pressure of
and solid (snow, hail). The capacity of dry air to hold water vapour depends largely
Air)
on temperature and to some extent on pressure. Higher the temperature higher is
the capacity of air to hold the water vapour. Wet Bulb Temperature (TwT w)' It is the lowest temperature which air would attain
by evaporating water into it to saturate it. Desert coolers work on this principle.
Various terms used for describing water content in the atmosphere are:
Dryer the air more effective would be the cooling.
Dry Air. Air that contains no water vapour is called dry air. Such an air may
Dew Point Temperature (TdTd). It is the lowest temperature to which air should
exist in the upper troposphere or stratosphere.
be cooled at constant pressure to saturate it with respect to water. Cooling below
Moist Air. The normal air, that we breathe is the moist air. It is also called Dew Point (DP) causes condensation.
unsaturated or dry air at the existing temperature and pressure.
DP is only affected by change in water content, whereas RH is affe~ted by change
Saturated Air. Air is like a sponge which can absorb certain amount of water and in water content and temperature both.
no more. When the air holds maximum water vapour, it is called saturated air.
DP is higher if air contains more water vapour.
Measurement. Humidity is measured by the instruments Psychrometer and
Hygrometer, and is recorded by Hygrograph. By cooling or warming the air, RH changes but DP does not change.
40 41
HUMIDITY
Q3. Free airtemperature, Wet bulb temperature and Dew point temperature are equal
Frost Point. It is the temperature to which air must be cooled to reach saturation
when
with respect to ice. Cooling below the frost point causes formation of hoar frost.
(a) Air temperature is O°C

It is important to note that:
(b) Relative humidity is 100%
(c) Air temperature is not belowO°C
As the temperature of the air increases, the amount of water vapour required to
saturate it also increases.

Q4. On a rainy day compared to sunny day the length of runway required is
(a) More (b) Less (c) Same
At subzero temperatures water molecules have more energy and a greater degree
of freedom than ice, consequently the saturation vapour pressure over water drops
Q5. The spread (difference) between Free air temperature and Dew point temperature
is more than that over the ice particles. If water drops andice particles co-exit,
is ... .. .. . ... when air is saturated .
water drops will evaporate and condense on the ice particles. This principle is
(a) Large (b) Least (c) Same
applied in explaining rainfall from clouds which extend above 0 °C level in the
Q6. The saturation vapour pressure over water is ........... than the ice
atmosphere ~nd have both super-cooled water drops and ice crystals co existing.
(a) More (b) Less (c) Same

Small water droplets can exist in super cooled state in the clouds up to - 40° C
Q7 As the temperature of the air increases, the amount of water vapour required to
and in CB clouds up to - 45° C.
saturate it ...........
For saturated air: (in Fog, during rain) (a) decreases (b) increases (c) remains same
Air temperature (TT) = Wet Bulb (Tw Tw) = Dew point (Td Td) Q8. The actual amount of water vapour contained in a given volume of air at a given
temperature is termed as ......... ..
For Unsaturated air:
(a) Relative Humidity (b) Specific Humidity (c) Absolute Humidity
Dry Bulb Temperature > Wet Bulb > Dew Point
Q9. Humidity ,Mixing Ratio ........... when air is lifted adiabatically
With the increase of temperature the saturation humidity mixing ratio also increases. (a) decreases (b) remains constant (c) increases
Humidity Mixing Ratio remains constant when air is lifted adiabatically, if there Q10. It is the lowest temperature which air would attain by evaporating water into
is no addition or removal of water vapour. it to saturate it.
(a) Wet bulb temp (b) Dry bulb temp_ (c) Dew point
Q1JESTIONS ON HUMIDITY
ANSWERS
Q1. The ratio in % between the amount of water vapour present in the air to the
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 _ 7 8 9 10
amount of water vapour that it can hold at the same temperature is
A. b c b a b a b c b a
(a) Humidity (b) Relative humidity (c) Dew point
Q2. The temperature to which air be cooled at constant pressure to become saturated,
is called
(a) Wet bulb temperature (b) Dry bulb temperature
(c) Dew point (d) Humidity
43
42
WINDS
Cross Wind. Runways are oriented along the most prevailing wind directions of a
locality, based on the,climatological records. However, sometimes, especially during
adverse weather and transition seasons, the winds deviate from these directions. A
wind 90° to the runway in use is called Cross Wind Component. Critical cross wind
components for each type of aircraft are specified. Great caution is exercised
6
whenever this value exceeds. Cross winds tend to swing the aircraft during take
off and landing, especially lighter aircraft.
Instruments for Measuring Wind

WINDS
The surface wind speed is measured by Anemometer and Wind. direction by Wind
Vane. Upper winds are measured by - RAWIN and Pilot Balloon equipment. These
Hydrogen filled balloons are tracked by RADAR and Optical Theodolite respectively.
,.;
Exposure of Wind Instrum~nts
In the atmosphere air moves horizontally and vertically. The horizontal movement
of the air is called wind. The wind is closely related to the horizontal variation of To record surface wind the Anemometer and Wind Vane are installed at a height
pressure and consists of a succession of strong winds (gusts) and weak winds (lulls). of 10 m, in an area free of obstructions. The wind is averaged for 10 minutes for
It has two components: the Direction and the Speed. all weather observations. For take off and landing purpose, however, the wind is
averaged for 2 minutes.
Wind Direction
Gust and Lull
The direction of the wind is the direction from which wind is blowing or wind is
A gust is an irregular and rapid 'fluctuation in the wind. Gusts are caused by the
coming from. A Southerly wind blows from S to N and an Easterly wind from E to
turbulence due to the ground friction and by the uneven heating of the ground,
W. Wind direction is indicated on 16 points of compass (N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, ESE,
specially in the hot afternoons. The positive fluctuations are called Gusts and the
SE, SSE, S, SSw, Sw, WSw, w, WNw, Nw, NNW) or in degrees at intervals of 100,
negative fluctuations Lulls, Figure 6.1.
for example 350°,330°,020,090, 160 etc. The direction is measured from True North.
GUST
Wind Speed
Wind speed is expressed in nautical mile per hour (knot). The relationship between
the alternative speed units are:
1 kmh = 0.278 mps = 0.540 kt . 1111 M'..~lffflllW ,,., I ~~:

(kmh - kilometre per hour; mps - metre per second)
Wind speed is generally reported at an interval of 05 kt as follows:
LULL
0-2 kt as Calm; 03-07 kt as 05 kt; 08-12 kt as 10 kt; ...... 48-52 kt as 50 kt etc.
Figure 6.1 Gust and Lull
44
45
WINDS
Effect of Rotation of Earth
Squall
To visualize this force consider a disk rotating from W to E. On this rotating disc
Squall is defined as the sudden increase in wind speed by 32 kmh (16 kt, 08 mps),
draw a straight line instantaneously. Stop the disc. It will be seen that the line drawn
should last for one minute or more and speed should increase to 44 kmh (22 kt,
curves to the right. The effect of motion over the surface of the earth is exactly
11 mps) or more. Squall is associated with large CB clouds and violent convective
alike. A moving object is deflected to the right in the N hemisphere, Figure 6.2,
activity. Squall extend some km horizontally and several thousands of feet vertically.
and to the left in the S hemisphere. This deflection is due to the Coriolis force,
Both speed and direction in squall may differ widely from the prevailing winds.
also called the Geostrophic Force. It is an apparent force and acts perpendicular
Violent squalls are experienced in Norwesters, Thunderstorm (TS) and Duststorm
to the wind direction
(DS) from March to June. Line squalls occur ahead of Cold Fronts and sometimes
Coriolis Force (f) = 2 n p V ,sin q>
with the Norwesters.
The main difference between squalls and gusts is the duration. A gust is a transient
.. Where Q is the angular velocity of the earth, V the wind speed, unaffected by the
frictional forces, and q> is the latitude. For a unit volume of air, magnitude of the
increase in speed lasting for a few seconds, the squall is an increase in wind lasting
force is 2 pV sin q> (where p is the density of unit volume)

for some minutes. A squall is associated with CB or thunderstorm and may be
accompanied by a marked drop in temperature and precipitation.

At poles q> is 90°, sin q> = 1 the Coriolis force would be maximum
At equator q> is 0°, sin q> = 0 the Coriolis force would be minimum
Strong sudden squalls are more dangerous than the strong mean winds. A parked
aircraft may easily sustain a gale (defined as persistent mean wind of 34 knot or
more) but may not sustain a squall or sudden gust of say 60 kt, even though the
mean wind may not reach gale force.
Gale
Gale is defined as the persistent mean wind of speed 34 kt or more. It is associated
with depressions and cyclonic storms.
Figure 6.2 CorioUs Effect

Backing and Veering
Backing is the change of wind direction anti-clockwise, e.g. wind direction changing
It is directly proportional to the speed of motion of the air particles, and to the
from 090° to 060° or from 270° to 160° etc. Conversely, change of wind direction
air density.
~lockwise is veering (change from say 060° to 090° etc). In a low pressure area the
The windblows from higher to lower pressure (H to L) along the isobars under
wind blows in an anticIockwise direction (Backs) whereas in a high it blows clockwise
(Veers), in the N hemisphere.

the influence of pressure gradient force (P). The pressure gradient force is directed
from high to low pressure. It is the differe~ce of pressure between the consecutive
Pressure and Wind: The Buys Ballot's Law
isobars divided by the distance between them or the rate of change of pressure with
The law states that, in the N hemisphere, if an observer stands with his back to
distance in the horizontal.
the wind, low pressure is to his left and high pressure to his right and converse in
Due to the rotation of the earth from W to E, the wind is constantly deflected to
the S hemisphere. Thus in N hemisphere wind blows anticlockwise around a cyclone
its right (in N hemisphere), until 'it attains a uniform speed along the isobars.
(Low) and clockwise around an anti-cyclone (High).
47
46
WINDS
DIFFERENT TYPES OF WINDS Limitations of the Geostrophic Rule

The geostrophic formula gives satisfactory wind only when the pressure gradient
Geostrophic Wind and the Coriolis force are in balance and the isobars are straight and parallel. If
they are curved or if the pressure changes with time, additional forces get involved.
The horizontal wind which blows parallel to the straight isobars due to balance
The geostrophic formula then becomes inapplicable. The winds like gusts, squalls
between Pressure Gradient force and Coriolis force, with low pressure area to the
and the local winds land and sea-breezes, etc do not follow this rule. They differ
left in the N hemisphere, Figure 6.3. Closer the isobars stronger is the wind. It is
in both direction and speed from the geostrophic wind. However, the geostrophic .
not a real wind, but is calculated wind. Here the frictional force is disregarded. wind gives a satisfactory approximation to the actual wind, especially in middle
latitudes.
LOW
Pressure Gradient Force

".~)
Cydostrophic Wind
1000 hPa
If wind is blowing along the curved isobars of radius r with a velocity V it has an
7<
..
Geostrophic Wind
acceleration towards the centre, called centripetal force (V2/ r). The centripetal
1002 hPa force acting on a unit volume of air is p V2 I r. If the Coriolis force is negligible
as compared to the forces P and f, Centripetal force (C) must be provided by the
1004 hPa Coriolis Force
pressure gradient force. Hence
HIGH p V2 / r = P therefore V = ( P r / p ) Va
Figure 6.3 Geostrophic Wind Such a motion is called Cydostrophic. Near the centre of a tropical revolving storm
or in a circular tornado, the equation gives a dose approximation to the actual wind.
For geostrophic wind (Vg) Pressure Gradient Force (P) = Coriolis Force (f) Cyclostrophic Wind is defined as the wind which is markedly curved and blows
due to balance betweenPressure Gradient and Cyclostrophicforce. Thefiictional
Pip = 2 .a Vg sin tp
force is disregarded.
For geostrophic wind (Vg) Pressllre Gradient Force (P) = Coriolis Force (f)
Gradient Wind
Pip = 2 .a Vg sin tp It is the wind which blows parallel to the curved isobars under the balance of
Where p is density and Pip is pressure gradient force for unit mass. Therefore pressure gradient, Coriolis and Centripetal forces, Figure 6.4. In middle latitudes
this wind is a closer approximation to actual wind than Geostrophic wind. It is a
Vg = PI 2 Up sin tp calculated wind and the frictiorinl force is disregarded.
The speed of geostrophic wind is inversely proportional to the sine of the latitude. In a low pressure P and C are directed inwards along the radius of curvature (r),
Vg is stronger at lower latitudes than at higher latitudes. The wind speed tends to towards low pressure, and are balanced by f, which is directed outwards. Here a
be infinity at the equator where <p=0 and sine 0 = 0, which is not possible. Hence part of P provides C and the remaining balances f. In effect P < f. Hence the actual
at equator, the geostrophic wind formula breaks down and not used. However, ,wind velocity (V) is less than Vg for the same pressure gradient. Or in other words
beyond 30° the formula gives a good approximation to the actual wind. the gradient wind is Subgeostrophic in a cyclone.
48
49
AVIATiON METEOROLOGY WINDS
\/ \/ where f is the Coriolis Force and R the radius of curvature (1/radius) of the path.
The inertial flow is Anticyclonic in both the hemispheres.
LO\;V
p
Effect of Surface Friction
.. .. ... IllGR The rough earth causes friction. Depending upon the wind speed, lapse rate and
C f
roughness of the surface, the effect of friction may extend in the atmosphere up
to about 1 km. This layer is called friction layer. The thickness of this layer is .
variable. Within the friction layer the wind slows down and the Coriolis force
reduces proportionately and is insufficient to balance the pressure grad.ient force.
For Cyclone C + P = f The wind is, therefore, deflected towards the low pressure and the flow becomes
Jor Anticyclone P = C + f cross isobaric, Figure 6.5.
I
Figure 6.4 Gradient Wind: Balance Between P, f and C
Pressure Gradient Force Pressure Gradient Force
In an anticyclonic motion P is directed outwards and f and C are directed inwards. 1002 hPa
The force C is provided by the difference between the forces f and P. Thus in an WIND
WIND
anticyclonic motion P > f and the actual wind V is greater than V for the iame
g
pressure gradient. Or in other words the gradient wind is Super geostrophic in an Friction
anticyclone Coriolis Force
1004 hPa >~
Coriolis Force
If the isobars are straight and parallel the gradient wind equals the geostrophic wind.
EEFCT OF FRICTION ON WIND
GEOSTROPHIC WIND
When, as in lower latitudes, the Coriolis term is negligible the gradient wind is equal
to the Cyclostrophic wind.
Figure 6.5 Effect ofFriction on Geostrophic Wind .
Isallobaric Wind. When the pressure changes rapidly, the geostrophic and gradient
rules do not apply. In such a case another force called Isallobaric Force comes into As a rough rule: over the sea, where friction is small, the surface wind blows at
play. This force is directed from higher isallobar to the lower isallobar. This deflects about 15° to the isobars while its speed is about two- thirds of the geostrophic speed.
wind towards the falling pressure. The wind under the influence of P, f and the Over the land friction is greater, the inclination to the isob~rs is about 30° and speed
Isallobaric force is called the Isallobaric wind.
is 1/3 to 1/2 the geostrophic value .
.Inertial Wind
Turbulence and Gustiness
It is a frictionless flow under the balance between the Centrifugal Force and the Wind is seldom steady. It fluctuates. The peak fluctuations are called the Gusts and
Coriolis Force, and there is no Pressure Gradient Force. The constant Inertial wind the lowest the Lulls. The width of the fluctuations between gusts and lulls is an
speed Vi is given by
indication of the degree of gustiness. The air flow with such fluctuations is termed
v. = fR
1
as turbulent.
50 51
AVIATION METEOROLOGY WINDS
Types of Turbulence The turbulence enables the upper level strong winds, above the friction layer, to
There are two types of turbulence or gustiness, viz. Frictional and Thermal. When descend to the surface, making it strong and gusty. It also backs and is slightly weaker
the speed of the stream is low, the flow remains smooth or laminar, but when the than the upper winds.
speed surpasses a certain limit the flow becomes unstable. Eddies form and drift At night the thermals die down, and friction layer shrinks close to the surface. Due
away into the stream, making the flow turbulent. to friction the surface wind blows across the isobars. The friction layer also prohibits
the upper strong winds from penetrating to the surface. The surface wind is,
The thermal type of turbulence is caused by the convection currents due to surface
therefore, weak and backs. There may be marked wind shear around 500 m, with
heating. The heating may result from insolation over the land or from the passage
strong winds above and weak winds below, which is serious an aviation hazard.
of a relatively cool mass of air over a warmer land or sea surface.
There is no observable diurnal variation over the sea (only about 10 C);
and also
Factors affecting Turbulence over the land when skies are continuously overcast. In such cases the surface winds
The turbulence and the thickness of the friction layer are accentuated by flow over are nearly the same during day and night.
buildings, trees or rugged country. The eddies so created involve both vertical and
The diurnal variation is most apparent in fine weather, clear night and sunny days.
horizontal velocities. They develop more easily when the lapse rate is steep. Open
sea or relatively smooth ground, light wind and stable lapse r.ate are unfavourable Wind Shear (WS)
for turbulence. The thermal turbulence is less on cool surface and stable atmosphere. The change of wind direction and or speed in a short distance is called wind shear.
Over land the turbulence is more by day when the lapse rate is steep and least on WS at lower levels close to runway has caused numerous air accidents. WS is
a clear night with an inversion. normally associated with thunder storm, microburst, tornadoes, waterspouts, gust
fronts, fronts, topography, temperature inversion, mountain waves etc. It is measured
Turbulence and Aircraft
by doppler radar, and appropriate sel1sors. Aircraft flying in the affected area provide
To the occupants of an aircraft, turbulence is recognized as bumpiness. In turbulent useful information on WS. This enables Met authorities to issue WS warning for
conditions the landing and taking off of aircraft may be difficult due to sudden the saf~ty of other aircraft in flight.
changes in wind.
LOCAL WINDS DUE TO TOPOGRAPHY
Thermal Eddies
The eddies of thermal origin are often of large dimensions and produce stronger Fohn wind
gusts than those produced by friction. They are more noticeable by occupants of If air is forced over the top of a mountain barrier, the adiaba.tic cooling may lead to
\
an aircraft than the frictional eddies. They may also extend to considerable heights the formation of cloud and precipitation. Within the cloudy, the rising air cools at
when the lapse rate is favourable. the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR). If some of the condensed water falls out
Diurnal Variation of Surface Wind (effect of Temperature and Friction). as precipitation and the air descends on the lee slopes, then the latent heat liberated
during condensation is partly used to evaporate the cloud droplets in the descending
During day the convection due to ground heating creates thermal eddies. These air. Mter cloud disappears the descending air warms up at the dry adiabatic lapse rate
eddies cause turbulence and stretch the friction layer upwards and slacken the (DALR). The more the precipitation on the mountain, the warmer the air gets on
frictional effect. descent. The local name for these warm dry winds in the Alps is the Fohn.
52 53
WINDS
0
high mountains the Fohn wind may be 10 C or more warmer. The Chinook of
the Rocky mountains is an example of Fohn wind. Dry wind may not produce Fohn If the mountain slope is snow covered, the Katabatic wind may occur during the day
wind. For Fohn wind to occur it is essential that: (a) there is substantial mountain time as well as at night. Bora, an off shore wind on the northern shores of the Adriatic,
range (b) wind blows within 300 of the range and (c) wind has high moisture content. is a Katabatic wind. It sets in suddenly, and frequently reaches well over gale force
with gusts of over 100 kt. It is extremely dangerous to shipping and low flying aircraft.
Anabatic and Katabatic Winds Similar winds also occur on the coast of Greenland and the shores of Black sea.
During the day, a mountain slope is heated by the sun. The air in contact becomes The distinction between the Fohn and the Katabatic winds is thatthe former is warm
warmer than the wind at the same level. It is therefore, lighter and tends to ascend and dry, while the latter is cold. Both are down slope winds off high ground.
the slope. Such ascending winds are called Anabatic Winds. As the Anabatic winds
are masked by irregular convection, they may not be felt dearly, except where they Ravine winds
are intensified by the funnel effect of a valley. In such cases they are called Valley These occur in and near ravines or narrow valleys which penetrate a mountai~
winds. On a coastline an up-slope wind may be augmented by the sea breeze. barrier. When there is a pressure difference, level for level between the two sides
of the barrier, air is impelled through the ravine by the pressure gradient. Such winds
may be very strong not only in the ravine but also after leaving its mouth.
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze

Due to the diurnal variation of temperature in coastal areas, the wind blows from
the sea towards the land during the day-time, called Sea Breeze, and from the land
towards the sea during night, called Land Breeze.
FOHN WIND
After sunrise the land becomes warmer. The air over land starts rising due to
COLD
WIND convection. The pressure aloft becomes slightly greater than before. This causes the
DRY AND upper air to drift from the land towards the sea. The surface pressure over the sea
WARM slightly increases and reduces, over the land. In consequence a wind starts blowing
from sea to land, as sea breeze. At night reverse happens due to radiative cooling
Figure 6.6 Anabatic katabatic and Fohn Winds
and land breeze sets in.
The reverse of Anabatic wind is the down slope Katabatic Wind. During night, due The sea breeze often sets in abruptly a few hours after the sunrise. If there is an off
to nocturnal cooling the mountain slope becomes cold. The air in contact also shore wind, its onset is delayed, until the afternoon. The breeze generally brings sharp
becomes colder than the wind at the same level in the free atmosphere, so it sinks. fall of temperature and an increase of humidity. The breeze is sometimes gusty. It
A down slope wind sets in, called Katabatic wind. It is a natural phenomenon. Even gradually extends 15-25 km on either side of the coast line. Due to peculiar topography
in gently sloping country cold Katabatic wind occurs on a dear quiet night. The the sea breeze, may have greater extent over the land. Case in example is Pune, about
speed of the wind. may pe not more than a few knots, but it forms pools of cold 170 km from Mumbai, where sea breeze is observed in the afternoons. In tropics and
on low lying ground, causing local frost, mist and fog. subtropics, where prevailing winds are normally light, sea breeze occurs as a routine.
Over NE parts of India Katabatic winds are common and cause fog and TS in the! The sea breeze is initially directed perpendicular to the coast. Later on, as the
mormng. Coriolis effect becomes apparent, it tends to align along the coastline,with the land
on the left (right in the S - hemisphere). The sea-breeze weakens after the sunset
54
-,~.s
and after a few hours is replaced by the land breeze. In the tropics land breezes
A
~
are usually light and do not develop with the regularity of the sea breezes. They
may even be imperceptible.
A
~
On some occasions the effect of the sea-breeze extends to 3000 or 5000 feet. The A+B=C A - B =C
warmer air from the land lifts over the cooler air from the sea and a line of small
cumuliform cloud develop .. It has small dimensions and although of use to glider Figure 6.7 Vector Addition and Subtraction
pilots, its effect goes unnoticed by powered aircraft. The land breeze is shallower Thermal Wind (Vt) is the vector difference of lower level geostrophic wind (Vo) from
than sea-breeze, and does not extending above a few hundred feet. the upper level geostrophic wind (VI)' which blows parallel to isotherms, keeping
low temperature to the left in the N hemisphere. . '
Wind and Contours
The lines joining equal heights are called Contours. Over warm atmosphere a Thermal Wind is the vertical geostrophic wind shear in an aimospheric layer. The term
contour will be at a higher height and over cold at lower height. Heights of a thermal wind has been adopted because the wind shear is determined by the mean
particular press,ure value, say 500 hPa, vary from place to place depending on the temperature in the layer. It is a fictitious wind which blows parallel to the thickness
variations in temperature. lines (mean isotherms) keeping low thickness (low temperature) on the left in the N
hemisphere. The speed of thermal wind is proportional to the temperature gradient.
The contour lines depict centres of High and Low heights, in exactly the same way
~
as height of ground is indicated on a survey map.
A contour line is horizontal and the pressure is the same at all the points on the
line. Thus a contour line, of height say 5520 m, is an isobar in the horizontal surface Vo
at that height. The geostrophic wind blows along the contours with the lower value "'V, = Vi - Vo
contours on the left in the N hemisphere and on the right in the S hemisphere. Figure 6.8 Thermal Wind
The contour charts can be used for determining cydostrophic and gradient winds.
The limitations of the geostrophic rule equally apply to the contour charts. Example : Calculation of Upper Level Wind
Thermal Wind
Lower Level Wind Thermal Wind Upper Level Wind will be
----
The thermal wind in a layer is defined as that wind which must be added vectorially
270/10kt 270/15 kt 270/10kt +270/15 kt = 270/25 kt
to the geostrophic wind at the lower level in order to obtain the geostrophic wind --
270/10kt 090/15 kt 270/10kt + (-270/15 kt)

at the upper level. ------ --
= -270/05 kt = 090/05 kt
Is may be recalled that the rule for vector addition is : Draw one vector, from the -_.
head of this vector draw the other vector. Join the tail of the first vector to the Table 6.1
head of the second vector.
If the south is warm and the north is cold, a temperature gradient acts from S to
For vector subtraction the above rule applies, except that the direction of the second N. In such a case the thermal wind will be westerly. If such temperature distribution
vector is reversed, as in Fig 6.7 below : continues in the higher levels also, the thermal wind will continue to be westerly
WINDS
of weather systems, such as cyclones, depressions, anticyclones. Change in Vorticity
from level to level and keep on increasing with height. The subtropical westerly Jet
causes divergence and convergence. It is caused by :
stream is an example of thermal wind.
(a) Horizontal Wind Shear : When a belt of strong winds lies along side a
Variation of Wind with Height belt of lighter winds, the faster flow rotates around the slower flow. It may
The temperatures in the troposphere decrease from the equator towards the poles. be cyclonic or anticyc1onnic, depending on the orientation of the two flows.
Therefore the thermal wind throughout the troposphere blows from the west and (b) Curvature of the Flow: Flow around a curve has cyclonic Vorticity when
the Wly component increases with height. In the upper troposphere the winds are air deflects to its left (as in a trough) in the N hemisphere and anticyclonnic
therefore, mainly Wly. (as in a ridge) when it deflects to right.
(c) Rotation of the Earth. Earth rotates from.W to E (anticlockwise, which
Over India Easterly winds prevail above 500 hPa level during the monsoon months is cyclonic for N- hemisphere). Hence the Vorticity due to earth is cyclonic
(June, July, August and September), which strengthen with height. They are weaker
in both the hemispheres.
over N India and stronger over the S India. Tropical Easterly jetstream lies near
13 N latitude at about 15 km. Its position, however, fluctuates Nand S during the Absolute Vorticity. It is the sum of all the above vorticities. Since Vorticity due to
season. earth is always cyclonic, and it predominates, the absolute Vorticity is always
cyclonic.
Outside tropics low level westerly winds usually increase with height with little
change in direction. On the other hand easterlies tend to weaken and eventually Beaufort Scale
become westerly. Due to this the easterlies are often shallow. The Beaufort Force (BF) scale as adopted by Admiral Beaufort to estimate wind
A westerly thermal wind also implies that northerly winds would back with height force is as follows:-
1'1 and southerly winds would veer. BFScale Speed at 10 m (kt)
BFScale Speed at 10 m (kt) .
<1 7 Near Gale 28 - 33
In winters, the speed of the westerlies above the tropopause reduces and eventually 0 Calm
1 - 3
8 Gale 34 - 40
become Ely, which strengthen with height. The strongest westerlies in troposphere 1 Light air
:I occur at about 40,000 ft in a belt between 25 N - 40N. Due to weak thermal gradient in
summer this belt of stronger winds shifts to 40 - 45 N. There is almost similar distribution
2
3
Light breeze
Gentle breeze
Moderate breeze
4 6
7 - 10
11 - 16
9
10
11
Strong Gale
Storm
Violent Storm
41 - 47
48 - 55
56 - 63
of winds in the S hemisphere but with a smaller seasonal variation in speed. 4
64 or more
Fresh breeze
17 - 21 12 Hurricane
5
In the low stratosphere in winters, temperature is lowest in polar regions and Strong breeze 22 - 27
6
maximum between 40 0 and 60° latitude. Hence, westerly winds increase with height
Table 6.2
from the troposphere into the stratosphere. In lower latitudes, equatorwards of the
temperature maximum, westerly decrease with height above the tropopause.
Names of Winds of the World
In the summer hemisphere, temperatures in the stratosphere are highest in the polar Bora- Cold Katabatic wind that originates in the mountains of Yugoslavia and NE
regions and lowest over the tropics resulting in an easterly thermal wind. Italy and flows in the coastal plains of the Adriatic sea.
Vorticity Buran- (Russian Buran Trukish Boran) : Strong NEly wind in Russia and central
Asia. It occurs most frequently in winters and often blows snow (is then called
Vorticity is a measure of rotation or turning. The rotation can be cyclonic or
anticyclonnic. Vorticity plays an important role in the formation and development 'Purga').
WINDS
Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the ........... of wind direction in N hemisphere
Chinook. Warm dry Wly wind on the eastern side of Rocky Mountains. Q4.
(a) Left (b)Right
Dol Drums - Calm wind near Equator where opposing trade winds converge. Geostrophic wind is due to the balance between the forces ...........
Q5.
Haboob- (Arabic hubbub: blowing furiously): Any strong wind which raises sand (a) Coriolis and Frictional
into a sand storm, particularly in Sudan. ~". (b) Pressure gradient and Cydostrophic
(c) Pressure gradient and Coriolis
Harmattan. Hot dusty NEly wind in central Asia.
Q6. CorioUs force is strongest at ...........
Khamsin: Oppressive, hot, dry, often laden with sand, Sly wind over Egypt Apr (c) Equator
(a) Mid latitudes (b) Poles
June.
Q7. Geostrophic rule breaks down at ...........
Mistral: A well known Katabatic wind which descends from snow clad Alps down (c) Equator
(a) Mid latitudes (b) Poles
the Rhone River Velly of France and into Gulf of Lyons along the Mediterranean
Q8. Fohn winds are ........... on the Leeward side of a mountain.
coast.
(a) Dry &Warm (b) Cold & Humid
Monsoon. Any markedly seasonal wind, particularly in E and SE Asia.
Q9. The wind sliding down a hill during night is called ........... wind.
Roaring Forties. These are Wly winds which blow in both the hemispheres between (a) Fohen (b) Anabatic (c) Katabatic
35° and 60° lat. In S hemisphere they are of a very stormy nature beyond 40° lat. Ql0. With the onset of sea breeze there is a ........... in temperature and ........... in
throughout the year. In the olden days sailors called them Roaring Forties or Brave
RH. (c)FalllFall
West Winds, Furious Fifties, and Crying Sixties, since these winds created very noisy (a) Fall/Rise (b) Rise/Fall
surroundings and were not favourable to them. Qll. Sea breeze sets in by ....... : ... and dies off at ...........
Trades. Steady wind blowing between latitudes 10° and 30° from the NE in N (a) Night!Day (b) Day/Night (c) Both Day and Night
hemisphere and from SE in S hemisphere. They were of importance to sailing ships, Q12. If an aircraft in N-hemisphere flies from H to L it will experience
hence were called 'wind that blows trade' by navigators in 18th century. Trade winds (a) Starboard drift (b) Port drift
change direction according to seasonal shift in the high - pressure belts.
Q13. In N-Hemisphere if you experience Port drift, altimeter will read
Q1JESTIONS ON WIND (a) Under (b) Over
Q14. Lines of constant wind speed drawn on weather charts are called
(a) Isobars (b) Isotachs (c) Isogons
Q1. In S hemisphere if an observer faces wind, low will be to his ...........
(a) Right (b) Left Q15. Squall are distinguished from gusts by:
(c) Lower wind speed
Q2. In N hemisphere due to rotation of earth winds are deflected to ...........
(a) Shorter duration (b) Longer duration
(a) Left (b) Right
Q16. The thermal wind is:
Q3. Local Winds follow Buys Ballots law ...........
(a) The wind that blows because of thermals
(b) The warm wind that blows down the hill on the leeward side
(a) False (b) True
61
60
(c) The wind which must be added vectorilly to the lower level geostrophic wind Q29. Due to friction, from day to night for an isobaric pattern (in N hemisphere) the
to obtain the upper level geostrophic wind surface wind backs and weakens
(a) True (b) False
Q17. On a weather map if isobars are closely packed, the surface winds are likely to
be Q30. The winds which spiral inward in a counter-clockwise direction in the NH are
(a) Light and parallel to isobars associated with
(b) Strong and parallel to isobars (a) Turbulence (b) High pressure area (c) Low pressure area
(c) Strong and blowing across the isobars
Q31. Lower level wind 05010 kt, upper level wind 23005 kt, what is the thermal wind
Q 18. Anabatic wind occurs (a) 05005 kt (b) 23015 kt (c) 05015 kt
(a) At night (b) Any time of day and night (c) During day
Q32. A change in wind direction from 310° to 020° is'
Q19. Anabatic wind is stronger than katabatic (a) Backing (b) Veering
(a) True (b) False
Q33. A change from 270° to 250° is
Q20. Katabatic wind is down slope cold wind due to nocturnal cooling (a) Backing (b) Veering
(a) True (b) False
Q34. Sudden change in wind speed from 10 kt to 30 kt and then to 15 kt is
Q21. Katabatic wind occur due to sinking of air down the hill slope (a) Gust (b) Squall (c) gale
(a) True (b) False
Q35. Sudden change in wind speed from 10 kt to 30 kt for 2 - 3 minutes
Q22. Anabatic wind occur due to downward movement of air along valley (a) Squall (b) Gust
(a) True (b) False
Q36. A significant wind shear is generally associated with TS or line squall
Q23. Sea breeze is stronger than land breeze (a) False (b) Thue
(a) True (b) False
Q37. Cyclostrophic wind gives a good approximation of the 2000' wind in an intense
Q24. The wind blows clockwise around a low in aN-hemisphere tropical storm
(a) True (b) False (a) True (b) False
Q25. The wind blows clockwise around a low in S-hemisphere Q38. Rotor clouds have extremely turbulent flying conditions
(a) True (b) False (a) False (b) True
Q26. The wind blows anticlockwise around a low in N-hemisphere
Q39. Friction causes winds to flow cross isobaric by ........... over land and ...........
(a) True (b) False
over sea
Q27. The wind blows anticlockwise around a low in S- hemisphere (a) 20°/10° (b) 20°/30° (c) 40°/30°
(a) True (b) False
Q40. If the S is warmer than the N, level by level, from surface up to higher levels,
Q28. The resultant wind that blows under the influence of pressure gradient force, then the ........... wind will strengthen with height with no change in direction
geostrophic force and cyclostrophic force is called in N hemisphere
(a) Gradient wind (b) Geostrophic wind (c) Cyclostrophic wind (a) Ely (b) Wly (c) Sly (d) Nly
62 63
Q41. Gradient wind is ........... of the geostrophic wind in an anticyclone
(a) Under estimate (b) Accurate (c) Over estimate

Q42. Gale is
(a) persistent strong winds with mean speed 44 kt, associated with thunderstorm
(b) marked increase in wind speed lasing few minutes associated with CB or
dutstorm 7
(c) persistent strong winds exceeding '33 kt, associated with depression
Q43. In N hemisphere thermal wind is parallel to ........... with low value to left
(a) Isobars (b) Isotherms (c) Isallobars VISIBILITY AND FOG
Q44. The inertial flow is

(a) cyclonic in both the Hemispheres
(b) anti cyclonic in both the Hemispheres
(c) anti cyclonic around an anticyclone
Visibility on the ground and from the air are of great importance to a pilot for landing
Q45. Lower level wind is 05010 kt, upper level wind is 23005 kt, what is the thermal and take off. He is interested to see various land marks, targets, obstructions, beacon
wind? lights, other aircraft, runways etc, while in flight and during approach and landing.
(a) 05005 kt (b) 23015 kt (c) 05015 kt Poor visibility is a serious aviation hazard. Even at the airfields where Instrument
Landing Systems (ILS) are installed, a pilot would prefer better visibility conditions
ANSWERS for safe landings and take offs.
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Definition Visibility for aeronautical purposes is the greatest of:
8 9 10 11 12 13
A b b a b c b c a c a b a a The greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions, situated near
, .Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26
the ground, can be seen and recognized when observed against the bright background.
A b b c b c b a a b a
b a a The greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of 1,000 candela can be seen
Q. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 and identified against an unlit background.
A. b a a c b b a a a b a b a In simple terms it is the distance up to which prominent objects can be seen by
Q. 40 41 42 43 44 45
naked eye and recognized as such under natural light.
A b c c b b b
Visibility Reports
The visibility reported by a Met Office is the lowest horizontal visibility at an
airfield. It may be different in different directions due to varying amounts of
atmospheric obscurities. This visibility may also differ from vertical and slant
visibilities, as estimated by an aircraft while in-flight.
64
65
AVIATION METEOROLOGY VISIBILITY AND FOG
During Day visibility is estimated by seeing the runway markings and objects at pre occurs due to condensation of water vapour present in the layers of air close
measured distances, along the runway, within and around the airfield. At night it to the ground. The condensation can occur either by cooling of the air to dew
is estimated from the existing lights at known distances in and around the airport. point or by feeding moisture into the air to saturate it.
These are called Visibility Land Marks.
Smog. When fog and smoke haze co-exist it is called smog. In smog visibility
Runway Visual Range (RVR)
is very poor. It severely limits visibility and is a health hazard.
It is the range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of the runway
Dust Storm. The visibility in a dust storm is 5000 m or less. If the dust storm
can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying
is followed by rain visibility improves fast.
its centre line.
Sea Spray. Under the favourable wind conditions salt par!icles get sprayed from
The airports having RVR equipment, installed along various runways, measure RVR wave crests in the lower levels, which encourage condensation. The water drops
close to the take off and landing areas. RVR is reported when the visibility or RVR so formed can reduce visibility considerably. In rare cases a thin layer of salt
is less than 1500 m. may form on the wind screen of an aircraft flying at low level and render forward
visibility to almost zero. Salt spray may also reduce visibility during monsoons
Causes of Poor Visibility
and cyclones in the coastal areas.
The surface visibility is reduced by the atmospheric obscurities, such as smoke
particles, sea spray, dust, industrial particles, vehicular emission, Volcanic Ash etc. Precipitation. The visibility in rain depends on its intensity and the drop size.
The weather phenomenon which affect visibility are: In moderate rain visibility may reduce to 1-3 km, in heavy rain or showers to
less than 1000 m, in drizzle to 3 km or less and during snowfall it may lower
Haze. Haze is a suspension of very small particles of smoke, dust, water, etc. to < 1000 m.
Visibility in haze is 5000 m or less. It gives a milky appearance to the atmosphere.
Dust Haze. Dust kicked up by strong winds, especially in desert and semi-arid
areas, is suspended in the air, causes Dust Haze. It is thicker during day time
than at night because at night the winds weaken and part of the dust settles down.
It is a summer hazard. Dust haze is usually widespread and diversionary airfields
in the vicinity are also equally affected. Sometimes the Dust haze may extend
from Rajasthan to Punjab, Haryana, Up, Bihar and adjoining states. Vertically
it may extend to 6-8 km.
Smoke Haze. Smoke from industrial or domestic sources spreads as a haze layer, Aerodrome invisible
especially when the wind is calm or very light and there is strong ground inversion.
Mist. Mist is the suspension of water droplets in the atmosphere. In mist visibility
is at least 1000 m but not more than 5000 m. In mist RH is almost 1000/0.
Fog. Fog is the suspension of water droplets or ice crystals in the atmosphere.
In fog visibility reduces to less than 1000m. In fog RH is nearly 1000/0. Fog is
classified as : thick, moderate, light Fog is the cloud sitting on grounds. Fog Figure 7.1 Obscuring ofan aerodrome through surface fog as an aircraft descends
66
67
VISIBILITY AND FOG
extend upwards due to turbulence to too thick a layer. The temperature may not
Vertical and Slant Visibility fall sufficiently for fog formation. In such cases stratus cloud may form at the top
Haze and fog layers are generally confined to a few thousand feet above ground of the layer of turbulence.
level. Further aloft the transparency of the atmosphere increases considerably
except in cloud and precipitation. Visibility is always lower looking towards the sun For fog formation a delicate balance is required between the rate of cooling and
than away from it and is better into the moon, due to reflection of the moon light. the degree of turbulence, which depends on the wind speed and roughness of terrain.
This is the reason why under almost identical meteorological conditions one locality
When a shallow layer of haze or fog is covering an airfield, the horizontal visibility may have fog while another close-by may be free from fog.
is poor. However, a pilot flying over the airfield above the haze layer may be able
to see the airfield clearly, as he sees through a vertically thinner layer of fog or haze, Favourable conditions for Fog Formation
hence better Vertical Visibility. Whereas, when he is approaching for landing, his view (a) High Relative Humidity: This is necessary so the.t little cooling IS required
is slant and has to see through lln elongated layer of fog or haze, hence poor Slant to reach the dew-point, and condensation of water vapour to occur.
Visibility. This is deceptive since, on approach for landing, he would suddenly encounter (b) Clear Sky: Clear skies permit maximum nocturnal cooling of the ground
poor visibility and may loose sight of the runway. This is illustrated in the figure above. and adjacent layers of the air.
At higher levels the transparency of the atmosphere increases considerably except (c) Light Wind: Surface wind of2-7 kt enables turbulent mixing and cooling
in cloud and precipitation. Visibility is always lower looking towards the sun than of the layers close to the ground and bring their temperature to the dew
away from it and is better into the. moon, due to reflection of the moon light. point.
(d) Stability. A generally stable atmosphere, so that mixing and ,cooling are
Instruments for Measuring Visibility confined to a shallow layer.
Scopograph or Transmissometer are used for measuring visibility along the different In Anticyclones and Cols the wind is light, there is subsidence to provide styahility
runways on an aerodrome. The RVR equipment are installed along various runways and the skies are clear. Fog would. form if the air has adequate moisture.
close to take off and landing areas. The equipment consists of a light source and
a photoelectric receiver, which generates electric current according to the obscurities Radiation fog forms even when the RH is less than 100% due to the presence of
present between the receiver and the source. The current so generated gives a hygroscopic condensation nuclei, on which condensation occurs prematurely.
measure of RVR. The display units are located in the Met Office and ATC Tower. The minimum temperature occurs usually just after sunrise. At about the same time
At some of the Indian Met Offices, Automatic Visual Range Assessor (AVRA) is there is slight strengthening of the wind. Fog formation is, therefore, most frequent
used for measuring RVR. at about sunrise or it thickens at that time. The radiation fog dissipates about two
three hours after sunrise due to heating, but if it is deep" the sun's heat may take
TYPES OF FOG longer to penetrate to the ground, and the fog may last till about midday. Fog usually
lifts into low stratus clouds before finally dissipating.
Radiation Fog
Radiation Fog in India is awinter hazard. It usually forms after the passage of
Radiation fog forms due to the nocturnal cooling of the ground and the adjacent
a Western Disturbance, which caused rain and then sky cleared. It is almost a daily
air layers. It is essential that the cooling should lower the temperature below the
feature in winters in the valley of the Brahmaputra river where adequate moisture
dew-point. If the wind is light, there is no turbulent mixing. The cooling of the
is present and katabatic flow provides the required turbulence and additional
ground is unable to extend upwards at a sufficient rate. In such cases the moisture
cooling. The most susceptible areas of radiation fog are: NW India, Up, Bihar,
close to the ground settles down as dew. If the wind is very strong the cooling may
69
68
VISIBILITY AND FOG
Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Bengal and Assam (particularly Southern banks of
Brahmaputra river). Use of Hygroscopic Nuclei. When hygroscopic particles are injected into fog water
drops form. This lowers the RH of the air leading to dissipation of fog.
Vertical Extent of Radiation Fog
Vertically radiation fogs extends to only a few hundred feet to 1500 ft. The upper Q!JESTIONS ON VISIBILITY AND FOG
surface of fog is sharp with clear air above.
Pressure Systems Associated with Radiation Fog Q 1. Fog is reported when visibility is reduced to
(a) Less than 1000 m (b) 1000m (c) 1000 to 2000
A High or Col with weak pressure gradient is favourable for fog formation. Fog Q2. RVR is reported when visibility falls below
. does not form when the pressure gradient is steep and low level winds are strong. (a) 500 m (b) 1000 m (c) 1500 m • (d) 2000 m
Advection Fog Q3. Radiation fog occurs
Advection fog forms when warm moist air from elsewhere is transported over the (a) Over land (b) Over sea (c) During day
cold surface (ground or water) where the surface temperature is less than the dew
Q4. When visibility reduces between 5000 m and 1000 m and RH is almost 1000/0,
point of the advected air. Advection fog forms both over land an4 sea. The coastal
it is
fogs of Bengal and Orissa in the winters are due to a combined effect of advection
(a) Mist (b) Haze (c) Fog
and radiation. The Brahmaputra valley, Sunder Bans, the coastal belts and the hills
of Indian Peninsula experience advection fog. Q5. Radiation Fog forms over N India during
(a) May to June (b) Dec to Feb (c) Oct to Nov.
Steaming Fog
Q6. Warm and moist air moving over a cold ground gives rise to:
This type of fog occurs in high latitudes when cold air mass flows over a warm sea
surface. The water vapoQr from warm sea when comes in contact with the cold air (a) Thunder clouds (b) Fog 'and stratus (c) Frontal clouds
aloft condenses to form steaming fog. It is common over frozen land, ice covered Q7. Warm and moist air moving over .a cold surface causes
polar regions and in Icelandic and Norwegian regions. Over sea, it is often referred (a) Radiation Fog (b) Advection Fog (c) Frontal Fog
to as sea smoke. It looks like the steam coming out of the surface.
Q8. The radiation fog forms due to
Frontal Fog (a) Heating of the earth during· day
Frontal fog forms near the front due to the saturation of the air near the surface (b) Radiational cooling of earth at night
in the area of continuous rain ahead of a front. It also forms due to the lowering (c) Advection of cold air
of cloud to the surface with the passage of a front. Q9. The radiation fog activity' increases after the passage of a ...........
Fog Dispersal (a) WD (b) Depression (c) Col
Thermal Method. When air is heated to temperature above the dew point, fog Ql0. Radiation fog is essentially a ........... phenomena
or clouds will dissipate. During the Second World war heaters, burners, fires were (a) Nocturnal (b) Dusk (c) Day
used to disperse fog but the method involved large expenditures and was
Qll. The radiation fog forms over ......... ..
discontinued.
(a) Water (b) Land (c) Both
70
71
Q 12. The ...... fog forms due to horizontal movement of warm moist air over cold
surface
(a) Radiation (b) Advection (c) Frontal t~
Q13. Advection fog forms during

(a) night only (b) day time only
Q14. For formation of Radiation fog

(c) any time of day and night
8
(a) There should be sufficient moisture in atmosphere, cloudy sky, nil wind
(b) There should be sufficient moisture in atmosphere, clear sky, light wind.
(c) There should be sufficient moisture in atmosphere, cloudy sky, strong wind. VERTICAL MOTION AND. CLOUDS
Q15. Instrument used for measuring visibility is called
(a) Visiometer (b) Transmissometer (c) Ceilometer
Q16. Advection fog forms

(a) over sea (b) over Land (c) both over land and sea
VERTICAL MOTION
Q17. Fog is ........... cloud on ground
Compared to the horizontal motion of the air (Wind) the vertical motion is of very
(a) Stratocumulus (b) Stratus (c) Nimbostratus little magnitude, yet its importance in causing weather is no less. The vertkal motion
Q18. Frontal Fog is more common with a of air in the atmosphere is important for aviation, as it causes weather, turbulence,
(a) Western Disturbance (b) Cyclone convergence, divergence, wind shear etc. Vertical motion induced by fractional
(c) Warm Front (d) Cold Front turbulence is an important factor in generation of fog and clouds. For aviation,
Q19. The favourable pressure system for formation of fog is
frictional turbulence at low levels assumes special significance during landing and
(a) Lows and Cols (b) High and Trough take-off.
(c) Lows and Ridges (d) Highs and Cols
Types
Q20. Thermal processes I temperature distribution which favours formation of fog is Localised Vertical Motion. Local vertical motion is caused by the friction, terrain
(a) Isothermal (b) Adiabatic
and convection. The occurrence of Sea/Land Breeze, Katabatic Winds, Anabatic
(c) Inversion (d) SALR
Winds, Valley Winds etc are due to the local vertical motion. Mostly the local
vertical motions are confined to a few kilometers only, except in case of Thunder
ANSWERS
storms.
I
Q. 1 2 3 I
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 " Large Scale Vertical Motion. Large scale vertical motion is caused by the pressure
A. a c a a b b b b a a b b c systems, frontal systems, upper air troughs and ridges and mountains. It may extend
Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 to hundreds of kilometers horizontally and to great heights. The vertical motion due
A. b b c b c d C
to mountain waves may even extend to upper stratosphere.
7') 73
VERTICAL MOTION AND CLOUDS
being stable acts as a barrier). Lows, cyclones, depressions and troughs are associated
Causes
with convergence which cause upward motion and bad weather but better visibility,
Frictional Eddies. Ground friction disrupts the smooth airflow and produces a number except in precipitation.
of small circulations, called eddies. They could be horizontal, vertical or slant. In an
unstable atmosphere these eddies grow and may ascend to about 1 km height. Divergence
Terrain. Air flow across mountains causes air to ascend on the windward side and A net out flow of air it is called divergence. For example wind to the West of a
descend on the leeward side. These vertical motions are accentuated due to instability station is Wly 10 kt and to the East is Wly 20 kt. In this case less wind is entering
and are damped due to inversion. When winds are strong, mountain waves are a place and more is outflowing, hence divergence (also called velocity divergence) ..
produced on the leeward side. Eddies form on both the slopes of a mountain. The In the upper air the divergence causes subsidence. Anticyclones and ridges are
disturbance due to mountain waves sometimes extends to upper stratosphere where associated with divergence leads to fine weather, but p.oor visibility conditions ..
Nacreous Clouds form due to transported water vapour from the lower levels.
CLOUDS
Convection. Heating of the ground causes air to rise as convection cells. These are
called thermal eddies or thermals. Gliders use them to their advantage. Thermal Cloud is an aggregate of visible form of water droplets or ice particles. The cloud
eddies cause bumpiness an~ also favour the formation of convection clouds (CU (
drops are produced by condensation and deposition of water vapour in the atmosphere.
and CB), in which there are strong up and down draughts.
\,
Deposition is the process where water vapour directly changes into solid ice particles.
Pressure Systems. All the pressure systems viz. low, cyclone, anticyclone etc cause
Clouds are continuously evolving and decaying. They present unlimite9. variety and
large mass of air to ascend or descend over a wide area. These generate weather
forms. The recognition and understanding of various characteristics and peculiarities
and affect air operations. Such systems also cause convergence and divergence.
of clouds are essential for safe conduct of air operations. To fully appreciate the
Frontal Zones. Fronts provide sloping surfaces along which wind rises. Along a warm state of sky, an aviator should be familiar with their classification, names, appearance,
frontal surface the vertical motion is gradual over a large area. Along a cold frontal ~ nature and associated aviation hazards. Photographs of a few clouds are presented
surface there is abrupt and sharp upward motion leading to convection, TS and at Appendix D.
squally weather.
Classification
Wind Shear. Vertical wind shear produces strong eddies and turbulence. The Clear
There are 10 major genera of clouds. They are classified on the basis of Form and
Air Turbulence (CAT) associated with the Jet Stream is due to vertical wind shear.
Height. By Form they are Stratiform, Cumuliform and Cirriform. According to .
The effect is amplified over the mountains due to the Mountain Waves.
Height they are placed in three categories:
\
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE ASSOCIATED
(a) High Clouds. These clouds form at a height of 6-18 km, in tropics. They
WITH LOW AND HIGH
consist of ice crystals and some of them may cause precipitation which
remains confined to high/medium levels only. These clouds give an advance
Convergence indication of the impending weather.
Convergence occurs when there is a net horizontal inflow of air into a region. The (b) Medium Clouds. In tropics they occur at about 2-8 km and contain water
air accumulated due to convergence (called velocity convergence) and causes ascent droplets and ice crystals. They cause snow and rain.
of air near the ground whereas in the upper levels, the convergence may lead to (c)
Low Clouds. These clouds occur below 2 km. They consist of water
both upward and downward motion, especially below tropopause (stratosphere droplets or ice crystals.
75
74
DIVERGENCE CONVERGENCE
High Clouds
~
Cirrus (CI). These clouds are white and fibrous delicate filaments or patches or
narrow bands. They are composed of ice crystals. They do not cause precipitation
. or ice accretion.
More Outflow
~
Less Outflow
Cirrostratus (CS). CS douds are thin whitish veil of fibrous or smooth appearance,
composed of ice crystals. They cover almost the whole sky. They generally produce
Halo, a coloured circular ring around the sun or moon with violet colour inside.
When thick they may cause snow fall, which remains confined to high and medium
levels. They hardly cause any ice accretion. .
~L -1L
Cirrocumulus (CC). CC clouds are thin, white, wave like very small puffs, composed
of ice crystals. They are more or less regularly arranged. The sky is visible in between
the puffs. They do not cause precipitation and hardly any ice accretion.
Subsidence Convection
Medium Clouds
Altocumulus (AC). These are white-grey clouds, composed of patches, puffs, rounded
masses, rolls, etc. The round masses are generally well arranged in long waves, rows
"'/.----. ~/
or lanes. The sky is visible in between the puffs. Altocumulus Lanticularis are lense
...- shaped douds, which form at the crests of mountain waves on the leeward side of
high mountains. They do not cause precipitation but may cause ice accretion.
.
/1\ /f\
Altostratus (AS). These are uniformly grayish or whitish cloud sheets or layers of
fibrous appearance. They totally or partly cover the sky. If thin, they reveal the sun,
Divergence Convergence asthrough ground glass. Optical phenomena Corona occurs in these clouds. Thick
altostratus causes continuous rain or snow. Ice accretion is possible below freezing
temperatures.
Nimbostratus (NS). These are dark grey and thick cloud layer, causing continuous
rain or snow. They are thick enough to blot out the sun. usually extend both higher
and lower levels. Ice accretion is possible below freezing temperatures. .
Low Clouds
Stratocumulus (SC). These are low clouds of large, irregular puffs or rolls, gray or
Cyclone Anticyclone whitish in appearance. SC clouds are regularly arranged.
Figure 8.1 Divergence and Convergence Stratus (ST). A gray cloud layer with a uniform base. ST douds may stretch from
horizon to horizon. ST may give drizzle, ice prisms or snow grains. ST cloud
76
77
May - mid August). Earlier it was believed that they were made up of meteoric
touching the ground or sitting on the ground is called Fog. In bad weather sometimes
dust but rocket measurements reveal that they consist of ice-particles.
ST is in the from of ragged patches or small fractures, called Fracto Stratus.
Reporting of Cloud Base
Clouds with Vertical Development
The base of cloude is reported from above ground level in Reports (METAR, SPECI
Cumulus (CU): CU are detached clouds, generally dense with sharp outlines. Their
etc), TAP, Local forecast. Onlr in area forecast charts, it is from above mean sea level.
base is dark and nearly horizontal. They develop vertically as rising mounds, domes
or towers. The bulging upper part of CU often resembles a cauliflower. The sunlit Altitude of the Various Cloud Genera
parts of these clouds are brilliant white. Sometimes cumulus is ragged. A well
The clouds can be identified by the approximate altitudes at which they normally
developed CU with great vertical extent .is termed as Towering Cumulus (TCU).
occur. The approximate altitudes of low, medium and· high clouds are: .
Fair Weather Cumulus: These clouds have limited vertical extent and they do not Polar Region Temperate Region Tropical Region
Level of Clouds
cause precipitation. They are caused by thermal currents due to surface heating. 20,000 - 60,000 ft
High. 10,000- 25,000 ft 16,000 - 45,000 ft
Hence they occur during day time only. They develop in the forenoon, reach (3 - 8) km (5 - 13) km (6 - 18) km
maximum development in the afternoon and dissipate in the evening. 6,500 - 25,000 ft
Medium 6,500 - 13,000 ft 6,500 - 23,000 ft
Cumulonimbus (CB): Heavy and dense cloud of large vertical extent, as mountains (2 - 4) km (2 - 7) km (2-8) km
or huge towers. Part of its upper portion is usually smooth, fibrous and nearly Low up to 6,500 ft up to 6,500 ft up to 6,500 ft
flattened and spreads out as anvil. The base of this cloud is often very dark, under (2 km) (2 km) (2km) ,
which there are low ragged cumulus fractus or stratus fractus clouds. Sometimes
the precipitation is seen as Virga ( ie a shaft of rain or snow falling from a distant TableS.2
cloud which vapourises before reaching the ground). CB cause all type of precipitation
viz. RA, SH, GR, SN. This cloud is the most hazardous for aviation, and should 90kml -.,.,
Nactilucent
be avoided.
30km .
Nacreous
Very High Level Clouds
The following clouds are in addition to those discussed above:
Nacreous Clouds (Mother of Pearl Clouds). Observations of nacreous clouds

1 12kmI~-
height
~,l
6km
;,;.. ~
AC. - - AS
~c .... -
(I cs··
- -. - 't'
. . . - -4-" - ,
~
C"'"""aJST NS'
are infrequent, and are mainly from Scotland and Scandinavia. These clouds . 2 km .. "",no - - Jt_;,:, "":-:,,
resemble cirrus or altocumulus Lanticularis. They show very strong irisation
CLOUDS AND THEIR APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS
(rainbow coloured patches) and may be composed of ice crystals or supercooled
water droplets. They form in the upper Stratosphere. Figure 8.2
Noctilucent Clouds. These clouds resemble cirrus but have a bluish or silvery Cloud of Operational Significance
and sometimes orange to red colour. They occur in the upper Mesosphere
A cloud with the height of cloud base below 1500m (5000 ft) or below the highest
(between 80 and 85 km). They are visible soon after sunset and just before
minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater.
. .sunrise between 72° Nand 45° N, but mostly around 55°N, in summers (late
79
78
AVIATION METEOROLOGY VERTICAL MOTION AND CLOUDS
Flying Conditions In Clouds Cloud Species
Stratiform Clouds. Flying in stratiform clouds (AS and CS) is generally smooth. Even The cloud species, based on the form and structure are briefly described below:
during the monsoon months when there are thick cloud layers of AS and NS, the
• Fibrous. Clouds in the form of filaments without tufts or hooks.
flying may be very smooth. In NS clouds the visibility is reduced due to continuous
• Lenticularis. Elongated lens shaped CC, AC or SC clouds with sharp
precipitation. ST clouds reduce slant visibility and cause difficulty in locating the margins. These clouds are mostly of orographic origin, or on lee side of
runway during landings. Ice accretion also occurs in AS and NS clouds above
CB or TCU clouds.
freezing levels. • Castellanus. CI, CC, or AC cloud with cumuliform protuberances. Such
Cumuliform Clouds. The CC and AC may cause some amount of turbulence. Fair clouds are generally connected by a common base and seem to be arranged
weather CU and SC cause bumpiness while flying through. Well developed CU, TCU in lines.
and CB can pose serious aviation hazards. The hazards like severe turbulence, hail, • Fractus. Ragged ST or CU cloud.
strong up and downdraughts, gusts, ice accretion, lightening etc are common. Flying • Congestus. CU clouds which have strong sprouting and great vertical
though CB should be avoided. Even areas 10 - 20 km around an active CB cloud development. Its bulgings resemble a cauliflower.
there is likelihood of turbulence. Squalls associated with the CB clouds adversely • Calves. CB with no cirrus at the top but some of the protuberances begin
affect landing and take off, hence such operations should be avoided during TS. Hail to change to fibrous structure.
• Capillatus. CB with distinct anvil. This cloud is generally accompanied by
may also be experienced in clear air below the anvil.
aSH, TS, SQ and GR. It also produces well defined Virga.
Cloud Amount
CONDENSATION TRAILS
For expressing cloud amount, the sky is divided into eight imaginary parts. Each
part of it is called one Octa as:
Condensation trails are visible streaks of condensed water vapour formed in the
wake of a moving aircraft. These are:
Cloud Amount Nil 1-2/8 3-4/ 8 15-7 I 8 18 I 8
Termed as SKC FEW SCT BKN avc ISky not visible Wing Tip Trails. Thin transient and short lived contrails, which form near the wing
(Sky clear) (Few) tips and propeller edges due to aerodynamic reduction of pressure, expansion
Sky Condition IFine I Fair . air and consequent adiabatic cooling and condensation of the atmospheric vapour.
Exhaust Trails. These form due to the condensation of moisture from aircraft
Table 8.3
exhaust at about 9 km and above. They are long, persistent and visible. They reveal
CloudCeiling
position and track of an aircraft.
The height, above the ground or water surface, of the lowest layer of the
cloud below 6000 m (20000 ft), covering more than half of the sky (5/8 or more). Distrails or Dissipation Trails. Sometimes the passage of an aircraft through a
cloudis marked by the appearance of clear lanes. These are termed as distrails
Height of Cloud Base Height (distance from surface) (opposite to contrails). Distrails occur where heat released by the aircraft exhaust
is sufficient to evaporate the cloud in its wake.
The height of the base of clouds in weather reports is from above the ground level
(AGL) and in area forecast charts from above the sea level (AMSL)
80 81
Q.5. To avoid icing in cloudy conditions, a pilot is advised to fly through a cloud which
Mintra, Drytra and Maxtra Levels
shows an optical phenomena
Mintra Level (ML). Below ML no condensation trails from. The flight level at which (a) Halo (b) Corona (c) With multi-coloured clouds
temperature is about -45 0 C gives a good estimate of ML at 100% RH for jet ai~craft.
Q6. Dark gray cloud giving continuous rain is called
Drytra Level. When temperature are very low, contrails form even when RH is 0%. (a) AS (b) NS (c) ST (d) CB
In such cases the moisture from the exhaust is sufficient to produce saturation. This
Q7. A uniform layer of cloud resembling fog but not on the ground
is known as dytra level. It is usually 2 km above the mintra level for saturated air.
(a) AS (b) NS (c) ST
Maxtra Level This level lies in the stratosphere. Above this level no contrails
form. Q8. The clouds composed of ice crystals having feathery appearance
(a) CI (b) CS (c) AS
NO CONTRAILS Maxtra Level Q9. NS clouds occur
CONTRAILS POSSIBLE Saturated Air
(a) At cold front (b) At warm front
Maxtra Level
Q10. Halo is associated with the cloud
w¥f9
77
Contrails
J
Dry Air (dry: max)

TROPOPAUSE
Maxtra Level
Dry Air (drr.tra)

Mintra Level
(a) AC (b) AS
Q11. Corona is associated with the cloud
(a) AS (b) AC
(c) CS
(c) CC
(d) CI
(d) C~
NO CONTRAILS
Q12. Lenticular clouds indicate presence of
Saturated Air
SEALEVAL (a) Warm Front (b) Cold front (c) Mountain waves
Q13. The lowest leve! below which -condensation trails will not form is
Figure 8.4 Mintra, Drytra and Maxtra Levels
(a) Mintra Level (b) Drytra Level (c) Maxtra Level
Q!}ESTIONS ON VERTICAL MOTION AND CLOUDS Q14. Rain falling from cloud but not reaching ground is
(a) Virgo (b) Virga (c) Mirage
Q1. Drizzle occurs from Q15. CB with distinct anvil is called
(a) CS (b) ST (c) NS (d) CU (a) Castellanus (b) Capillatus (c) Uncinus
Q2. Altostratus . (AS) is Q16. Cloud ceiling is the height of the cloud covering ...... :....
(a) Low cloud of sheet type (b) A medium cloud of sheet type (a) 3-4/8 (b) 8/8 (c) 5/8 or more
(c) A cloud of large vertical growth (d) A high cloud of sheet type
Q17. No condensation trails occur above
Q3. Showers occurs from (a) Maxtra Level (b) Dytra Level (c) Mintra Level
(a) CU (b) CB (c) AS (d) AC
Q18. Cloud of operational significance has base below........ m or below the highest
Q4.Heavy icing is possible in minimum sector altitude, which is greater
(a) CI (b) CS (c) ~T (d) CB (a) 1500 (b) 2000 (c) 1000
82
83
Q19. AC cloud with cumuliform protuberances are indicative of

(a) Stability (b) Instability (c) Neutrality
Q20. Hail may be experienced under the anvil of a CB

(a) True (b) False
ANSWERS 9
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A. b b b d a b c a b c a c a STABILITY AND INSTABILITY OF
Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ATMOSPHERE
A. b b c a a b a
Atmospheric Processes
Air is bad conductor of heat. Hence a small (rising or falling) parcel of air, involved
in atmospheric processes, can be regarded as insulated from the surroundings.
Isothermal Process. In this pr.ocess heat is allowed to enter or leave the system
so that its temperature remains the same.
Adiabatic Process. In an adiabatic process heat does not enter or leave the
system. (Greek a = not, diabano = pass through). If a parcel of air ascends
adiabatically it moves in a region of lower pressure and expands. The work done
by the parcel in expanding is at the expense of its internal energy. Consequently
its temperature falls. Conversely the temperature of a descending parcel rises
as its internal energy increases due to work done by the air in compressing it.
Adiabatic processes, to a large extent, determine the vertical distribution of
temperature in the atmosphere.
Lapse Rate (LR). It denotes decrease of temperature with height in the atmosphere.
It is taken positive when temperature decreases with height. The average lapse rate
in the troposphere is about 6.S o C/km.
84
85
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY OF ATMOSPHERE
DALR ELR and SALR
down further and will not return to its original spot (unstable). On the other hand
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR). The rate at which temperature of a parcel of if the ball is placed at the center of a convex glass, displaced and left, will oscillate
air decreases with height when it is made to ascend adiabatically is known as DALR. and finally come to its original spot like a pendulum (stable). The Stratosphere and
For unsaturated air it is 9.8° C per km ( 3° C /1000 ft). Thermosphere have stable atmosphere.
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR). It is the actual lapse rate existing in the atmosphere. Atmospheric Instability. A layer is stable if a parcel of air in it is given a small push
It is intermediate between DALR and SALR, being closer to SALR. In ISA, ELR upwards, sinks back to its original level. It is neutral if it remains at the new level.
is 6.5 °C per km. However, in actual atmosphere it may have any value. It may have It is unstable if it continues to move up at its own. To ,estImate ~tatu.:: stability in
super adiabatic lapse rate i.e. more than DALR, may have negative lapse rate a layer of air, changes in the kinetic energy (KE) of a test parcel of the layer is
(inversion) or may even have zero lapse rate (isothermal).
estimated from Aerological Diagram'(T-phi gram). The atmosphere is stable, neutral
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR). When saturated air is lifted adiabatically, or unstable according as the KE of the parcel decreases, remains constant or
it cools. The extra water vapour condenses and latent heat is liberated. This offsets increases. Troposphere and Mesosphere, where temperature falls with height, have
the adiabatic fall of temperature. The residual lapse rate, is,caIled SALR. It is about instable atmosphere;
5° C per km. Unlike DALR, it is not constant. At higher levels where temperatures
Conditional Instability. It is the state of atmosphere in which DALR > ELR > SALR
are low, very little water vapour is present and the latent heat released in condensation
i.e. the atmosphere is unstable for saturated air and stable for unsaturated air.
is small. Hence the SALR approaches DALR, at the levels where temperature is
below - 40° C. Latent Instability. An atmospheric layer in which an initially stabl,e ,parcel of air
Inversion. Increase of temperature with height is called Inversion. It is the negative eventually becomes unstable due to forced ascent possesses latent (hidden) instability.
lapse rate. Low level inversion is common during winters due to nocturnal cooling. It is Real Latent if the force required to lift the parcel is much less than the energy
It is also associated with ridges, high pressure areas and anticyclones. Inversion released when it becomes unstable. It is Pseudo Latent if the energy required to
indicates stability and lack of turbulence in the atmosphere. Lower level inversion lift it is more than the ene\,gy released later.
does not allow surface air to rise and mix with the upper winds. Hence smoke, haze, Potential (Convective) Instability. Sometimes when a layer as a whole lifted bodily
mist, dust and fog stagnate over the ground causing poor visibility, Inversion is often becomes unstable. The instability occurs if the latent heat released on lifting produces
present at the top of a stratified cloud layer or of fog, especially radiation fog. a sufficient temperature difference between the bottom and top of the layer to
Inversion Layer. It is an atmospheric layer in which there is an inversion of temperature. steepen the LR of lifted layer. For potential instability to occur it is essential that
The vertical motion through such a layer is inhibited due to stability in the layer. An the RH is high in the lower levels and low in the higher levels.
inversion layer near the earth's surface occurs during cloudless cool nights. Inversion
Stability Criteria
at higher levels is associated with anticyclones and sometimes with the fronts.
When
INSTABILITY AND STABILITY Dry air is Stable DALR> ELR
Saturated air is Stable SALR> ELR
Air (Dry or Saturated) is Absolutely Stable SALR> ELR
A system is unstable, if on displacement it does not return to its original position,
Air (Dry or Saturated) is Absolutely Unstable ELR> DALR
e.g. a glass ball placed at the top of an inverted watch-glass if displaced will roll
Conditional Instability DALR > ELR > SALR
86
87
AVIATION METEOROLOGY STABILITY AND INSTABILITY OF ATMOSPHERE
When lifted a parcel of dry air follows DALR and Saturated air follows SALR. On Tphigram. It is a thermodynamic diagram on which upper air temperatures, winds
comparing the temperature at any level, AB in Figure 9.1, of the lifted air with the and dew point temperature, as obtained from Radiosonde and Rawin are plotted
environmental temperature ( as given by ELR), Stability or Instability can be found at various levels. It is used for estimating various meteorogical parameters viz.
out. If the temperature of lifted parcel is more than the environmental temperature, Instability Stability in the atmosphere, Temperature and winds at various levels,
it will shoot up i.e. Instable atmosphere. If colder it will sink i.e. Stable atmosphere. Altimeter correction, Tropopause, Mintra Level, Lifting Condensation Level (LCL),
base and top of cloud, Potential and Latent Instability, wet bulb temperature etc.
r
SALR [-t The Tphigram, used in India has of the following lines:
~
ELR • Horizontal Lines Potential Temperature or DALR
SALR • Vertical Lines Temperatu.re
f
ELR
AI
~ .. \ \. B
::r::
AI ,
}, }, B
• Slanting Lines 45° to DALR Pressure at different levels
253: 263< 2130 2830 293~ 303:

34.0 D
Temperature
Temperature 330U
SALR> ELR
DALR > ELR > SALR
Stable (for Saturated Air)
Conditional instability n
320
y -"50
DALR ELR SALR ELR ,LR DALR
~
[-t l 4S
5
~l
-~ 18
J p
1r \ \ B llA \', B
.~
-
\. -11 00 J---.,...u
::r::
2
C
10loi
---+ --tIJ.
--.. Temperature Temperature -1050
Temperature
SALR> ELR
ELR > DALR -20~ -10~ _0 0 c
DALR> ELR
Asolutely Stable Absolutely Instable
Stable (for Dry Air)
(For Dry & Sat Air) (For Dry & Sat Air) Tephigram
Figure 9.1 Stability Instability Diagrams Figure 9.2 Tphigram
88 89
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY OF ATMOSPHERE
Q8. The surface air temp. is 30°e. Assuming DALR prevailing what is the temperature
• Curved lines slanting to left
at 2 km
gradually becoming parallel to
(a) 18° C (b) 10° C (c) 4r C
DALR at higher levels SALR
• Dashed Lines slightly slanting left Isohygric or lines of equal saturation Q9. An Isothermal atmosphere is:
mixing ratio (glkg). At temperatures (a) Stable (b) Unstable (c) Neutral
separate lines for saturation over water
Q10. If environmental lapse· rate(ELR) is less than SALR, that part of the atmosphere
and over ice.
is said to be:
Normand Theorem. The theorem states that if we produce DALR from dry bulb (a) Absolutely unstable
temperature, SALR from wet bulb temperature and isohygric from the dew point (b) Conditionally unstable
temperature, all of three lines meet at a point, called Normand Point. Hence. by (c) Absolutely stable
knowing TT and Td Td we can calculate Tw Tw at any level in the atmosphere. Q11. DALR is approximately
(a) 5° C /km (b) 15° C /km (c) 10° C /km
QlJESTIONS ON STABILITY OF INSTABILITY ATMOSPHERE
Q12. SALR at mean sea level is about
(a) 10° C/Km (b) 5° C/Km (c) 5° F/Km

Q1. DALR = 9.8 DC, ELR = 6.8 DC ; atmosphere is
(a) stable (b) unstable (c) indifferent t./'
Q13. SALR approaches DALR
(a) at O°C (b) at -15°F (c) at -40°C
Q2. SALR = 5.5 DC, ELR= 4.5 DC ; atmosphere is
(a) unstable (b) stable (c) indifferent
Q14. Dry air having a temperature of 35°C on surface when forced to rise adiabatically
by 1 km would attain a ~emperature of
Q3. DALR> ELR > SALR '" (a) 29°C (b) 25°C (c) 45°C
(a) conditionally unstable (b) latently stable (c) potentially stable
Q15. Inversion in the atmosphere indicates
Q4. Dry air is unstable when: (a) Stability (b) Instability (c) Neutrality
(a) ELR=DALR (b) ELR>DALR (c) ELR<DALR
Q16. Inversion is ......... Lapse Rate (LR)
Q5. The saturated air is said to be unstable if (a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Neutral
(a) SALR=ELR (b) SALR<ELR (c) SALR > ELR
Q17. Environmental LR can be more than DALR
Q6. If ELR = SALR = DALR the atmosphere is (a) True (b) False
(a) Stable (b) Instable (c) Indifferent
Q18. The process which to a large extent determines the vertical distribution of
Q7. DALR means: temperature in atmosphere is
(a) The rate at which temperature of unsaturated parcel of air falls with height (a) Adiabatic (b) Isothermal (c) Isentropic
when made to ascend adiabatically
(b) The rate at which temp falls with height Q19. Rise in temperature with height is
(a) Inversion (b) Lapse (c) Normal

(c) The rate at which ascending parcel of saturated air cools \,.
90 91
Q20. Inversion is common in

(a) Post Monsoon (b) Monsoon (c) Winters
ANSWERS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A. a b a b b c a b a c c b c 10
Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. b a b· a a a c
OPTICAL PHENOMENA
A number of optiCal phenomenon frequently occur in the atmosphere. They provide
useful information about the constitution and type of the douds and their recognition,
atmospheric turbulence, lapse rate, ice accretion etc. This information is of importance
for aviation. Some of the optical phenomenon important in aviation. are briefly
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Rainbow
Rainbow is a group of concentric arcs with colours ranging from violet t(') red,
produced on a background of water drops (raindrops, droplets of drizzle or fog)
in the atmosphere by light from the sun or moon. Sometimes simultaneously two
rainbows are observed, the Primary and the Secondary rainbows.
A primary rainbow is a circle or arc of circles, of colored light, in the sky while
it is raining. The circle subtends an angle of 4r at the eyes. It is seen opposite to
the sun or moon. Its centre is on the line joining the luminary and the observer.
The rainbow may form a complete ring when seenfrom a hill, high tower or from
an aircraft. .
The bow is due to the double refraction of sun rays, once on entering the rain drop
and second time on leaving the drop, with one total internal reflection. The colures
of rainbow are due to refraction of different colours VIBGYOR (red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, and violet) of the sunlight. The red colour is on the outside and
violet on the inside.
92
93
AVIATION METEOROLOGY OPTICAL PHENOMENA
L
sun !
I.,
f
I
eye
sees
rainbow
Figure 10.1 Double Refraction and one Total Internal Reflection of
Sun Rays in a Raindrop
A secondary rainbow, concentric with the primary is occasionally seen whose radius >Halo (in Cirrostratus) Corona (in Altostrat;us)
is about 52°. It is much less bright than the primary, and with a breadth almost twice
that of the primary. The red is on the inside (radius of the arc 50°) and the violet Figure 10.2 Halo and Corona
on the outside (radius of the arc 54°).
Sometimes corona have a distorted form, due to differences in the size of the
Halo particles in various parts of the clouds. Distorted corona of small radius may also
be observed around the moon when not full, because of its crescent form.
Balo is a circle of light around the sun or moon. It is produced by refraction of
light through ice crystals present in Cirrostratus (CS) clouds. The most frequent Mirage
h~lo phenomenon, called the Small Halo, is mostly white luminous ring of 22° radius
with the sun or moon at its centre. When well developed, the halo round the sun Light rays are refracted (bent) as they travel from one medium to other of different
shows a pure clear red on the outside but other colours are usually difficult to density. In the atmosphere density r~duces with altitude. Therefore, the light reflected
recognize. The presence of a halo signifies the predominance of ice crystals in the from a distant object travels in a curved path, keeping lower density on the convex
cloud and hence negligible chances of ice accretion. To remember Halo from High side of the curve. The rising sun or moon thus appear slightly higher than they
cloud CS. The portion of the sky inside the ring is conspicuously darker than the actually are.
rest of the sky. Sometimes a circular halo with a radius of 46°, called the Large Halo, Mirages are due to the curving of light rays passing through layers of air in which
is also observed. This halo is less bright.
refractive index changes considerably with height due to differences in density.
Corona Mirages are observed when the temperature of the earth's surface differs markedly
from that of the air above.
Corona are luminous one or more (seldom more than three) coloured rings of
relatively small radius, not more than 5°, centred on the sun or moon. In each ring A mirage may occur as a lower mirage (Inferior Mirage) over intensely heated water
red appears on the out side and violet or blue on the inside. The colures are usually surface, soil, beach, road, etc. (i.e when the lapse rate is steep) or as upper mirage
dull. Corona are formed due to the diffraction of light, passing through mist, fog (Superior Mirage) over snow field, cold sea surface, etc (i.e when there is inversion).
or through a thin cloud composed of very small water drops or ice particles
(Al.tostratus clouds). Diffraction is the slight bending of light wave as it moves along Ii Bishop's Ring
the boundary of an object like water drop. Corona indicate moderate icing, if the It is a whitish faint ring, centred on the sun or moon, with a slightly bluish tinge
cloud is above the freezing level. on the inside and reddish brown on the outside. Bishop's ring is due to the diffraction
94 95
/.
I
I AVIATION METEOROLOGY
OPTlCAL PHENOMENA
of light by fine dust particles present in the high atmosphere. The dust may also
Aurora may be compared with the coloured commercial sign displays in which high
be of volcanic origin. The radius of the ring is about 22°.
voltage electric discharge are passed through tubes containing particular under
pressure, gas, IS
Twilight Colours
Various colours in the sky are produced at sunset and at sunrise by refraction,
scattering or selective absorption of light rays from the sun.
lrisation
Sometimes due to diffraction of sun light, colours or bands nearly parallel to the
margin of the clouds appear in which pink colour predominates.
Glory
One or more of coloured rings, seen by an observer around his own shadow on
a cloud consisting of numerous small water droplets, on fog or, very rarely, on dew.
The coloured rings are due to the diffraction of light; their arrangement is the same
as in a corona. Airborne observers often see a glory around the shadow of the aircraft
in which they are flying.

Figure 10.3 Aurora
Crepuscular Rays
Aurora Borealis occur in the N hemisphere (generally ov~r NW Greenland) and
These are dark bluish streaks which radiate from the sun. They are the shadows
are called Northern Lights. Aurora Australis occur in the S hemisphere and are
of clouds at or below the horizon.
called Southern Lights.
Aurora
Atmospheric Electricity
In Latin, aurora means dawn. In this phenomenon visible light is emitted by the high
weather, earth is negatively charged and the electrIc potentIal IS dIrected
atmosphere, at heights varying from 70 and 1000 km, with peak frequency at about
towards the earth and has a mean value of 100 volts/m. During a thunderstorm the
100 km.
direction of current is locally reversed, ie from earth to air. Precipitation particles
\
carry a net positive charge towards the ground. Air to ground lighting flashes convey
Aurora are the ghostly displays of light in the form of streamers, rays, arches, hands, predominantly negative charge to ground.
curtains, draperies, sheets or patches. They appear to shimmer or flit across the
sky. Aurora are most common in higher latitude, centering around magnetic poles. Types of Lightning:
They are greenish white or pronounced red or yellow. (a) Ground Discharge (Thunderbolts). It is the lightning between cloud and
ground. It usually branches downward from a distinct main channel (streak
Aurora result from bombardment of gases in the rarefied upper atmosphere by the
or nabon
electric particles, from magnetic storms. These cause excitation of gases with
Occasionally a luminous ball, generally between 10 and 20 em diameter,
consequent emission of radiation. They impair radio communication.
is observed soon after a ground discharge. It moves slowly in the air or
96
97
AVIATION METI::OROLOejY OPTICAL PHENOMENA
on the ground and disappears with a violent explosion. This is known as Ql0. C orona are formed due to the ........... of light
ball lightning. (a) Refraction (b) Diffraction (c) Scattering

(b) Cloud Discharge (Sheet lightning). This type of lightning takes place within
Q11. Corona are formed due to light, passing through
the cloud.
(a) Mist only (b) Fog only
(c) Air Discharge. This type of lightning occurs from cloud to the air and does
(c) small water or ice particles only (d) Anyone of all these
not strike the ground.
Q12. Halo is produced by
Saint Elmo's Fire (a) Refraction (b) Diffraction (c) Scattering
Sometimes when flying in CU/CB douds, an aircraft may experience bluish or greenish
Q13. Halo is produced when light passes through
luminous discharge due to strong electrical field in the cloud. The continuous luminous (c) both
(a) water particles (b) ice crystals
glow is also accompanied by cracking sound. Intensity of the glow is weak to moderate.
Q14. Halo occur in the cloud
QUESTIONS ON OPTICAL PHENOMENA (a) AS (b) NS (c) CS
Q15. Halo is luminous ring of ........... radius

Q1. Aurora Australis occur in the (a) 32° (b) 22°
(c) 4r
(a) S hemisphere (b) N hemisphere (c) Equator
Q16. Halo round the sun shows a pure clear ........... on the outside
Q2. Aurora Australis called ........... Lights

(a) Red (b) Yellow (c) Violet
(a) Northern (b) Southern (c) Temperate
Q 17. Halo signifies predominance in the cloud of
Q3. Aurora Borealis occur in the (a) Supercooled water drops (b) Ice crystals
(c) Both
(a) S hemisphere (b) N hemisphere (c) Equator
Q18. The cloud which cause Halo has ........... chances of ice accretion
Q4. Aurora Borealis are called ........... Lights

(a) negligible (b) maximum (c)medium
(a) Northern (b) Southern (c) Temperate

Q19. Sometimes a halo with a radius of ........... is observed, called Large Halo
Q5. Corona occur in ........... clouds

(a) 32° (b) 42° (c) 22°
(a) AS (b) NS (c) CS
Q20. Halo occurs from ........... cloud
Q6. Bishop's ring is due to the diffraction of light by fine particles of (b) Medium . (c) High
(a) Low
(a) water (b) dust (c) ice
Q7. The radius of the Bishop's ring is about ANSWERS

(a) 32° (b) 22° (c) 42°
S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Q8. Superior Mirage occurs in marked Q. 1 2 3 4
a b
a b b
c a b d
(a)Lapse (b) Isothermal (c) Inversion A. a b b a
Q9. Inferior Mirage occurs when there is Q. 14 is 16 17 18 19 20
A. c b a b a b c
(a)Lapse (b) Isothermal (c) Inversion
98 99
PRECIPITATION
Coaslescence Theory
The above theory is unable to explain rainfall from the Warm clouds i.e. the clouds
.which do not reach the freezing level. In tropical areas showers occur from clouds
which do not extend much above the freezing level and sometimes not even up to
the freezing level. To explain the occurrence of rain from such clouds, the coalescence
11
theory was advanced. Large drops initially form by collision and coalescence of the
smaller droplets in the cloud. Coalescence increases markedly due to vertical currerits
and the drops become larger. As these large drops fall, the pressure falls in their
wake, and the smaller drops get sucked in and get attached to the falling drops.
PRECIPITATION
During fall a large drop collides with the smaller drops on its path, which also get
attached to it. Ultimately number of large drops form.
Giant Nucleus Theory
In the maritime areas clouds with lesser vertical development can give rain as
Liquid water drops or solid water particles falling from clouds to the ground is termed compared to inland areas. In these areas a large number of salt particles, due to
as precipitation. Drizzle (DZ) is the precipitation of water drops of very small size salt spray, exist in the atmosphere. These giant hygroscopic nuclei are carried up
(radius of drops 100 to 500 #Lm). Rain (RA) has drops of radius about 500 to to the cloud in vertical currents. They absorb water vapour and fo.t:m large water
2500 #Lm). Shower (SH) are solid or liquid drops of radius more than 2500 #Lm ). drops and initiate the chain reaction of coalescence.
Hail (GR) is solid precipitation of balls or pieces of ice (hailstones) with diameters Clouds and Precipitation
5 to 50 mm or more). Snow (SN) is assembly of ice crystals and sleet is wet snow.
The type of precipitation from .a cloud depends on the strength of the vertical
For precipitation to occur water drops or ice crystals should be large enough to currents which is has to overcome, and this in turn depends on the mechanism by
overcome the vertical currents inside the clouds. The exact process by which cloud which the cloud is formed. The types of precipitation from different clouds are:
particles attain sizes large enough to overcome the vertical currents is not yet fully
Types of Cloud Precipitation
known. However, the following theories have been put forward to explain the
occurrence of precipitation. Stratus (ST) Drizzle
Altostratus (AS) Rain and Snow I
Ice crystal Theory

Nimbostratus (NS) Continuous precipitation
In Cold clouds, the clouds whose tops extend well above the freezing leyel, super T()wering Cumulus (TCU) and Rain, Showers, Hail and Snow
cooled water drops and ice particles co-exist. The saturation vapour pressure being Cumulonimbus (CB)
more over water drops than over the ice crystals, the water drops evaporate and Cumulus (CU) of slight vertical development No precipitation
suhlimate (direct conversion of ice into water vapour, without going through the (fair weather CU), Altocumulus (AC) and
liquid phase) over the ice crystals. The ice crystals grow at the expense of the water high douds (CI, CC):
drops. While falling, the bigger ice crystals encounter supercooled water drops, Thick Cirrostratus (CS) Snow at high to medium levels
which continually freeze on to them. The ice crystals thus grow to large sizes and
fall out of the cloud bas~ as snow or rain. Table 11.1 Types of Cloud and Precipitation
100 101
PRECIPITATION
Cloud seeding is found useful in fighting fires, ending draught, promoting harvests,
Snow and Sleet
draining clouds and fog dispersal.

When the surface temperature is less than about 4° C and the mean temperature
between the base of the cloud and the surface level is less than 0° C, precipitation
Fog Dispersal
may be in the form of snow or sleet. Snowfall is usually in the form of flakes, which
Fog can also be cleared for a short period either by increasing the air temperature
are made up of minute ice-crystals of various shapes. Sleet is mixture of rain and snow.
or by seeding the fog as above, especially to enable aircraft to land and take off.
Cloud Burst and Flash Floods
Classification of Rainfall
Very heavy showers or rain over an area in a short period is called Cloud Burst.
Light < 7.5 mm; Moderate 7 - 35.5 mm; Rather Heavy 35.6, - 64 mm;
A sudden rise in the level of rivers or streams causing floods, iscalled Flash Floods.
Heavy 65 - 84.9 mm; Very Heavy 85 mm or more; meptionally Heavy 250 min
Rainy Day
QlJESTIONS ON PRECIPITATION
When the rainfall amount in a day is 2.5 mm or more, it is called a Rainy Day. Terms
used to describe Spatial distribution of Rainfall are at Appendix M
Ql. When super cooled water drops and ice particles co-exist, the ice crystals grow
. Diurnal and Seasonal Variation Rainfall at the expense of the water drops because
In the tropics, the clouds form mainly due to convection, which is most vigorous in (a) Saturation vapour pressure over water drops is less than over the ice crystals
the afternoon. The precipitation is therefore most common in the afternoons. In (b) Saturation vapour pressure over the ice crystals is less than over'water drops
coastal areas and in the valleys, maximum rain occurs at night or during early morning (c) The ice crystals convert into water drops
hours, but elsewhere the rainfall is mostly in the afternoon and early part of the night. Q2. The douds whose tops extend well above the freezing level are called
For the same reason, the rainfall in summer is more than that in the winter. (a) Warm Clouds (b) Cold Clouds (c) Moderate Clouds
In the temperate latitudes the clouds form due to the convergence caused by Q3. The clouds whose tops do not extend to the freezing level are called
depressions or fronts, which are frequent in winters. Therefore in these middle (a) Warm Clouds (b) Cold Clouds (c) Moderate Clouds
latitudes, rain or snowfall is maximum in the winters. The precipitation'in the
extreme northwestern parts of India mort:! or less foIt2ws this pattern, due to WDs, Q4. Coalescence Theory explains occurrence of rainfall from the
which are occluded fronts and have high frequency in winters and hence maximum (a) Warm Clouds (b) Cold Clouds (c) Both types of Clouds
precipitation in winters. Q5. Ice crystal Theory explains occurrence of rainfall from the
(a) Warm Clouds (b) Cold Clouds (c) Both types of Clouds
Artificial Rain Making or Cloud Seeding
. Cloud seeding is an attempt to stimulate precipitation by injecting into the clouds Q6. Giant Nucleus Theory explains occurrence of rainfall over
the nucleating agents, like silver iodide, common salt, solid carbon di oxide etc. (a) Maritime areas (b) Inland areas '(c) Hilly areas
Spraying of Potassium Chloride in small clouds have shown encouraging results, Q7. Very heavy precipitation as showers over a short period is called
wherein either douds grow rapidly or cause rain in 15-20 minutes. The particles (a) Flash floods (b) Cloud Burst (c) Orographic Rain
sprayed act like ice forming nuclei to initiate Bergeron process. Mixture of Potassium
Q8. Rain shadow area is on the ........... of the mountain range
chloride and sodium chloride act in the same way. However,the rain so created
(a) Top (b) Windward side (c) Leeward side
may deprive some other area of rainfall where it would have occurred naturally.
I!!
102 103
Q9. Sleet is a mixture of

(a) Hail & Snow (b) Rain & Snow (c) Frozen Rain
Q10. Rainfall in the tropics is more in
(a) Winters (b) Summers (c) Post monsoon
Q11. Rainfall in the tropics is more in the
(a) Morning (b) Afternoon (c) Night
12
Q12. Rainfall in the temperate latitudes is more in
(a) Winters (b) Summers (c) Spring
ICE ACCRETION
Q 13. Over J&K and western Himalayas Rainfall is more in
(a) Winters (b) Summers (c) Post monsoon
Q14. Rainfall over coastal areas is more .in the
(a) Evening (b) Mternoon (c) Night & early morning
Formation of ice on an aircraft in flight is termed as ice accretion or icing. Icing

Q15. Areas to the ........... of western Ghats of India are rain shadow areas
seriously affects the aerodynamics of an aircraft, leading even to loss of control.
(a) W (b) S (c) E
It is a serious aviation hazard. Although aircraft are fitted with de-icing devices, they
provide only a partial protection. For successfully combating icing a knowledge of
Q16. A sudden rise in the level of rivers or streams causing floods is called
the type of icing, conditions for formation and techniques to avoid icing is essential.
(a) Cloud Burst (b) Catchments flooding (c) Flash Floods
Q 17. Artificial rain making is also termed as
Types of Icing: Ice accretion is of two types:

(a) Airframe icing
(a) Simulation (b) Cloud seeding (c) Nucleation
(b) Engine icing

Q18. Fog can be dispersed for a short period by artificial stimulation
(a) True (b) False Airframe Icing

Q19. Showery precipitation occurs from Hoar Frost: Hoar frost occurs on airframe in clear air when the temperature of
(a) NS (b) AC (cl CB airframe is below the frost point. It is a feathery deposit of ice crystals formed due
to the sublimation of water vapour on the cold airframe. Hoar frost forms on aircraft
Q20. A day is called Rainy day when rainfall in 24 hr is ........... mm or more parked on the tarmac on a cold night. It may also form when an aircraft flying at
(a) 1.5 (b) 2 (c) 2.5
high altitude rapidly descends to lower levels into warm and moist air. Hoar frost
dissipates quickly when the aircraft warms up and also gets shaken off due to the
ANSWERS vibrations of the airframe. This icing does' not constitute a serious aviation hazard.
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Opaque Rime: This consists of a white opaque deposit of ice having light porous
A. b b a a b a b c b b b a texture. It is formed by freezing of small supercooled water droplets on the airframe
a
when an aircraft is flying through clouds above the freezing level. It accumulates on
Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 the leading edges of wings, struts etc. A large amount of air is entrapped between
A. c c c b a c c
104
105
ICE ACCRETION
the particles exhibiting a white opaque appearance. Rime usually does not have much (e) CB: Icing may range from light to severe type up to -20°C level. Below
weight but may alter the aerodynamics of the wings. It is like the ice crystals deposited this temperature severe icing is not significant.
on the inner walls of a refrigerator freezer chamber, which can be easily wiped off.
Effect of Airframe Icing
Translucent Rime or Glaze Ice: This is also known as clear ice because of its glassy
appearance. It forms due to freezing and spreading after the impact of large supercooled Airframe icing can affect flying characteristics of an aircraft in many ways:
water drops on the airframe. Since the drops unite on spreading, very little air is (a) The icing alters aerodynamics, increases weight and decreases lift.
entrapped while freezing and hence the glassy appearance. The deposit occurs on the (b) Icing increases the stalling speed appreciably.
leading edges, and spreads backwards due to freezing of the left over liquid water. (c) Icing increases drag.
The initial deposit may have a flat surface, but with subsequent deposits the surface (d) Unequal loading of ice on propeller blades d~creases their efficiency and
is generally uneven but still smooth. Ice of this type is sticky and cannot be easily sets vibrations and consequent loss of effective power.
shaken off. If it breaks off at all, it comes away in lumps of dangerous size. The glazed (e) Hinges of ailerons, elevator and trimming tabs may get jammed due to icing
ice poses serious aviation hazard. It alters the aerodynamic, is heavy and may set up and their smooth and free movement may be restricted.
vibrations due to unequal loading of wings, struts and propeller blades. It is like the (f) ASI may give erroneous readings due to icing of pitot tube.
ice cubes formed in ice tray of a refrigerator, which is difficult to break. (g) The icing on aerials may render communication difficult.
Engine Icing: Engine icing is of two main types:
Temperature Range for Airframe Icing
Except for cumulonimbus clouds, the optimum temperature ranges in which different (a) Impact Icing: This occurs due to the impact of supercooled water drops
on the air intake. Icing restricts air inflow, which reduces· the engine
degrees of icing is likely are as follows:
power.
Severe Moderate Light Very lig~t (b) . Carburetor Icing: When air passes through the carburetor choke and past
ooe to - 7°e - 7°e to 12°e - 12°e to - 200 e - 200 e to - 400 e the throttle butterfly, the pressure falls inside the carburetor and due to .
adiabatic cooling the temperature drops to a very low value. The cooling
Table 12.1
is further enhanced by the evaporation of fuel. If humidity is high icing may
occur due to sublimation. This type of icing may also occur in clear air
Airframe Icing in Relation to Cloud Forms
even at the ambient air temperature of + 30 ° C. Below -10 C this type
0
Ice accretion is dependent primarily on the size and the number of drops in a cloud,
of icing is negligible unless liquid water is present. Carburetor icing is
as follows:
unlikely when the relative humidity is less than 60%.
(a) CI, CS and CC: These consist mostly ice crystals. Icing hazard is therefore, Height of Freezing Level in India
negligible. In the North, Central and Southern parts of India the Freezing Level occurs
(b) AS, NS: They consist of supercooled water drops and ice crystals in varying approximately at the pressure levels, in various seasons :
proportion. Light to moderate icing is possible. Season North . Central South
NEinonsoon 700hPa 600hPa 600hPa
(e) AC: Light to moderate icing is likely but severe icing is possible in mountains Pre - monsoon 650 hPa 600hPa 550hPa
SWmonsoon 550 hPa 500hPa 500hPa
(d) TCD: Icing may range from light to severe type at least up to - 20°C level.
Post monsoon 550hPa 600hPa 650hPa
106 107
, ICE ACCRETION
Q13. Liquid water content is an important factor in icing. As the maximum water
·Q!JESTIONS ON ICE ACCRETION conc~ntration is around ..........., maximum ice formation in clouds may also .
be expected around that level.
(a) -25° C level (b) -20° C level (c) -15° C level
Q1. Hoar frost occurs on airframe in clear air when the temperature of airframe is
(a) below the frost point (b) frost point (c) just above the frost point Q14. Carburetor icing occurs when air from intake passes through a ventury (choke)
and causes expansional cooling and vaporization of fuel. Serious icing can occur
Q2. In douds at temperatures below 0° C an aircraft may encounter icing of the type
(a) only Glazed (b) only Rime (c) intermediate between these two at extreme temperatures
(a) 13° C' (b) 30° C to -10° C (c) 20° C
Q3. Opaque Rime ice is
(a) Light porous (b) Solid (c) Mixture of porous and solid .
Q 15. .. ......... occurs in a moist cloudless air 0)1 an aircraft surface having temp. below
.
0° C, due to sublimation of water vapour onto feathery ice crystals.

Q4. Rime is formed by freezing of ........... supercooled water droplets on airframe (a) Rime (b) Glazed (c) Hoar Frost:
when aircraft is flying through· clouds
(a) Small (b) Large (c) Medium Q16............ occurs in St, Sc, Ac, Cu, Ns at temperature -10 to -40° C and in Cb at
temperature -20 to -40°C
Q5. Glazed ice is formed by freezing of ........... supercooled water droplets on (a) Rime (b) Glazed (c) Hoar Frost
airframe when aircraft is flying through clouds
(a) Small (b) Large (c) Medium Q17. In clouds ........... occurs when a wide range of water drop sizes are present at
temperatures between 0° C and -40° C
Q6. The........... ice poses serious aviation hazard
(a) Rime (b) Glazed (c) Mixture of rime and clear ice
(a) Rime ' (b) Hoar Frost (c) Glazed
Q18............ occurs in AS, NS, SC and towering CU or CB between 0° C and -20"
Q7. Airframe icing occurs below 0° C. Its probability of occurrence decreases progressively
C, in warm front below 0° C, e~pecially if the aircraft has rapidly descended from
below .-200 C,. as at· lower temperatures the proportion of super-cooled water
drops· ina' cloud a colder region.
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Does not change (a) Glazed (b) Rime (c) Mixture of Rime and Clear ice
Q8. CI, CS and CG clouds consist mostly ice crystals. Icing hazard is therefore Q19. When fog freezes on parked aircraft it produces ...........
(a) Maximum (b) Medium (c) Negligible (a) Hoar Frost (b) Rime (c) Clear ice
Q9. AS, NS consist of supercooled water drops and ice crystals in varying proportion Q20. Icing ........... the stalling speed appreciably
...........iCing is possible. (a) Decreases (b) Increases (c) Does not increase/decrease.
(a) Maximum (b) Light or moderate (c) Negligible
ANSWERS
QI0. In AC clouds ........... icing is possible in mountainous areas
(a) Light ' . (b) Moderate (c) Severe'

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Q 1
Qll. In TCU icing may range from light to severe type at least up to ........... level.
A a c a a b c b c b c c a c
(a) - 40° C .level (b) 30° C level (e) - 20° C level
Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0
Q12. In CB icing may range ftom light to severe type up to -20 C level. Below this A. b c a c a a b
temperature severe icing is
(a) not significant (b) significant (c) maximum
109
1l\Q
THUNDERSTORM
An Air mass TS is associated with intense heating and convergence due to low
pressure. Air mass TS also occur when cold air passage over a warmer sea. These
pop out randomly anywhere within a mass of warm humid air. They are relatively
weak systems than the Frontal TS. As these are caused by intense convection,
they mostly develop in the afternoons in the plains. In valleys and hills they may
13 develop during night/morning.
Mesoscale Convective Complex (MCC). In the recent years the study of satellite
imagery has revealed a third mode of TS occurrence, called MCC. It is a nearly
THUNDERSTORM
circular cluster of many interacting TS over a very large area. This .area may be
thousand times the area of an Air mass TS. New TS develop continually within
an MCC. This increases the life of TS from 6 to 24 hr. These produce severe
weather and even Tornadoes and Flash Floods (a sudden rise in the level of rivers
or streams causing floods). These are synoptic scale systems. MCC are common
A thunderstorm is a weather system produced by strong convection currents. It features in USA. It may be noted that the Mesoscale weather phenomenon are
consists of CB clouds which cause lightning flashes, rumbling sound of thunder,
of local scale, for example TS, DS, Land and Sea breeze, Katabatic wind.
blackening of sky, sudden cool and squally winds, sharp showers. Some of the TS
are very violent and cause floods, forest fires due to lightning, hail, tornadoes, water Classification
spouts, micro burst etc. For aviation this is one of the most hazardous phenomenon.
Thunderstorm is reported when thunder is heard. Single Cell. A single cell TS has one main updraught. Such storms are rarely severe
and are due to local instability and heating in summers (Heat or Airmass TS). They
The diameter of individual CB cells varies from one to 10 km. In a cluster of CB also occur in cold front in winters.
cells there are narrow cloud-filled lanes between neighboring cells.
Multi Cell Clust~r. They form as dusters of storms due to convective updrafts in
Severe TS. TS which are accompanied by locally damaging winds, frequent lightning, or near mountain ranges and strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure.
thunder, or large hail are called Severe TS.
Types ofTS Multi Cell Lines. These are commonly called squall lines. They can be hundreds
of kilometer long and move swiftly. They cause heavy rain, hail, lightning, very strong
Thunderstorms are classified as Heat (or air-mass) TS and Frontal TS, according winds and even isolated tornadoes. An unusually powerful squall line is' called a
to their method of formation, and Mesoscale Convective Complex (MCC). derecho. Occasionally, squall lines also form near the puter rain band of tropical
cyclones.
Frontal TS Occur at a Cold Front and occasionally at a warm front. These are
triggered by the vigorous uplift of moist air along or ahead of a cold front or Super Cell. These are large and severe storms, having separate up. and down
sometimes in a warm front. Frontal TS are more violent than the air mass TS. draughts, and rotating updraughts (a mesocydone). Due to powerful updraughts
They may deVelop any time of day or night. Sometimes 100 __ 300 km ahead they can reach the lower stratosphere. They can produce destructive tornadoes, very
of a fast moving active Cold Front a line of TS deVelops. This is called Squall large hailstones (10 cm dia.), winds> 130 km/h, and flash floods. Most tornadoes
Line and causes severe weather.
occur from such TS.
110
111
THUNDERSTORM
Favourable Conditions for TS Formation:
formation of CU cloud. The parcel of air rises higher and higher as long as it is warmer
TS is an instability phenomenon. The following conditions are essential for its
formation: than the surroundings. The CU after growing buildups into a CB cloud. In this stage
updraughts prevail throughout the cell, which extend to 6-8 km. The speed of
(a) Steep Lapse Rate: Lapse rate steeper than the SALR throughout a layer at updraughts of 30 m/sec or 60 kt are not uncommon. The up draughts carry warm air
least 5 -6 km in depth, permitting development of clouds above on C leve1. upwards and also sustain water drops and ice crystal formed in the cloud. The rain/
(b) High Humidity: Adequate supply of moisture from below and high humidity snow/hail particles keep growing inside the cloud till the updraughts can sustain them.
aloft. If the humidity of the surrounding air is very low, the growth of cloud When they become too large and heavy they fall out of the cloud as precipitation.
is arrested due to evaporation of rising parcel of air.
Inflow to the cell (called entrainment) takes place through the sides at all levels and
(c) Trigger Action: A lifting mechanism which can produce saturation in the
region of the steep lapse rate. the base of the cloud. The average life of this stage is about 15 to 20 min.
The Triggering Mechanisms are: Mature Stage

(a) Mature stage begins when precipitation reaches the surface. The falling precipitation
Insolation (local convection) (b) Frontal Lifting (c) Convergence
(d)
Orographic Lifting (d) Radiational or Katabatic cooling drags the adjacent air and generates downdraught. Being cold downdraught continues
to descend and accelerate. In this stage both up and downdraughts co-exist. The
Life Cycle entrained air being drier causes some of the precipitation particles to evaporate.
Cumulus Stage This cools the down draught further. Finally at ground the cold downdraughts reach
as squall. The downdraught close to the ground spreads out horizontally. Its leading
Due to triggering mechanism a parcel of air is lifted, it expands and cools at DALR
edge is called the First Gust. It presents an arc shaped surface called Gust Front
(9.8°C/km). Further lifting may cool it to saturation and thereafter condensation and
due to its resemblance with a cold front. The gust may be followed by heavy rain
or showers. This front undercuts the ,warm air at the surfaces and lifts it to generate
new TS cells. Mature stage lasts for 20 - 40 min. Since old cells dissipate and the
new cells form continually, the TS activity may sometimes prolong. This is the most
violent stage of a TS and presents serious aviation weather hazards.
The following clouds emanate from a CB and approach a station:
Roll Cloud. It is an elongated cylindrical dark cloud which appear to rotate
slowly about its horizontal axis. It occurs behind the Fi~st Gust, but is detached
/' from CB. It is seldom associated with severe weather.
Gust Shelf Cloud. It is a wedge shaped elongated cloud having flat base. It occurs at
Front the edge of Gust Front and beneath and is attached to CB. It form due to the
uplift of the warm air along the Gust Front. It is associates with Severe weather.
CUMULUS MATURE DISSIPATING Dissipating Stage
Figure 13.1 Life Cycle ofTS In this stage only weak down draughts exist in the cloud, mainly confined to the
middle and lower levels. Due to no updraughts, further growth of the cloud ceases.
112
11'l
THUNDERSTORM
Aviation Hazards of TS
The cloud top spreads to form anvil, also called False Cirrus. The downdraughts
TS pose a variety of hazards to aircraft on ground and in flight. The important ones
spread across the lower portion of the CB. tight rain occurs at the ground and the
cloud gradually dissipates. are:
(a) Turbulence: Turbulence and icing are the most serious hazards of a TS.
Structure of a Severe TS Turbulence is caused by gusts and draughts in a CB. Moderate to severe
The TS which produce severe weather have a different structure than that stated turbulence is more likely on the boundaries between up and down draughts.
above. The storm is tilted due to vertical wind shear. Due to the tilt the precipitation Turbulence may also be experienced about 10 km around a CB in the
falls alongside, rather than through the updraughts. The precipitation and clear air.
downdraughts are thus unable to cut off the updraughts. This enables the cell to
(b) Wind Shear. Very strong wind shear is often associated with CB clouds.
grow to great heights.
The cold strong downdraught from the base of CB, extends up to about
Jet Stream and TS
2000 ft.· A shear zone forms between this outflow and the warm air above
it, flowing in the opposite direction, towards CB. An aircraft attempting
Upper level Jet stream is mportant for the development of a severe TS. It produces !
to land would experience initially head wind and then close to ground a
wind shear and tilts the updraughts, thus favouring great vertical development of
tail wind. For most light aircraft the air speed may go below stalling speed
the cell.
and the landing ~ngle may become dangerously steeper.
Intensity of TS
Squall: The initial downdraught from the cloud spreads'all around
(c)
(a) . Light. Faint peals of thunder and lightning flashes at long intervals. horizontally on the ground as squall. The speed of squall is normally up
(b) Moderate. Loud peals of thunder and frequent flashes of lightning, moderate
to 40 kt but can be as high as 100 kt. The strongest speeds are ahead of
or heavy showers and light hail. Maximum wind speed generally 15-40 kt.
the cloud in the direction of its movement.
(c) Severe. Almost continuous thunder and lightning, heavy rain/shower, may
Draughts: Within the cloud strong up and down draughts occur. Up
(d)
be hail, at the station or its vicinity. Maximum wind may exceed 40 kt.
draughts are often stronger and of greater vertical extent. They can suck
in gliders, light aircraft and parachutists up to great heights. The updraughts
Diurnal and Seasonal Variation
may impose sudden strong negative g force, may be greater than the
Over the plains TS mostly occur during the afternoon and die out in the evening. aircraft can absorb. Downdraughts are stronger from the middle of cloud
Over the valley and foot hills they generally occur during night and early morning. to the surface. They can force even powerful jet aircraft on to the ground,
Over the sea TS are more frequent at night. if flight is beneath the cloud. These cause sudden variations in the altitude
of aircraft, at times to 3-4,000 ft. /
In middle latitudes, TS over the land are most frequent in summers. However, the
frontal type of thunderstorm are more frequent in winters, due to frequent Cold Fronts (e) Gusts: Gusts occur all over the CBcloud. However, near the boundary
between up and down draughts vigorous eddies form, which travel within
TS and Pressure the cloud.and cause gusts. Severe bumpiness results from the combined
Marked fluctuations of pressure accompany severe TS. The first gust causes sudden effect of gusts and draughts. Gusts impose severe load factor, exceed the
pressure nse. turbulence penetration speed, and cause abrupt changes in aircraft attitude.
Structural failure may occur if the pilot attempts to correct these attitude
i
115
114 \
THUNDERSTORM
changes too quickly or harshly. Many accidents are attributed to this
phenomenon. (0) . Instrlunental Error: Below the base of growing and mature Cb, there is
(f) Icing: Icing affects the aerodynamics of an aircraft, jams controls, blocks reduction in pressure. The altimeter will tend to over read (more than actual
pitottube, engine and carburetor. Icing is worst within the first 10,000 ft height). Hence adequate ground clearance is essential. The pitot tube may
from the freezing level, due to the presence of large supercooled water be blocked by heavy water ingestion. The ASI reading would be misleading.
drops, where sticky clear ice forms. Towards the top of the cloud more
of brittle rime ice forms. In an individual CB the aircraft traverse is short Nomenclature KBand X Band CBand S Band L Band
hence icing is not a problem but in CB clouds along a frontal line it may Wayelengths (em) 0.86 3.0 4.0 10.0 20.0
become serious.
Table 13.1
(g) Hail: A hailstone star~s as an ice crystal. It grows progressively in contact
. with supercooled water drops while being tossed up and down in the cloud. Radar Detection of Thunderstorms
Hailstone has onion like structure of alternate layers of rime and clear ice. Storm Detection Radars (weather radars) specially designed for TS detection are
Clear ice forms nearer the freezing level and rime ice above. When used for locating TS and watching their development, movement and dissipation.
updraughts are unable to hold it, the hail stone falls out of the cloud. Worst They can be either ground based or air borne. For detecting precipitation a wavelength
. hail occurs from freezing level to about 25,000 ft height. Aircraft which in the range 3 to 20 em is suitable. For precipitation measurements wavelength of
encounter hail in flight sustain serious damage. The airframes get badly 10 em is widely used. For airborne radars 6 em wavelength is generally used. The
dented, windscreens holed, astrodomes shattered, deicer boots ripped off wavelength in various bands are as above Table 13.1).
\ ..
and fins badly bent. "Hail may also occur in clear air under the AnviL
Downburst
(h) Heavy Showers: These may reduce visibility to very low values. Fractostratus The downburst is a local intense downdraught with damaging winds from a TS.
Clouds bases below 1000 ft may accompany showers.
Microburst and Macroburst
(I) Lightning: For a lightning flash to occur a potential difference of about 3 *
6
10 volts! m in dear air, and 1 * 106 volts! m in cloud, is required. A lightning Definition. Microburst (less than 4 km in diametre) and Macroburst (diametre 4
strike on an aircraft is relatively harmless, but some accidents are attributed km more) are localised severe downdraughts of great intensity.
to it. The bonding of the aircraft prevents any electrical discharge from Causes. One of the most probable causes of microburst could be the dryness of
penetrating to the interior. Lightning can burn or puncture small holes in the atmosphere in which falling rain rapidly evaporates (as in Virga). The evaporation
the skin of an aircraft. The magnetic compass shows erroneous readings, reduces the temperature of the air column through which rain falls. Consequently
electronic equipment may be damaged and radio noise occurs. There may the column, being colder than the environment, descends and accelerates towards
be smell of burning and explosive noise. The lightning flash may cause the ground as a micro burst. .
temporary. blinding of the crew and passengers in a dimly lit environment.
Wind Speeds. Speed of downdraught may exceed 75 kmh close to ground. Average
(m) Noise: The horrendous noise of hail striking aircraft and especially wind horizontal wind speed of 90 kmh is common (at times it may exceed 200 kmh).
screen, can be very frightening. More so in a turbulence affected area.
Systems which produce Microburst
(n) Darkness and Disorientation : In a thick CB there is absolute darkness,
which may lead to disorientation, hence a constant eye on the Artificial (a) CB cloud (about 5% of all TS produce microburst)
Horizon is essential. (b) Heavy rain (high probability of microburst)
(c) Virga (medium probability of microburst)
116
117
THUNDERSTORM
Dimensions. Microburst are up to 1 km across. On hitting the ground they spread Effects on Aircraft
and produce one or more horizontal rings around the down draught, 2 km to 4 km (a) Head Wind Tail Wind Response. An increasing head wind component
across, and expand vertically to over 600 m. would lift the aircraft and change the angle of attack for landing. The
aircraft may over shoot. A tail wind component would do the reverse and
Life. Microbursts die down in 15-20 minutes. However more than one microburst
the aircraft would under shoot.
may be produced by the same system and its duration may prolong.
(b) Vertical Wind Shear Response. The alternating up and down draughts
Aviation Hazards cause fluctuations in the angle of attack of an aircraft. If severe, these may
Microburst may be experienced all of a sudden. Where and when it would occur cause momentary stick shaking or airframe shuddering and additional
and how violent it would be can not be predicted. It may be encountered by an strain on the pilots.
aircraft: .
(c) Cross Wind 'Shear Response. It causes aircraft to roll and or yaw.
(a) At levels much above the ground~ If an aircraft is pushed suddenly downwards (d) Turbulence. Turbulence may be quit e intense. Its effects can mask changing
by a microburst at higher levels, it may still have sufficient ground clearance airspeed and delay the recognition of severe downburst.
to recover.
(e) Rain Effect. Heavy rain may reduce visibility, increase cockpit noise and
(b) At levels close to the ground.. During landing or low level flying, due to make aircrew coordination and concentration difficult. Hence avoid.
microburst an ac encounters three distinct winds viz. first a head wind, then
a strong downdraught and finally a tail wind. The head and tail wind components Dust Storms (DS) or Sand Storms (SS)
are due to horizontal spreading of the micro burst. The reaction time may be
In the Pre Monsoon season, the surface temperatures are very high (35° C or more)
too short or may not be available.
over N India. The atmosphere is highly unstable over the desert or semi-arid a,reas.
The time for recognition and avoidance is as less as 5-15 sec. Hence it can best With a small amount of moisture incursion conditions become favourable for the
be avoided by not flying below a CB cloud, through a TS/DS, in heavy rain and below formation of CB clouds. As the humidity aloft is not high, the convective clouds
Virga. No take off and landing is advisible during TS/DS. do not build up to great heights. However, such clouds can still cause storms if their
tops extend to a sufficient height above the freezing level. These local storms raise
loose dust or sand from the ground up to heights of over 10,000 ft. They are
therefore called Duststorms or Sandstorms. They affect visibility badly, which may
Approach reduce to 50 m or less. In N India these storms are called Andhi (blinding storms).
path
Duststorms form in the same way as the TS. The vertical'growth of the clouds is
Tall Wind restricted due to low humidity aloft. The precipitation from the cloud evaporates
completely before reaching the ground due to the prevailing high temperature and
, low humidity. The updraughts in the cloud are so vigorous that they carry the dust
Touch Down
or sand up to great heights in and outside the cloud. A duststorm approaches like
Attitude of Aircraft during landing Approach Due to
avery high wall of dust.
Head and Tall Wind Components
If the humidity aloft is high, the DS is followed by iight showers and visibility
Microburst Figure 13.2 improves. The life cycle of DS is shorter than that of TS. Squalls associated with
118 119
THUNDERSTORM
DS are attimes severe. DS mostly occur in the afternoons of the summer months. into its base through convergence. The rotation may also be caused by low level
They can be detected by weather radars but the echoes are less intense than active wind shear below the CB. The rotation is lifted at one end by the updraught. The
TS echoes.
speed of rotating winds inside a tornado in excess of 150 kt have been recorded.
Classification of DS The pressure in the core may drop hundreds of hPa and the fall in temperature makes
tornado visible due to condensation. The diameter of a tornado is from a few metres
Wind Visibility to about 200 m and life a few minutes to more than an hour. Small scale tornadoes
I (dust devils or willy - willy) develop in hot arid regions in dry season. The very
Light DS up to 21 kt 500 to < 1000 m
low pressure at the core causes devastation, in a narrow path. Tornadoes uproot
Moderate DS 22 to 40 kt 200 to < 500 m trees, objects, articles, explode buildings etc and suck them into the air. The
--
Severe DS > 40 kt < 200 m occurrence of tornado in India is very rare.

1
Table 13.2 In April 1978, a tornado struck New Delhi and caused severe damage to the life
and property. Tornado is a strong instability phenomena.
The aviation hazards associated with DS/SS are almost the same as of TS. In
Fujita Damage Scale Number for Tornadic Winds is at Appendix K
addition, ground visibility is very low in DS/SS. If no rain follows the visibility
remains poor for a long after the DS has moved away. Moderate to severe wind
shear may also be experienced during take-off or landing when DS/SS is approaching.
Norwesters
During the Pre Monsoon period (March to May), West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand (Chotanagpur), North-east States and Bangladesh are affected by violent
TS. These cause considerable damage to the life and property. These storms are called
Norwesters because they often approach from North West. Norwesters commence
in March and continue with increased frequency till the monsoon establishes over
NE India. Locally they are known as Kalbaishakhi, because of their demon like
Figure 13.3 Tornado
destructive character. Most of the Norwesters are accompanied by strong squalls and
sometimes by hail. On rare occasions even tornado may accompany them. WaterSpout
A tornado over the sea is called Water Spout. The funnel ~ucks up sea water and
Flying through Norwesters can be extremely dangerous as they have the most violent
sometimes rain of Fish is observed over the adjoining coastal area.
features of thunderstorms, sometimes even accompanied by tornado. Under favourable
conditions the Norwesters regenerate TS in a line, like Line Squalls. Circumnavigating Dust Devil
or penetrating these may be disastrous. The safest way is to avoid them.
During hot summer months sometimes local surface winds converge towards a hot
Tornado spot. They start rotating about a vertical axis and a whirl of dust raising wind rises
from ground, known as Dust Devil. Vertically it may reach up to 2 km and may
It is a rotating funnel air sucked up from below the base of a CB. The strong
have a diameter of about 10 m. It is a short lived phenomena. It is capable of lifting
rotational wind is produced when an existing circulation of air below a CB is drawn
light loose articles, like paper.
120
121
AVIATION METEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORM
Q!)ESTIONS ON THUNDERSTORM Q9. The most hazardous cloud for aviation is

(a) CB (b) CU (c) NS
Q1. The condition necessary for the formation of a thunderstorm are: Ql0. The life of a Cb cell is usually
(a) Steep lapse rate, strong winds (a) 7 to 8 hrs (b) 3 to 4 hrs (c) Yz - 1 hr
(b) shallow lapse rate, adequate supply of moisture
(c) Steep lapse rate, adequate supply of moisture and trigger action Qll. Generally the severest activity of a CB clouds is for
(a) 2 hrs (b) 30 to 45 min (c) 3 to 4 hr
Q2. Hail is most likely to fall from a cloud
(a)Having layers Q12. Norwesters occur during
(a) Jan-Feb (b) Mar~May (c) June~Sep (d) Oct - Dec
(b) Composed of Ice .crystals .
(c) Having strong vertical development Q13. Norwesters occur during
(a) Winter (b) Hot weather (c) Monsoon (d) Post Monsoon
Q3. Norwesters are
(a) The western disturbances which affect NW India Q14. Norwesters affect
(b) Severe thunderstorms which occur over NE India during hot weather period (a) N India
(c) Severe thunderstorms which occur over Peninsula during hot weather period (b) Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam
Q4. Duststorm usually occurs over NW India during (c) Central India
(a) Post~monsoon (b) Winter (c) Pre~Monsoon Q15. The trigger action may take place due to
Q5. A 'mature' thunderstorm has (a) Clear night sky, no wind
(a) A strong updraft only (b) Orographic lifting
(b) Strong downdraft only (c) Divergence due to high pressure
(c) Strong updrafts and downdrafts Q16. Norwesters normally occur during
(a) Mornings (b) Mternoons (c) Nights
Q6. Aircraft icing is most favoured in the cloud which have temperatures ranging
between Q17. Norwesters originates over
(a) - 20° C and - 40° C (a) Chota-Nagpur hills (b) Deccan Plato (c) Khasi hills
(b) 0° C and - 20° C
(c) below - 40° C Q18. Andhi (blinding storms) occur generally over
(a) S India (b) N India (c) NE India
Q7. ,A short duration, showery precipitation is associated with
(a) ST (b) AS (c) CB Q19.Wind speed in Light DS is
(a) 25 kt (b) 30 kt (c) up to 21 kt
Q8. Hail is
(a) Solid precipitation which commonly occurs over the mountainous regions . Q20. The diametre of Microburst is
(a) less than 4 km (b) less than 2 km (c) less than 6 km
during winter.
(b) Frozen or partly frozen rain falling from sheet type of clouds Q21. The diametre of and Macroburst
(c) Solid precipitation falling from a deep convective cloud (a) < 4 km (b) 4 km or more (c) > 8 km
122 11.'
Q22. For detecting precipitation a Radar wavelength in the range ........... is suitable
(a) 30 to 200 mm (b) 400-500 mm (c) 600-700 mm

Q23. For airborne radars wavelength generally used
(a) 20 mm (b) 40 mm (c) 60 mm
Q24,. The wavelength of TS detection X band radar is
(a) 10 mm (b) 20 mm (c) 30 mm

14
Q25. The wavelength of storm detection S band radar is
(a) 50 mm (b) 100 mm (c) 200 mmQ26.

"
Q26. Over plains TS mostly occur during the AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WESTERN
(a) afternoon (b) night (c) early morning

DISTURBANCES
Q27. Over valley and foot hills TS generally occur during

(a) afternoon (b) night & early morning
Q28. Over the sea TS are more frequent

(a) ,afternoon (b) night '
(c) early morning
!Definition Air mass is a large body of air covering an area of thousands of square
Q29. The life of Mesoscale Convective Complex TS is
kilometer in which the horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature (density)
(a) 2-3 hr (b) 3-4 hr
(c) 6 to 24 hr and moisture are nearly uniform.
Q30. Loud peals of thunder, frequent flashes of lightning, moderate or heavy showers Air masses move with the wind and carry their properties. The weather associated
accompanied by light hail with maximum wind speed 15-40 kt is classified as
with air masses depends on their properties and interplay with other air masses.
(a) Light TS (b) Moderate TS (c) Severe TS
The characteristics of air masses differ with their origin and travel. During travel
Q31. For a severe TS one of the requirements is strong wind shear they get modified.
(a) Horizontal (b) Vertical (c) Slant
, Source Region. An air mass forms when a large body of air stagnates for a long period
Q32. Severe TS cells are tilted
(a) in vertical over an area having fairly uniform temperature and moisture content. High pressure
(b) to the South (c) to the North areas which have slack pressure gradients and hence light winds are the most suitable
source regions for air mass formation. Accordingly the main source regions are poles
ANSWERS
and sub-tropical highs. The stagnation over these regions enables a large body of
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
air to acquire properties of the underlying surface.
8 9 10 11 12 13
A c c b c c b c c a c b b b Classification of Air Masses
Q 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A b b
21 22 23 24 25 26 '~Temperature (density) and humidity are the two main characteristic which distinguish
b a b c a b ace b a ,air masses. The temperature characteristics is determined by the latitude zone of
Q. 27 28 29 30 31 32 Jthe source region of the air mass. The moisture characteristics depends on whether
A b b c b b a the Source region is over continental area or over maritime area. Thus, from the
124 1 ',I\'
METEOROLOGY AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WESTERN DISTURBANCES
temperature characteristics we have Polar air mass and Tropical air mass and from The air mass is characterised by excellent visibility, a fairly high diurnal range of
the moisture characteristic, Continental air mass and the Maritime air mass. temperature and cumuliform douds causing showers or thunderstorms in some
Types of Air Masses places.
There are six main types of air masses, whose names, symbols, places of origin and Tropical Continental Air (Tc): This is the most common air mass over India,
properties in brief are as follows: particularly in the winter season. It originates in the Siberian high and moves over
India as a cold dry current with fair .weather and poor visibility conditions.
Air mass Symbol Place of origin Properties
Arctic A Polar regions Equatorial Maritime Air (Em): This air mass originates over the Indian Ocean and
Extreme low temp, low humidity
in winters, but humidity increases has a long travel over water. Em prevails over India to the south of 25° N during
I
I
in summers. the monsoon season. It has high humidity content, h~nce causes sultry weath~r.
Polar Sub-polar continental Visibility is good except in showers. The diurnal range of temperature in the air
Low temperatures which increase
Continental Pc areas mass is small.
with movement towards lower
latitude, low humidity.
Polar Pm Sub-polar and Arctic
In winters India is over-run by Tc air mass. In the extreme south there is occasional
Low temperatures which increase
Maritime oceanic areas incursion of Tm air from the south of the equator (in India Tm air arriving from
with movement towards lower
latitude, high humidity. the southern hemisphere across the equator is known as Em air or equatorial
Tropical Tc Subtropical High maritime air). The Western Disturbances which affect northern India draw Tm air
High temperatures, low humidity
Continental Pressure land area from Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal. After the passage of a WD, some times in
Tropical Tm Southern border of winters there is an incursion of Pc air mass, which causes Cold Wave conditions.
Moderately high temperatures,
Maritime oceanic sub-tropical high humidity. In the summer months the equatorial low moves northwards and by June gets
highs.
Equatorial
established over the Gangetic plains as Monsoon Trough. To the south of this trough
Em Equatorial and High temperatures, high humidity
(Maritime) tropical seas
is the Em air from the southern hemisphere. To the north of it there may be two
(SW Monsoon is Em air mass).
types of air masses. In northwest India there is usually Tc air, while in northeast
Table 14.1 India and along the Himalayan ranges there is Tm air which originates in the sub
tropical high of the Pacific Ocean. This air mass gets modified in its land travel over
Modification of Air Masses . the countries of southeast Asia and has different characteristics than the Em air
When an air mass bodily moves, its temperature and moisture characteristics get which comes from the southern hemisphere.
modified according to the nature of the area over which it moves.
FRONTS
Air Masses in Indian Sub-Continent
Tropical Maritime Air (Tm): This air mass originates in the subtropical highs of Front. A Front is a narrow zone of transition between two air masses of contrasting
the north Pacific ocean and arrives over India during the monsoon season, after densities. The contrasting densities are due to different temperatures and humidity
travel over SE Asian countries. It has high temperature, high relative humidity and of the air masses. At a front there is change in temperature, wind, clouding and
high dew point. precipitation.
126
127
AVIATION METEOROLOGY I,
\
AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WESTERN DISTURBANCES
moves very fast causing line squall to develop 100 - 300 km ahead of the
front.
~ Ana Type Cold Front. It has a steep slope of 1:50 to 1:80 and speed exceeds
WARM r (b) 30 kt. There is instability and rising warm air at high levels (term ana
t
f
denotes anabatic). Main clouds are CU, CB clouds. Violent TS, hail and
showers of short duration are its basic features, confined to 1OO~ 150 km.
FtNT After the passage sky clears rapidly. Behind the front there may be CU,
CB clouds and isolated showers.
Figure 14.1 Front and Frontal Surface
Frontal Surface. Frontal Surface is the sloping surface along which the two air masses
10lun
exist and Front is the place where this frontal surface meets the ground.
Frontogenesis. In a front weather occurs only when there is a significant density
contrast between the two air masses. If density contrast is insignificant the front
passes off unnoticed except for some change in winds. If the density contrast 5km
increases the front becomes active. The formation or strengthening of a front is
called Frontogenesis.
Frontolysis. Weakening of front with time and dissipation of frontal weather is called
Frontolysis.
TYPES OF FRONTS
Okm 100 Iun 200 Iun
Cold Front
Figure 14.2 (a) Cold Front
It is a demarcation zone between cold air overtaking warm air. The cold air provides
a wedge on which warm air glides. Most of the cold fronts are associated with CD
and CB clouds. The slope at the interaction is steep, 1: 80 to 1: 120, which becomes Warm Front
shallower at higher levels. There are two types of cold fronts : It is a demarcation zone between warm air overtaking cold air. Its slope is shallow,
1:150 to 1:180 and speed is about 10-15 kt.lfthe advancing warm air is unstable,
(a) Kata Type Cold Front. It has a shallow slope of 1:120 and speed is about stratiform and cumuliform clouds would form. lfthe warm air is stable and air sinks at
20 kt. There is general sinking of warm air at high levels (term kata denotes higher levels, clouds are mainly stratifonn. Stable warm fronts are called Kata Type and
katabatic). Due to this the vertical cloud development is restricted. It has unstable Ana Type warm Fronts.
stratiform (ST, NS, AS) and CU, CB clouds. The precipitation is widespread. <al Kata Type Warm Front. Approach is indicated by C\,CS, about 1000 Ian
Showery precipitation occurs in advance and just behind surface front, due ahead. As front nears clouds thicken and NS, AS clouds appear 400-500
to CB. Further behind precipitation is from NS and AS. Sometimes thefront
129
1'Hl
AVIATION METEOROLOGY AIR MASSES FRONTS AND WESTERN DISTURBANCES
(b) Warm Occlusion. When·the air mass behind the advancing cold front is
less colder (cool) than the cold air mass of the warm front ahead, the
advancing cold front overrides the warm front ahead. The weather in such
tOkIO
a case is similar to that of warm front. This type of occlusion occurs in
winters and is less common.
Approaching
\Val'm Ail' Skm
COOL
I
okm 100 Ian
I
200 Ian Figure 14.3 Cold and Warm Occlusions
Figure 14.2 (b) Warm Front
Stationary Front
km from front. Precipitation gradually becomes heavy and persists. Just A stationary front is one that exhibits almost no movement. On either side of
ahead of the warm front there is drizzle, low stratus and sometimes fog, the front there are two contrasting air masses. Winds on either side blow parallel
called frontal fog. After the passage of warm front, fog dissipates, sky to the front but in opposite direction. Polar front is an example 'of stationary
becomes partially dear, with warmer and humid weather. front.
(b) Ana Type Wann Front. In this type offront air is unstable. CD and CB douds
Fronts of the World
may be embedded in the stratiform douds, causing brief spells of· heavy
precipitation. Just ahead of the front drizzle may occur from ST douds. After (a) Polar Front: Polar Front is a transition zone between polar easterlies and
the passage of the front fog. dissipates and skies practically dear. mid latitude westerlies. It is located around latitude 60°. The polar front
is not continuous. It is active only in segments.
(Note: For weather with Cold and Warm Fronts Refer Apendix _ I)
(b) Arctic Front: This is the boundary between arctic and polar air masses.\
Occluded Front It lies normally further north than the polar front but is often displaced
l
southwards into temperate latitudes in winters.

A cold front normally moves at twice the speed ofa warm front. An occluded front
(c) Mediterranean Front: This is the boundary between the Pc air from Europe
forms when a cold front catches up with a warm front. Occluded fronts are oftwo
types: and the Tc air from North Africa. It extends roughly from west to east over
the Mediterranean in winter.
(a)
Cold Occlusion. If the air mass of the advancing cold front is colder than
the cool air mass of the warm front, the advancing cold front undercuts Fronts In India
and lifts both the warm and cool air masses of the warm front. The weather India is not affected by fronts, except in the extreme NW India. The Western
is initially warm front type but during the passage of front, showery weather Disturbances which affect NW India are of frontal origin. However, when they reach
of cold front Occurs. This occlusion is common in summers. India they are in the occluded stage.
130 131
WESTERN DISTURBANCES (WD) premonsoonof widespread dust haze and dust storm are experienced over NW India
under the influenceWDs.
WDs are lows or troughs which move from W to E, N of 20° N and cause weather.
Trough in Westerlies. A series of trough in upper air westerlies keep moving from
Whenever the low has two or more closed isobars, at 2 hPa interval, it is termed
W to E. Sometimes these have large amplitudes. They cause upper air divergence
as Western Depression. The troughs above 500 hPa level are called Troughs in ahead of them. Whenever these troughs lie on the rear of a surface system, the
Westerlies. (Satellite Imagery of WD at Appendix B) weather activity enhances considerably. Severe TS/DS, Norwesters and heavy rains
These weather disturbances are noticed as cyclonic circulation/trough in the mid are associated with these troughs.
and lower tropospheric levels or as a low pressure area on the surface, which Occur
in middle latitude westerlies and originate over the Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea
QlJESTIONS ON AIR MASSES, FRONTS AND WD
and Black Sea and move eastwards across north India.
Q1. The airmass which originates at sea in high Latitudes is called
WDs belong to extra tropical cyclone family. Over India they are in occluded state
(a) Polar maritime (b) Tropical continental (c) Tropical maritime
and cause warm!cold front type of clouding and weather. They intensify over NW
India due to orography and moisture feed from the Arabian sea. Q2. The airmass which originates over equatorial region is
(a) Warm & dry (b) Warm & Moist (c) Cold & dry
Induced Low and Induced Cyclonic Circulation
Q3. If the advancing cold front is colder than the cool air mass of the warm front,
Under the influence of the WD, sometimes a low develops to the south of the system the advancing cold front undercuts and lifts both the warm and cool air masses
as induced low and sometimes a cyclonic circulation deVeloped to the south of the of the warm front. This is
system as induced cyclonic circulation (a) Warm Occlusion (b) Cold Occlusion
The average frequency of WDs is 5-7 per month in winters, which subsequently Q4. The airmass which originated over land area located in polar region:
decreases to Nil in monsoon months. They reappear from Oct onwards. (a) Warm & dry (b) Warm & Moist (c) Cold & dry
Movement. From Pakistan/Rajasthan they move NE towards W Himalayas. Some Q5. If a warm airmass overtakes a cold air mass, it is called
(a) Cold Front (b) Warm Front (c) Occluded Front
of them subsequently glide along foot hills towards E. A few WDs move E towards
UP, MP, Bihar and subsequently reach up to NE India. The rate of movement is about Q6. At warm front
250-300 km per day. (a) Warm air overtakes the cold air (b) Cold air undercuts the warm air
Weather. In about 50% cases, weather is confined to J&K, HP, Punjab, Haryana, Q7. The conditions are always unstable at
Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal. In remaining cases weather is affected (a) Cold front (b) Warm front
over Up, MP, Bihar and adjoining states, Orissa, WB and NE India. The area of Q8. Line squall occurs about 100-300 km ahead of
maximum clouding and precipitation is always along the foot hills. Widespread fog (a) Warm front (b) Cold front
and cold waves are common after the passage ofWD. Fog lifts up by forenoon but
sometimes it persists for a few days. Q9. Precipitation occurs over a belt of 30 - 50 km on both side of front
• (a) Cold front (b) Warm front
Aviation Hazards. Low clouds, poor visibility, rain, TS, hail, icing are the main Q10. Cold front moves at ... the speed of a warm front moves
hazards during approach/passage and after the passage, widespread fog. During (a) Same (b) Double (c) Half
132
133
Ql1. Line Squalls occur ...... of Cold front Q24. WD is a ........... front
(a) Cold (b) Warm (c) Occluded

(a) Ahead (b) Behind (c) At the
Q12. Fronts are associated with Q25. FZRA and FZFG occur ........... of a warm front
(a) Tropical cyclone (b) Monsoon Depression (a) Ahead (b) During (c) After
(c) Extra-tropical Cyclones Q26. Precipitation ceases after the passage of a front
Q13. CB, Roll-type clouds, SC, AC with embedded CB are associated (a) Cold (b) Warm (c) Occluded
(a) Cold front (b) Warm front Q27. During the approach of a Warm Front wind
. (a) Backs (b) Veers (c) Does not change
Q14. The Surface of discontinuity between the Polar Easterlies and the temperate
Westerlies is called Q28. A WD with two or more closed isobars, at 2 hPa interval, it is termed as
(a) Equatorial Front (b) Tropopause (c) Polar Front
(a) Troughs in Westerlies (b) Western Depression (c) Western Cyclone
Q15. The air mass which ·originates from sea area located in lower Lat is
(a) Warm & Dry (b) Warm & Moist (c) Cold & Moist Q29. A WD originate over
(a) Baluchistan (b) Caspian sea (c) Mediterranean, Caspian and
Q16. WDs approach India as
Black Seas
(a) Cols (b) Occluded Fronts (c) Highs
Q30. Induced lows develop to the ........ of a WD
Q 17. Maximum WDs occur in
(a) Summers (b) Post Monsoon (c) Winters (a) N (b) S (e) NE
Q18. Ahead of a warm front the surface wind

(a) Backs & weakens (b) Veers & strengthens
ANSWERS
(c) Backs & strengthens
Q 19. On approach of a Warm Front temperature Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(a) Fall (b) Rise (c) Remain same A. a b b c b a a b a b a c a
Q20. CI, CS, AS, NS, ST in sequence are associated with the front Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
(a) Warm (b) co~a (c) Occluded A. c b b c b b a a b c c a b
I
Q21. During the passage of a Cold Front winds Q. 27 28 29 30
(a) Suddenly become squally A. a b c b
(b) Back and weaken (e) Veer and are of moderate strength
Q22. Visibility is poor in a Warm Front
(a) Ahead (b) Ahead & During (e) Mter & During
Q23. Fog Occurs in Cold Front
(a) Ahead (b) During (c) After
135
134
JET STREAMS
(b) Polar Front Jet Stream (PFJ). It is a westerly jet stream in middle latitudes,
above the surface polar front, at about 9.0 km close to the middle-latitude
tropopause. The PFj migrates in winter to 30° N and in summers to 70°
N. The core speeds are stronger in winters than in summers. The main
direction is westerly, although on many occasions it may be northwesterly
15 or southwesterly. Normal speeds are 80 to 100 kt in winters.
(c) Sub-tropical Jet Stream (STJ). It is a westerly jet stream above the sub
tropical high pressure belt, hence the name. In winters its normal position
JET STREAMS is about 27° N and is strong. Its southern "!ost position is S of 22~ N in
February. While in summers it moves to the N of 35° N and weakens. The
STj lies close to the middle latitude tropopause. The STj affects India in
the non-monsoon months (Oct to May). Speed in ST] ranges from 100
Jet stream is a strong narrow current of winds along a semi horizontal axis in the kt to over 200 kt. Over japan average speed is 150 kt.
upper troposphere. It has strong vertical ~nd horizontal wind shears. It features one
(d) Tropical Jet Stream (TJ). It is more commonly known as the Easterly jet
or more velocity maxima. Normally a jet stream is thousands of km in length,
hundreds of km in width and some km in depth. The vertical wind shear is about stream. It is found at a mean height of about 14 to 15 km. It is prominent
5m/s per km~ The arbitrary lower limit of jet core velocity has been assigned as during the monsoons and becomes very weak in winters. The average core
30m/sec (60 kt). speed varies from 60 to 80 kt, with a maxima of 150 kt. The axis in july
August is near latitude 13° N (Chennai Lat.) over India.
In a jet stream, the path of the maximum speed is known as the axis and the tubular
volume immediately surrounding it is known as the core. ' (e) Stratospheric Jet Stream(SJ). A stratospheric jet stream is found at levels
above 20 km in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. These are westerlies in
The wind speed along the axis is not always uniform. There are distinct maxima
winter and easterlies in summer.
along the axis. The speed of these maxima is much lower than the wind speed itself.
At certain places the maxima speed reduces below 60 kt, constituting breaks in the Jet Streams over India
jet stream. Sometimes the axis branches into two jet streams and rejoins further
down stream. Amongst the above jet streams, the two jet streams which prevail over India are:
Along the axis of a jet stream there are centres of high speed winds, caHedJet streaks The STJ during non-monsoon months and The TJ duting the monsoon months.
(wind maxima), with weaker winds in between. Jet streaks retain their strength but
move slower, by up to 25 kt, than the jet stream. In a wavy jet they are located MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF STJ AND
over or near the ridge. ,
Types of Jet Streams: There are four types of jet streams in the troposphere: Sub-tropical Jet Stream
The STj appears over the N India in October after the withdrawal of monsoon and
(a) Arctic Jet Stream (AJ). It a westerly jet stream at 7 to 8 km height over
the Arctic region, close to polar torpopouse. shifts progressively southwards with the progress of the winter. Its mean position
is roughly at 27° N at a height of 12 km. It reaches its southern most position of
136
137
22° N in February. STJ prevails over the Indian subcontinent for about eight months
JET STREAMS
(Oct to May). After May it shifts northwards and moves out of the Indian subcontinent.
?-- STJ 37N 1:2km ~

In deep westerly troughs the jetstream tends to be S of the mean position and in
ridges N of the mean position.
Temperature Distribution. STJ is caused by a concentration of horizontal temperature
gradient below the jet and reversal above it. From surface to 300 hPa the horizontal
temperature gradient is from S to N, particularly at 500 and 300 hPa. Consequently
thermal wind builds up and jet maxima is reached at 200 hPa. At 200 hPa thermal
gradient is slack and thereafter it reverses. Lapse rates are more to the S of the
jetstream than to the N, both above and below. At and near the STJ the temperature
gradient is very small or negligible.
Vertical Shear. Vertical wind shear is greater above the core than below it.
15 kIll Horizontal Shear. In STJ the horizontal shear is more to the north than to the south
of the core. At core level the winds weaken by about 35 kt!100 NM to the south
TJ (right). To the north the fall is steeper, about 100 kt/ 100NM. Shear is more below
the core and to the north (left).
STJ and Weather. With the passage of a WD, STJ strengthens (130 - 150 kt) and
Figure 15.1 Normal Positions ofSTJ and TJ
moves south. Divergence in the left entrance and right exit of the jet core in
combination with a low level system (Low pressure) enhance its activity and may
The mean wind speed of STJ is 100 kt, with a maximum of 200 kt. The speeds cause severe TS. .
are the lowest (60 to 70 kt) in October and May and the highest (100 to 120 kt)
iIi January. Higher speeds are more common in January and February than December. Tropical Jet Stream
On occasions the core speeds reach 200 kt. The level of maximum wind in STJ is Over peninsular India, strong Easterlies blow to S of 25° N at 100 hPa during the
a few kilometer below the tropopause. monsoon period. This is called Easterly Jetstream or Tropical Jetstream (TJ). It is
found only over Asia and Africa and not over Atlantic and Pacific. In July there
Sometimes the STJ splits due to the Himalayas, with one branch to the south and
are 10-20 kt Ely winds at 300 hPa S of 27° Nand Wly to the N. During monsoon
another to the north of Himalayas. These branches later recombine to form a single
stream over China. months, there is a southward decrease of temperature throughout the troposphere,
due to sun being N of 20° N. Tibetan plateau also has some influence on temperature
STJ has a layered structure. There are often two layers of maximum wind, to the gradient. The temperature gradient from N to S, opposite of winters, causes lower
S ofthe jet core. The jet stream strengthens by 10- 15 kt downstream, along the level westerlies to change to easterlies above 500 hPa level. Easterlies strengthen
axis from Jodhpur to Guwahati. with height up to about 16km, where wind speed is about 80 kt or so, maximum
STJ is located 3-4 km below the tropopause in the region where there is a break being 150 kt. TJ is seen over India from June to August and disappears by September.
in tropical and middle tropopause at 300 - 200 hPa. The TJ is located at 13° N (near Chennai) at a height of 15 - 16 km.
The level of maximum wind in TJ is just below the tropopause.
138 In the TJ the wind shears are much less than the STJ.
JET STREAMS
Low Level Jets(LLJ) Q5. In a jet stream, the path of the maximum speed is known as
(a) Core (b) Axis (c) Jet streak
In addition to the above jet streams very strong winds appear in the lower levels,
between 1 km and 3 km at many places, in the sub-tropics. These are called LLJ. Q6. The wind speed along the axis of a jet stream is always
(a) Uniform (b) Not uniform
.A prominent LLJ is noticed over the Indian Peninsula during southwest monsoon,
when low level winds become very strong. This LLJ is probably a continuation of Q7. Along the axis of a jet stream there are centres of high speed winds, these are
the jet stream off the Somalia Coast in Africa. The LLJ enhances the monsoon called
activity over Indian peninsula. (a) Jet streaks (b) Core (c) Axis
Q8. In a wavy jet the Jet streaks are located over or near .the
Cause and Weather ~s.sociated with Jetstream
(a) Ridge (b) Trough (e) Between Trough and Ridge
Cause. Jetstream is caused by the large horizontal temperature gradient.
. Q9. Sub-tropical Jet Stream (STJ) is

Clouds. Jetstream has extensive sheets of high clouds on warm side, with sharply (a) Westerly (b) Easterly (c) Southerly
defined edges, usually parallel to the jet axis. CI clouds are more common on the QI0. The normal position of Sub-tropical Jet Stream is
cold side while CS and CC clouds on the warm side. On cold side cloud tops are (a) 30° N (b) 27° N f (c) 35° N
invariably just below the tropopause whereas on the warm side tops are a few
Q11. The southern most position of STJ is in February is
thousand feet below the tropopause. Roll type of CI or CS may be seen all along
(a) 22° N (b) 20° N (c) 18° N
the length. Where moisture is less a thin layer of haze is noticed
\
on the warm side
and clear on the cold side. . Q12. The STJ affects India from
(a) Jun to Jul (b) .Oct to May . (c) Aug to Sep
CAT. CAT occurs around boundaries of the Jetstream due to large vertical and
horizontal wind shear. CAT is strongest near or just below the axis on colder side Q13. STJ has a layered structure.' There are often two layers of maximum wind to
with a secondary maxima above the Jetstream. the ........ of jet core
(a) S (b) N (c) SW
QlJESTIONS ON JETSTREAMS Q14. The STJ strengthens

(a) Northwards (b) Upstream
(c) Downstream
Q1. The arbitrary lower limit of jet, core velocity has been assigned by WMO as Q15. At and near the STJ the temperature gradient is very .
(a) 60 kt (b) 60 mls (c) 70 mls (a) Small (b) Large (c) Moderate
Q2. Jet stream has Q16. Vertical wind shear in STJ is greater ....... , ... the core
(a) one maxima (b) one or more maxima (c) only two maxima (a) above (b) below . (c) along
Q3. The vertical wind shear in a Jet stream is about Q17. The TJ prevails over the Indian Peninsula from
(a) Smlsi k m ( b } 6m/s/km (c) 8m1s/km (a) May to Jun (b) Sep to Oct
(c) Jun to Aug
Q4. Compared to horizontal wind shear the vertical wind shear in a Jet stream is Q18. The TJ is located over the Indian Peninsula, approximately at
(a) weaker (b) stronger (c) same (a) 13° N (b) 17° N (c) 18° N
Q19. The TJ is located over Indian, approximately at a height of

(a) 15 -16 km (b) 12 - 13 km (c) 11 _ 12 km
Q20. The TJ is strongest in
(a) July - Aug

(b) Sep - Oct (c) June
Q21. In the TJ the wind shears are much ........... than the STJ
(a) more
Q22. TJ is
(b) less (c) same 16
(a) Westerly
(b) Easterly (c) Southerly
Q23.A jet stream can be recognized by

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE
(a) High level dust (b) High Pressure (c) Streaks of CI (d) Lenticular clouds
Q24. Flying at right angles to a jet stream with falling pressure you wiU experience /
(a) Wind from left (b) Increasing head wind
(c) Increasing tail wind (d) Wind from right
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) is the bumpiness experienced by aircraft at high
Q25. When and where tropical jet stream occurs altitudes (above 18,000 feet) in either cloud-free conditions or in stratiform clouds.
(a) All year along equator . CAT occurs when undulations (known as gravity waves) in the upper atmosphere
(b) In" Middle East in summers become steep and unstable and then break down into chaotic motion. These unstable
(c) In winters over Russia
waves occur when vertical wind shear is locally excessive and the atmosphere is
(d) In summers over SE Asia and Central Mfica unstable.
Necessary conditions for the generation of CAT are:
ANSWERS
Q. 1 (a) Marked horizontal or vertical wind shear
2 3 4 5
A. 6 7 8 9 (b) Steep lapse rate in the atmosphere.
a b a b 10 11 12
b b a 13
a a b a
Q. 14 15 b a Such conditions normally exist just below the tropopause, especially in the vicinity
16 17 18 19
A c 20 21 22 23 of a jet stream core. In the lower stratosphere even though the lapse rate is small
a a c a 24 25
a a b b or negative, the marked decrease of wind speed with" height may give rise to
c a d
temporary zones of CAT.
Most CAT occurs on the fringes of (not within the core of) a jet stream and in the
vicinity of upper level frontal zones where temperature contrasts are strong.
CAT also occur when strong winds cross a mountain range under suitable stability
conditions. These amplify the gravity waves and propagate them vertically towards.
the stratosphere. The mountain waves may generate smooth up and downdraughts
or may breakdown and cause CAT.
142
The combined effect of mountain wave and jet stream may cause severe CAT. Severe
CAT is more frequent on the leeward side of high ground than over the plains.
CAT also occurs when strong winds encounter the tops of thunderstorm douds,
resulting in waves that extend well downstream from the doud. Sometimes a train
of lenticular clouds can be noticed on the leeward side of a CB doud.
CAT Over India 17
(a) From October to May the frequency of CAT is highest over N, Central
and NE India, due to the presence of the Sub TropicalJet stream and over .
S India in July and August due to the peak activity of Tropical Jet stream. MOUNTAIN WAVES
(b) Most of the CAT in India are weak to moderate. Severe CAT Occur from
December to February when STJ is in its peak.
(c) CAT is a patchy phenomena. Its average dimensions are about 120 km in
N-S direction and about 250 km in the E-W direction.
(d) Vertically a CAT zone may be about 2000 ft, but in may extend through airflow over mountains is disturbed due to the underlying undulated surface.
a deep layer.
flow pattern is extremely complicated and is dependent on wind speed, lapse
Aviation Hazards and the shape, length and height of the range. Under suitable stability conditions
an air stream strikes a mountain range, a train of waves is generated on the .
(a) CAT causes discomfort to the crew and passengers.
~p;ward side of the range, called Mountain wave. The Waves, extend vertically to
(b) In CAT difficulty may be experienced in controlling an aircraft. great height and horizontally downwind to a considerable distance. Flying over
(c) CAT is encountered suddenly and is amplified by the mountain waves. ifh terrain is bumpy and unsafe. For the safety of aircraft and comfort of passengers,
Avoidance (:understanding of the flow pattern, its extent, scale and degree of turbulence
i:(4~~ociated with it is vital for the aviators.
(a) Avoid flying dose to the Jet stream.
(b) Climb up or descend down if experiencing CAT. Necessary Conditions
Wind:
(a) A definite air flow across the ridge, within 30° perpendicular to the ridge .
. ,(b) A wind of adeast 7m/s for smaller mountains and 15m/s for larger mountains.
(c) A deep steady directional flow, strengthening with height.
Stability:
(a) Generally unstable atmosphere at low levels
(b) A stable layer (isothermal or inversion) slightly above mountain crest.
(c) Less stable or slightly unstable atmosphere above this layer.
144
MOUNTAIN WAVES
Turbulence
Vertical Currents
Flying over the mountains is not always turbulent. It is smooth in certain regions
In the mountain waves there are alternate areas of rise and sink. The areas of sink and turbulent in others, due to additional wind shears. However; the transition from
occur immediately downward of the ridge. The vertical currents associated with the smooth to turbulent motion is extremely abrupt and without any warning.
mountain waves can be intense and extensive. Over large mountains, vertical currents
Sometimes, the outlines of wave douds are not smooth but have ragged appearance.
of 10 to 25 mlsec are not uncommon. An aircraft flying parallel to a ridge, if caught
This is an indication of turbulence. Severe turbulence occurs in cap clouds, Fohn
in the down current, would suffer constant loss of height till the whole length of
wall and rotor clouds. The worst kind of turbulence is encountered in the vicinity .
the ridge is traversed. Whereas an aircraft caught in up currents would constantly
of rotor clouds, similar to that of violent TS. In rotor clouds both vertical and
gain height. Adequate terrain dearance is therefore essential while flying over the
mountains. horizontal gusts occur and an acceleration of 2 to 4g is not uncomm~n.
Clouds The degree of bumpiness experienced by an aircraft depends upon its size, speed
and aerodynamic characteristics.
In humid atmosphere the mountain waves form characteristics douds, namely: cap,
rotor, lenticular, ST, SC, AS, CI and Nacreous (in upper stratosphere). These douds Altimeter Errors
continuously form on the upwind side and dissolve on the downwind side, thereby In mountain waves an aircraft is subjected to rapid height fluctuations, due to up
give an impression of being stationary. Lenticular douds are lens shaped and form and down currents. The aneroid capsules of the altimeter are unable to respond
at successive crests of
correctly to these fluctuations. This is called Hysteresis effect. Altimeters also give
erroneous readings if the temperature defers from ISA. If colder than ISA, the
the waves, up to some distance. On large lee slopes on certain occasions the douds
readings are too high and vice versa. Hence altimeter readings are not reliable and
sweep down like a doud fall or Fohn wall and resemble waterfalls. Mountains have
a tendency to increase the doud cover and also doud depth. deceptive when used for terrain clearance.
Lee waves of long amplitude, often produce rotors in the crests of waves. If the Seasonal and Diurnal Variation
mountain range is long, a succession or a train of lee waves may be seen. The atmosphere becomes stable at lower levels after sunset due to radiational
cooling. At the same time the winds also weaken in the lower layers. This results
Lenticular Clouds
in the formation of waves, on the lee side of small and medium height mountains,
called evening waves. These waves continue throughout, till the warming up after
sunrise destroys the stability structure. In the case of large mountains, however, this
effect is negligible.
In winters the winds strengthen with height and the atmosphere is stable at lower
levels. Hence the mountain waves are more frequent in the winters.
Aviation Hazards
Mountain Wave and Clouds The mountain waves deform the air flow over mountains and create several aviation
hazards. The main hazards are:
Figure 16.1 Mountain Waves and Clouds
147
146
MOUNTAIN WAVES
Q9. CAT is the bumpiness experienced by aircraft at high altitudes ........ in either
(a) Presence of waves of large amplitude, causing strong up ancl'down currents.

cloud-free conditions or in stratiform clouds
(b) Turbulence, often severe, extending to great heights. (a) above 18,000 feet (b) below 18,000 feet (c) below 28,000 feet
(c) Unexpected winds of large magnitude.
(d) Increase in frequency and intensity of icing. QI0. When approaching an area where mountain waves have been reported, a pilot
(e) Errors in pressure altimeter. should expect:
(a) Possible presence of roll clouds and lenticular clouds
Q1JESTIONS ON CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE AND (b) Intense up drafts and down drafts on the lee side of the mountains.
MOUNTAIN WAVES (c) Moderate to severe turbulence as far as 20 to 30 miles from the range on lee
side.
(d) All of the above
Q1. For mountain waves to form there should be flow of air across the ridge, generally
within ........... of the perpendicular to the ridge. ANSWERS
(a) 300 (b) 45 0 (c) 600 ';,.
6 7 8 9 10
2 3 4 5
Q2. For mountain waves to form the wind speed for small mountains should be atleast Q. 1
d a a d
(a) 15 mls (b) 10 mls (c) 7m1s c a b a b
A. a
Q3. For mountain waves to form the wind speed for large mountains should be atleast
(a) 15 mls . (b) 10 mls (c) 7m1s
Q4. For mountain waves to form the atmosphere should be ........... up to the ridge,
where air stream strikes the ridge.
(a) Unstable (b) Stable (c) Indifferent
Q5. For mountain waves to form the atmosphere should be ........ at higher levels above
the ridge
(a) Unstable (b) Stable (c) Indifferent
Q6. In Mountain waves the Rotor clouds form in

(a) Troughs (b) Ridges (c) Valley
Q7. Clear air turbulence is often encountered

(a) At the boundary of a jet stream
(b) In the wake of a passing airplane
(c) In the wake of a larger airplane at take off and landing
(d) All of the above
Q8. Most CAT occurs on the ........... of a jet stream and in the vicinity of upper
level frontal zones where temperature contrasts are strong.
(a) Fringes (b) Within the core (c) Axis
149
148
TROPICAL SYSTEMS
18
Figure 18.1 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) July (top) and
January (bottom) Locations
TROPICAL SYSTEMS
Equatorial Front. It is an alternative term for ITCZ.

Equatorial Trough (E1). It is a shallow trough in the region of doldrums near equator.
TROPICAL DISCONTINUITIES Easterly Waves
Easterly waves are troughs in tropical easterly winds. These waves form on the ITCZ
In tropics the temperature (or density) contrast between two air masses is not as with fairly high frequency. They originate at sea at the boundary of T m and the Em
discernable as in the higher latitudes. Hence fronts can not be marked. However, air masses. A minor surge of Em air may distort the ITCZ and start the Easterly
a line of discontinuity can be drawn in the wind field in the upper air charts and Wave. The wave moves in a more or less east-west direction.
by the inspection of the cloud pattern. Such discontinuities are called Tropical
Discontinuities or Convergence Zones. The Easterly Waves are weak at the surface but better developed at 500 hPa level
and above. Their wavelength is abo~t 1500 km. They move from W to E with speed
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 20-25 kmh along the ITCZ. Most of the weather occurs in the rear of the wave trough.
It is a narrow zone along which Tm or Tc air from the N meets the tropical or Easterly Waves in India
equatorial maritime air from the S. Since the air masses withi,n the tropics from
In winters these waves are first noticed in the Andaman sea as shallow lows with
N and S converge, hence the name. ITCZ usually lies along the Equatorial Trough
troughs in the upper air. They move westwards across south peninsula and emerge
(ET). With the movement of the sun, in summers it migrates up to 20° N and in
into the Arabian Sea. Their speed is about 15 kts over the sea and about 10 kts
winters up to Australia. ITCZ is therefore encountered by aircraft in winters when
over the peninsula. Their further progression westwards.beyondthe Arabian Sea
flying from India to the SE Asian countries and Australia. ITCZ embraces the
cannot be easily traced, but they also affect Africa. In winters the ITCZ is to tl'ie
whole globe. It is active in certain portions, of about 75-150 km length, where
south of the equator, but on rare occasions it moves into the extreme south Bay.
heavy showers Occur and CB clouds predominate. In inactive areas scattered The resulting wave may cause a spell of disturbed weather for 3-4 days over Bay
showers occur from large CU/CB. On rare occasions, it may be pushed up to S Islands, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and the Arabian Sea Islands.
Bay of Bengal in winters and may initiate formation of cyclonic storms. During
rainy season, the ITCZ/ET coincides with the Monsoon Trough. (Satellite Imagery During pre-monsoon season the ITCZ advances further north. Consequently the
of ITCZ at Appendix B) frequency of easterly weaves over India increases. These help the formation and
development of premonsoon cyclonic storms over the Indian seas.
150
151
AVIATION METEOROLOGY TROPICAL SYSTEMS
Surge
Surge or pulse is the sudden strengthening of an air current in the same air mass.
f At a surge the air arrives faster than it is removed. This leads to accumulation of
~
air at the surge line and vertical ascent. This process is known as velodty convergence.
A surge is a common disturbance in the monsoon season over the Arabian Sea. To
the west of the surge line the wind may be about 40 kt while ahead of it, to the
Figure 18.2 Easterly Wave

east, ,only about 10- 15 kt.
During the monsoon season the easterly waves from the Pacific Ocean move across
Vertical ascent at a surge line causes growth of CD clouds, showers and gusts or
Southeast Asia and reach the head of Bay of Bengal. Some of them move further
squalls. The surge line moves in the direction of the winq. It ultimately reaches over
WNW along the ITCZ with only slight intensification. Others develop into depressions,
the head of the Bay of Bengal.
move NW and weaken gradually. Very infrequently an easterly wave may develop
into a depression over the north Arabian Sea.
In the post-monsoon season as the ITCZ gradually moves southwards, the depressions
and cyclones form in the central and S Bay of Bengal in the Arabian sea.
Peninsular Discontinuity (PD)

Another discontinuity of importance in India is a discontinuity which forms over
peninsular India (south of Lat. 23 N) in April and May. This discontinuity is between
)
hot and dry Tc air form the northern India and comparatively cooler and moist air
from the Bay of Bengal.
This discontinuiW gives rise to afternoon thunderstorms, at times with hail, strong
northwesterly squalls and heavy showers. It remains more or less stationary for
3-4 days before dissipating. Figure 18.4 Surge
./
When a surge arrives, the sky becomes overcast with very frequent and sharp
'~ showers, and strong gusty or squally winds. The surge line activates ITCZ and
favours the formation of depressions or cyclones on th~ ITCZ.
Shear Lines
Shear Lines are created when in the same air mass the wind speed decreases
markedly from south to north or vice versa. Such situations are common over
Arabian sea during the monsoon season. At a shear line, due to friction between
Various Positions of PD Wind pattern at PD the air moving with different velocities, there is a small scale ascent of the air. If
Figure 18.3 Peninsular Discontinuity the shear line extends vertically, the ascent extends to higher levels and thick
152 153
. TROPICAL SYSTEMS
stratiform layer clouds (ST,AS and NS) form, which may extend to about 500 km
across. When a fresh surge arrives large CU and CB douds also get embedded in In a monsoon depression the worst weather occurs in the SW sector where rainfall
these, specially at the leading edge of the surge, which are at right angles to the is steady and heavy, in a beIt of about 400 km width. Elsewhere it is scanty. At the
shear line. Surge and Shear Lines are a characteristic feature of vigorous monsoon. time of re-curvature the rain belt shifts to N- NE sector. Showery precipitation
. occurs in the rear of depression when winds are strong S-SWly.
'--
------- ------- '-- "- The associated upper air cyclonic circulation extends up to about 300 hPa. The
\\\ \\\ ~ . monsoon depression slope SW'wards with height. For example if the system at the.
surface is over Kolkata, it would be over Visakhapatnam at 300 hPa (9km).
Figure 18.5 Shear Line
Fair weather over Assam during monsoon indicates intensification or £Qrmation of
Low Pressure Systems a depression over head Bay or vice versa. .
The Low pressure systems are classified on the basis of wind speed over the sea
(at 900 m over land) as follows:
Wind Speed Over Sea

Low Pressure
- < 17 kt
Depression
- 17-27 kt
Deep Depression
- 28 - 33 kt
Cyclonic Storm
- 34 - 47 kt
Severe Cyclonic Storm - 48 - 63 kt
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm
- 64 - <120 kt
Super Cyclone
- 120 kt or more
Note:- Over land area the winds are considered at 900 m.
Monsoon Depressions
A Depression is a low-pressure area with two or more closed isobars at 2 hPa Figure 18.6 Tracks ofMonsoon Depressions
interval. In India, they form over the North Bay of Bengal during monsoon season I
and are termed as Monsoon Depressions. In a depression surface winds are 17-33 Tropical Cyclones(TC)
kt. They also form over the Arabian Sea and over land too. Land depressions mostly TC are non-frontal low pressure system with numerous thunderstorms that produce
form over NE India.
strong winds and heavy rain. They form over warm tropical waters (temperature
In June, July and August depressions form over the head Bay of Bengal (N of 18 above 26.5°C), about 5-150 away the equat()r. The maximum sustained wind of in
N). They move N-NW into land. In September they form around 14 N. In Arabian a TC is 34 kt (about 62 kmph) or more. The maximum sustained wind (as per IMD)
Sea they originate 50 off the coast, N of 12 N and move N. If they form during is the highest 3. minutes averaged surface wind within the circulation at a height
the arrival of monsoon period, they help in advancing the monsoon northwards. of 10 m (33 ft). Some countries use 1 and 10 minutes averaging time for this purpose.
The average life of a monsoon depression is 3:",5 days. Depending on its location and strength, a TC is termed as Hurricane, Typhoon,
Tropicalorm, Cyclonic Storm, Tropical Revolving Storm and simply Cyclone.
154
H,
AVIATION METEOROLOGY TROPICAL SYSTEMS
' - . lOOO(:;:=IP--~ (c) Instability for vertical development and Coriolis Force to spiral wind inwards
,~ --..... ~., Characteristics. In the mature phase a cyclone has four parts:
998 Pa r--:.,.~~
~9~ (a) The Eye. The eye is the region of light winds and often clear skies, lowest surface
pressure and warmest temperatures. At the surface it is 0-2°C warmer but aloft
-------'------..
Isobars in a Depression are Elliptical
may be 10°C warmer or more at 12 km. The warm temperatures are due to
c,?mpression of the subsiding air. Eyes are 8 km to over 200 km across, but
mostly about 30-60 km in diameter. The eye has relatively moist low-level layer,
and an inversion 1-3 km above the surface.
///----r---~
(b) Inner Storm Area (Hurricane Core). The eye is surrounded by an area of width
//
/ Cloudy
50 - 150 km, with very strong winds (> 64 kt), violent squalls and torrential
Fail-
rains under long, thick dark clouds, called Eye Wall !Wall Clouds. The eye wall
SC I SCT CU is the most dangerous part of the cyclone. In this region pressure gradient is
Cu AC very steep. Some of the intense TC exhibit concentric eye walls.
SCT TS I <E-- 500 k:m--7
(c) Outer Storm Area. Outside the core is the outer storm area, extending to about
Thick Layer of
Fair/Cloudy 400 km, in which winds of gale force ( e"34 kt) and occasional squalls occur.
Clouds
SC CU Winds decrease outwards. There are spiral bands of clouds. .
Continuous
CD .
.~
RA
(?U ISOL:1 (d) Edge of the Storm. This is the outermost'region of the storm where the winds
are weak and clouding diminishes. '
/'
"" _.,/,/ Extent and Movement. TC is a vast violent whirl of 150 to 800 km, spiraling around
~---
a centre. It move over the sea at a rate of 300 to 500 km a day at 15 - 20 kmh.
Figure 18.7 Isobars and Weather in a Depression Generally TC move westwards up to about 25° Nt S and then recurve and move E.
Pressure. The central pressure in a TC is between 1000 - 900 hPa . On an average
TC can produce extremely powerful and damaging winds, torrential rain, high
the central pressure is 5. to 6 hPa below the surrounding pressure and in extreme
waves, storm surge, as well as tornadoes. On the positive side, TC can relieve drought
cases may be about 70 hPa less. The pressure gradient is very steep up to a radius
conditions and they also transport heat and energy from the tropics towards the of 100 km.
temperate latitudes. They thus help in maintaining equilibrium in the troposphere,
and a relatively stable and warm temperature worldwide. Worst Weather. The worst weather and winds in a cyclone are to the right forward
sector in the N- hemisphere and left forward sector in the S - hemisphere.
Necessary conditions for Formation
Upper Air Circulation
(a) Warm sea to a depth of 60 m to provides abundant evaporation.
(b) High RH to above 7000 m to facilitates condensation of water vapors into drops The cyclonic circulation in it TC may extend to 40,000 ft . The axis of circulation
and releases heat energy thereby inducing a drop in pressure. is almost vertical. In the inner storm area winds of hurricane force persist up to
about 7000 ft. Thereafter, winds weaken.
156 157
TROPICAL SYSTEMS
winds. Strong up and down draughts occur in various parts of storm. Rain in certain
Wind speeds, at surface and in the upper air, are stronger in the right half of a cyclone
portions is torrential. Winds are very strong.
than in the left half. The difference being almost twice the speed of the cyclone.
Tropical Storms over India Frequency of Cyclones

The frequency of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea is almost nil in
The size of a TC over Indian seas varies from 50 - 2000 km radius, with an average February and March. They are frequent in May, June, October and November. Their
of 300 - 600 km. Winds in a TC rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern and
freq~ency is maximum in October and November.
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, due to Coriolis force. Cyclonic storms form
over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea and move inland. They cause damage Avoidance of a Tropical Cyclone while in Flight
and devastation over the coastal areas. The damage is mainly due to the high velocity On whatever compass course the cyclone is approached,strong winds from the port
winds, torrential rain and inundation caused by the storm wave and high tides. indicate that the centre lies somewhere ahead. If the course is altered until the wind
The storms which form in the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea have a very small is from starboard the central area will be avoided.
life span, as they travel over the water surface for a relatively small period. Hence
they are in an immature or slight mature stage when they strike the coast. That is FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS
why the majority of Indian cyclones are not as violent as their counterparts, the
typhoons and hurricanes. The average span of life of the Indian cyclones is 3 or Formation of a frontal Depression / Cyclone
4 days, maximum being 6 to 7 days, even in the case of recurving storms. There A stationary or a quasi stationary polar front, in the northern hemisphere, has warm
have been cases when storms have kept recurving over the Bay of Bengal for a few tropical air to the south and colder air to the north. When the warm tropical air
days and assumed the vigour of a severe cyclonic storm before entering land. Such penetrates into a stationary polar front, a wave is generated. If this wave is stable,
storms take a heavy toll of life and property. In exceptional cases, some storms can it moves eastwards along the £rC?nt without intensification. If it is unstable, it
last even up to 2 weeks.
In the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, some of the Bay of Bengal cyclones LOW l COLD
recurve Nor NE and strike the West Bengal, Bengla Desh or Myanmar. The Arabian
Sea storms, when recurve, may strike Maharashtra and Gujarat coast. The low
~
Stationary ACQW·
Front --9'"
+a
iIIl-
W
~
.c ==t ~ ..... Isobars
latitude Bay cyclones cross the coast of Tamil Nadu or south Andhra Pradesh, WARM H
weaken over land and then emerge into the Arabian Sea. Here they may intensify HIGH
(b)
and again become cyclones and sometimes recurve NE, to strike Maharashtra and (a)
Gujarat coast.
Flying Conditions
Flying conditions within the storm are extremely hazardous. Clouds are arranged HIGH WARM
in spiraling bands. The central area outside the eye has extensive unbroken cloud
mass or the eye wall. Cloud bases may lower down to the surface and the tops in (d)
(c)
the CB towers may reach 18-20 km. Severe turbulence occurs in the towering Figure 18.8 Frontal Depression
clouds. Frictional turbulence is experienced in the lowest layers due to the strong
159
158
TROPICAL SYSTEMS
Q7. In the Bay of Bengal during the months of Jul, August, Monsoon Depression form
intensifies. Pressure falls in the region where the bulge has occurred on the fr"ont
and the cyclonic circulation develeps into a depression. Ahead of the cyclonic centre, (a) Over Head Bay "(b) Central Bay (c) South Bay
warm air displaces cold air (warm front). In the rear of the cyclonic centre cold Q8. In a monsoon depression maximum weather occurs in
air replaces warm air (cold front). These fronts are carried along with the winds (a) SE sector (b) NW sector (c) SW sector
as the depression moves with the warm front preceding the cold front.
Q9. During re-curvature maximum weather in a monsoon depression occurs in
These depressions of the middle latitudes are called extra-tropical depressions. They (a) SE sector (b) NW sector (c) SW sector (d) NE sector
generally move E or ENE, being steered by the deep westerly currents in these
Q10. On whatever compass course the cyclone is approached, strong winds from the
latitudes.
port indicate that the centre lies somewhere
When a depression on the polar front occludes, the unoccluded portion of the front (a) Ahead (b) Behind (c) Port (d) Starboard
is left behind usually trailing at a lower latitude. Conditions then become favourable
Q11. The well developed extra tropical cyclonic storm is composed of two main frontal
for secondary depressions to form at a lower latitude. This process may be repeated
systems and an occluded front, which varies in extent:
at a still lower latitude. In this way a family of 3 or 4 depressions may be generated,
(a) A stationary Front followed by a warm front
one SW of the other. They sometimes move eastwards together. These are called (b) A low with a warm front radiating out Southwards followed by a cold front.
Cyclone Families. (c) A warm front and an occluded front (d) None of the above
Saffir-Simpson Scale of CS and T Classification and for Cyclones is at Appendix K
Q12. Cyclonic storms are confined almost entirely to the
(a) Latitudes near Equator (b) Tropical latitudes
Q!)ESTIONS ON TROPICAL SYSTEMS
(c) Polar lat. (d) Mid lat.
Q13. The weather expected in a well developed cyclonic storm is:
Q1. Wind speed in a tropical severe cyclone is:
(a) Moderate Weather (b) Stormy weather
(a) 27 -33 kt (b) 48 - 63 kt (c) 17-27 kt (c) Clear skies (d) No wind or temperature change
Q2. Fronts are characteristic of:
Q14. After entering land the Cyclones gradually die down
(a) Tropical cyclone (b) Extra-tropical depressions (c) Monsoon depressions
(a) True (b) False
Q3. In a mature tropical cyclone, the eye area is characterised by:
Q15. The ........... is the most dangerous part of the cyclone is
(a) moderate winds and heavy rains (b) hurricane force winds and squalls (a) eye wall (b) eye (c) Outer storm area (d) complete cyclone
(c) calm wind, little clouding and practically no rainfall
Q4. Cyclonic storm cross Tamil Naducoast in: Q16. No CS form

(b) At Equator (c) At Lat 40 deg
(a) Oct-Nov (b) Jul- Aug (c) Feb -May (a) At Poles
Q5. Cyclonic storms form over Indian seas during Q17. Average life of a tropical cyclone in India is
(a) 10 Days (b) 6-8 Days (c) 3-4 Days
(a) SW monsoon (b) NE monsoon (c) Pre-Monsoon & Post Monsoon
Q6. TRS occurs over Indian seas in: Q 18. CS in India are mostly of intensity
(c) Moderate
(a) Equatorial Region (b) 5-15 0 N (c) 0-5 0 N (a) Severe (b) Very Weak
160 161
TROPICAL SYSTEMS
Illi AVIATION METEOROLOGY
iiiI.' Q33. In TRS the central pressure is about
I Q19. Eye of a CS is surrounded by (a) 1002-1010 hPa (b) 1000-900 hPa (c)1010-1020 hPa
. (a) Shelf Clouds (b) Wall Clouds (c) Rotor Clouds (d) Roll clouds
Q34. TRS develop over (d) at equator
Q20. CS in Indian region are less intense because (c) Islands
(a) Sea (b) Land
(a) They have a very short travel over the sea
(b) Sea surface temp. are not high (c) India is close to Equator Q35. TRS develop over .........,. deg Lat (d) 30 - 40
(a) 0-5 (b) 5-15 (e) 25-30
Q21. Surge is sudden strengthening of wind in the ........... air mass
(a) Same (b) Different (c) Both Q36. In TRS pressure gradient is very steep up to a radius of
(d) 400. km
(a) 30 km (b) 50 km (c) 100 km
Q22. Surge and Shear Line are features of ........... monsoon
(a) Vigorous (b) Weak (c) Moderate Q37. Extra Tropical Storms originate in
(a) Equatorial Front (b) Tropical Front (e) Polar Front
Q23. Peninsular discontinuity occurs along

(a) West Coast (b) East coast (c) Central Peninsula Q38. Extra-tropical Storms generally move in the direction
(d) E to W
(a) S to E (b) W to E (c) S to W
Q24. Peninsular discontinuity occurs during

(a) Monsoon (b) NE Monsoon (c) Pre Monsoon Q39. A Tropical Cyclone moves ........... in a day
(a) 300-500 km (b) 500-700 km (c) 700-900 km
Q25. Surge is also

(a) Velocity Divergence (b) Velocity Convergence (c) like ITCZ Q40. A Tropical CS has outer storm area of about
(a) >400 km (b) >700 km (c) >900 km

Q26. In a depression the wind speed is
(a) < 17 kt (b) 34 - 47 kt (c) 17 - 27 kt (d) 48 - 63 kt -ANSWERS
Q27. In a CS the wind speed is 11
6 7 8 9 10
(a) < 17 kt (b) 34 - 47 kt (c) 17 - 27 kt (d) 28 - 33 kt 2 3 4 5
Q. 1
b a c d a b
A. b b c a c
Q28. A monsoon depression slopes ........... with height
22
17 18 19 20 21
(a) SE (b) NW (c) SW (d) NE 13 14 15 16
Q. 12
c c b a a a
b b a a b
Q29. Average life of a monsoon depression is A.
(a) 2-3 days (b) 8-9 days (c) 3-5 days (d) 10-12 days
29 30 31 32 33
24 25 26 27 28
Q30. Monsoon depressions move faster over Q. 23
c b a c b
c
c b c b c.
(a) Sea (b) Plains (c) Hills (d) Rivers A.
36 37 38 39 40
Q31. For formation of a CS sea surface temperature should be Q. 34 35

a a
a b c c b
(a) 26 -27°C (b) 23 -24 °C (c) 24 -25°C (d) 30°C A.
Q32. In extra tropical cyclone family there are 3 - 4 CS or depressions, one to the
. .. .. . .. ... of the other
(a) SE (b) NW (e) SW (d) NE
163
162
CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA
E. India is at the southern periphery of this high. Accordingly, there is High pressure
over N India and Low pressure over the Indian ocean. On the surface isobaric chart,
aboutfourisobars (1012-1018 hPa), at 2 hPa interval, cover the country. The 1012
hPa isobar extends from Arabian sea islands to Andaman area and the 1018 hPa
isobar over Pakistan and J&K. A shallow trough extends from Kerala to Gujarat
along the West Coast and a shallow ridge over the Gangetic plains. Under this
19
pressure distribution, NWly winds prevail over N India and NEly winds over the
S India. These NEly winds acquire moisture over the Bay of Bengal and cause rains
over Tamil Nadu. The season is therefore termed as NE Monsoon. At the same time
,50 60° 65° 70· 75° 80· 85-- 90· 95· 100·
i, i I ! 1,I I 140•
,19 35°
35°._ \
The climate of India is dominated by the monsoon circulation. The term Monsoon <1,/ LEGEND
lY( --- CALM - " 05 Kts, ~ 10 Kts,
' ....._ ~ 15 Kts, ---- 20 Kts, ---, 50 Kts,
has been derived from the Arabic word "Mausim". It is the seasonal reversal of " "/, -WIND DIRECTION AT 03 GMT
winds and the rainfall. As the sun oscillates between the Tropics of Cancer and ...j ~'J _WIND DIRECTION AT 12GMT 30°
30°,~.
Capricorn, the region of maximum heating (thermal equator) also moves Nand S. v ,"~~ .....
,/.-..
~. !~
.
\~ ~
-,."
;. \ \, ,,' 'I, • . ./. Y
This causes the annual oscillation of temperature, winds, pressure, cloudiness, rain ';t-l '-- ::'::;:", 1 ~I!!!!..,./'
'~ '''0 ,<~, ',.-'
.'{'~"-.,.__/.-' ,\--..::..'>'.4
> < _:. -., '" l
• '\,
~
)~
etc, and the seasons. The differential heating of land and oceans causes variations
- \ /~
......... • ""- '/:. I'r
\ "'Y
in the intensity of thermal equator and hence regional variations in the intensity '01~P(/ L'- "(" '\\ ~ ..,
~
~~""'~-
of monsoon. The prominent monsoon region are Africa, S Asia and N Australia. v .' I' / / "/1.",/,111'
/ /' / .,!) / /\ '.1
~%t)/ /' .,.

NE monsoon (Cold season, Winter) January - February .r /J
r'1; • ,- "\ ,/" / / /' ~
" IV
Pre-monsoon (Hot Season) March - May /' /' /' I (.~....... ~ - t k; "/ / r /r
1SO~~ / ' /' /' / ' /' r /' /' / . . . .~_""'..:-Ji[.r:.:;..-r;=-; /' /' '/ /
SW monsoon (Rainy Season) June - September

.r /' r B ,r r
r >. ~.....=:L""" .f.\:/ /.... r /' /' /W ~ r' /' /
Post- monsoon (Cool Season) October - December

~-;;:/- /' r r r /' .7 "'( ,~.j r /' ,yf-7"-~ /"
I . ~ _"
Table 19.1 1001-
,"" /'" /' ;- /'.r " J.. r~ .~ ~
..? r-/'"-_. r /" /' r /" /'
.' I .~ ''''
The main two seasons in India are: the SW Monsoon the NE Monsoon. Intermediate /- L:.-L' .r /' /'
\!>~- _ __ _ _ _..4
r / -/ /' /' /' r /' /'_w-/' _C_...Lf:-hu..<'
between these are the two transition seasons: the Pre- monsoon and the Post S.~ ;- / ' r /' /' / ,( r / t r- / /' . . t//"--;. /: /' /' A\:.~1 5°
monsoon seasons, as discussed in the following paragraphs:- I" I" I" I" / r ,.. /' r t ,1--/'1 l r I. i. \ L '\ I
NEMonsoon
OoL
550 60.
I I / ;; l
65·
t!:'
70°
I' f~vf
75°
r! :
80°
i }. "
85°
\ 1 >" 7:' ~
90° 95°
\J
100°
o·
Pressure Distribution. During this season on the surface there is an extensive belt Mean Presure (hPa) aud winds at surface lavel UANUARY)
of high pressure from Sahara to Siberia. The high is centered at 45 0 Nand 105 0 Figure 19.2 Sea Level Pressure and Winds January
164
165
dry and cold weather prevails over the rest of the c()untry. The season is also termed Cold Waves are common in Jan and Feb in W India N of 20° N. ]&K, Rajasthan,
as Cold Weather Season or Winter Season. West MP and Gujarat are most affected regions. Punjab receives comparatively
Surface Temperatures. The average surface temperatures in winters range from lesser number of severe cold waves.
14° Cover N India to 27° Cover S India. Over most parts of the country the In the S India, the moisture laden NEly winds from the Bar of Bengal cause rains
diurnal range of temperature is about-13°C, is about 10°C over the coastal areas . and TS activity over Tamil Nadu and other parts of S Peninsula. Sometimes cyclonic
and 5° C over Tamil Nadu due to clouding and rain. storms cause heavy rains over Tamil Nadu.
Surface Winds. Surface winds are light, mainly NEly south of 25° N, NWly over
Aviation weather Hazards
N India winds and Ely over Assam ..
Poor visibility is the main aviation weather hazard during the season, specially over
Upper Winds. Up to about 10,000 ft the winds are NWly over N and the Central N India. Fog, mist and haze are common all over the country in the morning and
India and are NEly over S India. Thereafter Wly winds prevail aloft which strengthen evening hours. Smoke from industries and automobiles causes reduction in visibility.
with height and spread S wards up to the tip of Peninsula. The Sub Tropical Jet Low level inversion further favours reduction in visibility. Conditions become most
Stream (ST]) prevails over N India at a height of about 12 k:m and 27° N, with strong f~vourable for radiation fog after the passage of a WD, over NW India, Uttar
Westerly winds of 80-100 kt, maximum being 200 kt. . Pradesh, Bihar, Central India, N Bengal and Assam (particularly S banks of Brahmaputra
Synoptic Systems. About 5 -7 Western Disturbances (WDs) affect N India per month. river). Sometimes the fog prolongs, disrupting air traffic adversely, especially over
The WDs arrive from the W as Lows and move NE or E ward~. Most of the WDs polluted airfields like Palam (Delhi). On such occasions, there may be little
move to Western Himalayas and cause weather over ] &K·~d hills of Punjab, improvement in visibility to 1000-2000 m during noon, but it may again'deteriorate
Haryana, Himanchal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. A few of them move E wards up to in the evening and night. Such conditions sometimes may last for a few days.
Upper reaches of Assam and a few of them to Central India. A few Cyclonic Storms Advection fog occurs over coastal areas and where large water bodies are present.
and Easterly Waves affect S India. . The fog generally lifts by 1000-1100 hr 1ST.
Weather CAT is experienced over NE India and in the vicinity of STJ. Mountain waves are
also common during this period over high terrain over Nand E India.
In N India, dear skies, poor visibility, dry weather, low humidity and low temperatures Icing. During the season the freezing level lowers. Hence ice accretion may be
are the normal features. The dry spells are broken by the passage of WDs, which experienced at lower levels.
are mostly Occluded Fronts of extra tropical origin. Under the influence of WDs,
Warm Front weather is experienced first, which is followed by the of Cold Front Pr~Monsoon
weather. The Warm Front type weather sequence is, backing of wind from NWly Pressure Distribution. This is a transition season when winter pattern commences
to SWlyl SEly, rise in temperature, fall in pressure, appearance of CI clouds and to change over to the monsoon pattern. There is continuous rise in temperature
then thickening and lowering of clouds to AS, NS and ST. DZ and RA may occur. and fall in pressure over the country. There is weak pressure gradient over the
This is followed by the Cold Front type of weather, i.e. the appearance of CU and country. Only two isobars (1006 and 1008 hPa) cover the entire country. These
CB, rise in pressure and occurrence of TS. As the WD passes off the skies become isobars run parallel almost along the Indian coast line. There is a trough over the
clear andcold dry continental N-NWly winds set in. Widespread Radiation Fog and Peninsula with its axis along 78° E longitude. This trough shifts to 79° E along
Cold Waves (temperature 4.00 C or more below minimum normal) follow. The cold Chennai coast by May. A weak low lies over Pakistan (upper Sind h) and a weak
wave conditions may last for 2-3 days. When maximum temperature is less than trough over E UP and Bihar. A low lies over Myanmar and a closed high over the
or equal to 16°C in Plains, it is declared as a Cold Day. E Central Bay, W of Bay Islands.
166 167
AVIATION METEOROLOGY CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA
Surface Temperatures. Due to the N wards march of the sun, the land progressively Surface Winds. In March N of 17° N the surface winds are Wly and Ely to the S
gets heated up after January. By April, the temperatures are of the order of 30-350 of it. In April they are N-NWly up to E Uttar Pradesh (UP) and eastwards to NE
C over the central peninsula. The mean maximum temperatures are about 40-420 India. In May SWly prevail over Rajasthan and Ely extend from Assam to E UP.
C over the country. The day temperatures are highest in May. In Andaman's they Over Orissa, WB, Bihar, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, they are Sly. In rest of the
are highest in April, in Saurashtra injun and in Rajasthan and Kashmir in July. The country NWly to SWly winds prevail. In June Ely winds prevail N of the line joining
maximum diurnal range of 18° C is over Gujarat, Saurashtra and MP. Along the Lahore, Allahabad and Silchar. Over West Bengal winds are Sly and are W-SW 10
coasts it is about 6° C. Sometimes heat wave conditions (4° C or more above the 15 kt over rest of the country. On certain occasions the wind becomes gusty and
normal maximum) are also experienced. Also when maximum temperature is 450C dust laden over the Gangetic plains. Dust Raising Winds (DRW) mostly start at about
or more heat wave is declared.
0900 hr and continue up to 1700 hr. Thereafter they weaken. Visibility on such
4055° 60° 65° 70° 75° 80° 85° 90° 950 100. occasions reduces considerably over a large area.
°1 I ,. T ;pr-l I - '~. .' I - i '400
° !?~-.----~~
3SI:!ll:!L_.__ ·--
H -_/;JiY
/""
g '. \
Upper Winds. In April Wly strengthen with height over N India and Peninsula. At
300 hPa maximum speeds are 40 kt and at 200 hPa, 60 kt N of 22° N. The wind
weakens slowly aloft. In May Wly belt shifts to 30° N and Ely 15-20 kt establish
35°
-~'-' " "1 LEGEND over the Peninsula. In June winds are Wly up to 700 hPa and Ely aloft S of 25° N,
KI~L
30°...
,~.--
--- .-
'O()6 &' .(. .(-, .l':;~
!
1011
~t
•
\~;h;"
-CALM --... 05 --,,10 Kts
--"15 KIs. -..,. 20 Kis. --.. 50 Kts.
-'-WIND DIRECTION AT (}3 GMT
-WIND DIRECTION AT 12GMT

which strengthen with height to 50 kt at 100 hPa.
" l GJ
30"
..> ...... .!.~I! s Synoptic Systems and Weather
L -1
,:.:. ::;,,:' .. ~ ~~l\...,
-''...• ..- -.'\~"";'~ ~'- -" ·J!?PII ~ ,.f
\_.y-\'__-~ :,.....,T .....,/ ~
'v~,
" ,._, ..., \'. -
.' \ . >- , Y'

The season is characterised by widespread dust haze and extremely high temperatures
2sok~·""'-_~_,,_.r' -".~ :, -/-'~~? \~'·t<,·--\ i£i~9 25° over N India. There are dust storms over N India and Kalbaisakhi (Norwesters)
!~10----rj
'
" ~" ",<,J ...,,~':.
'-IJ~ ,.
./
'..'
'1
~_V"l.~/:/•
)",,<...,,(""v
\;:';)0
"\ t", L
over E India. These are triggered by the WDs. A few tropical cyclones strike Bengal
'. -/
,. .
I
'J"':--- '----. . . .,'

''\;:J.) ';l'
~- . ."~'" ·'~t
'fl# ~t>
coast and move NW. The STJ weakens and moves North wards.
20°1-
-"
(/ : ,? :
,t
"
\ \
\. '7 / ,""- 20°
This is the most hazardous season for flying. The main aviation weather hazards
...• '-,. '\ 'I :\ t<., j I / - '" J\ are TS/DS, Dust Haze, Squall, High temperatures, Dust Raising Winds, Norwesters,
/V~ \ ~'<'.,I' ~~ ,,~

~,
\ \ \ \ \
A\
15°~ ~ .........~ ,.. . t
/ ! ' . \ <. "-.// (". .
H' - /" I I;, '\ '- ,-/,," }, J .; / /' "115"
Andhi etc.
" \ " '}
,./ !.--Aj t ' ( \ \.
, '\ ",
~Vr"J~ \ \ \~ ~':); ~
\~
'> I I Aviation weather Hazards.
(a) TS and Ds Activity. Violent TS are common during this season with their
I / / I, \ "'" ',,- \. .... .". ~ I / / .I', y'c. / I ! ,.
all attendant hazards. DS are common over ~ajasthan and NW India.
5"1 \ 1 \.J \ ~ \ \, / / ~ f I I /
Norwesters affect Eastern parts of the country. Line squall type of
'" '- ' .. ~'. ' ..... ~- -"'i'o:-..N... ",- "...,.. ,,/ )t"" ./ ./ __ 5"
'% development is also reported by the aircrew. Poor visibility due to widespread
Qol
- I "'-
0
'~-. "'-l
)=" ..- i
,.,' >~ -" v
,/
n .
.; -'" ' \ J dust haze is experienced over entire N India. Dust haze may extend to 7 ~
55° 60 65° 70· 75° 80° 85" 90° 950 1006'
8 km aloft.
Mean Presure (hPa) and winds at surface lavel (APRIL) (b) Dust Raising Winds. Strong surface winds of 30 -50 kt may be experienced
Figure 19.3 Sea Level Pressure and Winds April between 0900 to 1700 h. The visibility may reduce to a few hundred metres.
168 169
SWMonsoon
"stretch across the country. A shallow low lies over extreme NE India (Arunachal
Pressure Pattern. A low pressure area lies over Baluchistan (994 hPa). A trough
Pradesh) and another over adjoining Myanmar.
called, Monsoon Trough (MT), lies over N India with its axis extending from
Sriganganagar to the Head Bay, through Allahabad. A high pressure lies over S -Surface Wind. Ely to SEiy winds prevail to the N of the MT and SW to Wly
Hemisphere, centered at 30° S 60° E. Pressure gradually decreases towards India ~lsewhere. They have more of Sly component over West Bengal. NWly winds prevail
from this High. Weak ridges lie over Arabian Sea off the West Coast of India, in bver Malabar coast. The wind speed over the land is about 5 -1 0 kt and over the
the Bay of Bengal off Tenasserim Coast and over Myanmar. A weak trough lies off seas 15kt. Strength of monsoon depends on the strength of these winds
the E coast in S Peninsula. The pressure gradient is steep along the west coast. Seven
,Surface Temperature. Temperatures over the southern parts of the country are about
isobars at 2 hPa interval (994 hPa over Baluchistan and 1008 hPa over S Peninsula)
. 26° C and over Rajasthan 31 ° C. The spatial range over India is about 9~ C and t4e
I ::a:;o ann
7'.,FiO Ano Qt:'o
diurnal range is about 04° C to 09° C. Temperatures rise during the break monsoon.
80° 85°
Upper Winds. Up to about 10000 ft the winds are W-SWly to the S of the MT and
totheN they are SEly. From 500 hPa upward~ Ely winds prevail over almost entire
35° India. At 200 hPaand aloft an anticyclone lies over Tibet and another over Baluchistan.
LEGEND
-CALM ____ 05 KIs. ~ 10 KIs. . The winds are about 20 kt over central India and 40 kt t-O the South. At 100 hPa they
~15KIs. ----.... 20Klo. ~50KIs,
·-WINO DIRECTION AT 03 GMT
-WIND DIRECTION AT 12 GMT·
strengthen to 40 kt and 60 kt respectively. Ely jet stream (Tropical Jet Stream) prevails
30° at 15-16 km with speed of 70-80 kt (max. 150 kt) roughly along 13 N.
Advance of Monsoon
The southwest monsoon current advances in two distinct branches - the Arabian
Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The former moves to Kerala and the latter
to Myanmar, BangIa Desh and Bengal.
Normal date for Onset of southwest monsoon are: South Andaman Sea: 20 May
Kerala: 01 June, Mumbai: 10 June, New Delhi: 29 June, Entire country: 15 July.
Normal date of Withdrawal from extreme west Rajasthan is 15 September. With
the withdrawal of monsoon from the N and central India and the N Peninsula by
the first half of the October, the lower level wind pattern rapidly changes from SWly
5·k ,.,/ ./ ........ .,.,.. .,.,.. __ •""'" \0. \..,.. ' '-"'" .,...... ..,.,..../ "'" ./ "",'. to NEly and hence the term Northeast Monsoon is used to describe the period
./ / ../../ ,/H'/ ,/ ,.,.,. --:. ~;;- ..,." Y""./ ../ ,/ 4r~ October to December. This is the major period of rainfall in S peninsula. In Tamil
//J'/,/'/y_~ _ _ _ -vJI //~ Nadu, this is the main rainy season, and accounts for nearly 60 % of annual rainfall
0°
55° 60· 65· 70· 75° 80· 85° !
950 pool
100. in the coastal districts.
Mean Presure (hPa) and winds at surface lavel (JULY) Flying in monsoon douds is relatively smooth, as they are stratiform type and
Figure 19.4 Sea Level Pressure and Winds July
visibility is exceptionally good, except in precipitation. Clouds are in different
layers and there are dear gaps in between various layers of clouds. Hence one
170
171
500hPa
can mostly find a suitable cloud free level for flying, except when affected by a
depression.
Axis of Monsoon Trough (MT). The normal position of the monsoon trough on
sea level chart passes through Ganganagar-Allahabad-Kolkata to Head Bay. The
turogh fluuctuates N-S of its normal position and accordingly governs the rainfall.
To the N of this trough lies the Bay branch and to the S, Arabian sea branch. This
trough more or less coincides with ITCZ. The MT slopes southwards with height.
At 10000 ft (700 hPa) it lies almost parallel to 22° N from Gujarat to Orissa and
at 500 hPa it can be seen around 10-15° N across S peninsula. Thereafter it is not
traceable.
Break Monsoon. Monsoon trough shifts northwards and runs close to foot hills of
Himalayas, resulting in drastic reduction in rainfall over the country outside the Figure 19.5 Subtropical Cyclone over Gujrat and adjoining areas
foot hills and southernmost Peninsula. During this period pressure rises over the
country. Heavy rains occur over foot hills of Himalayas, particularly over Sub
Rainfall over Land
Himalayan West Bengal, Nepal and Bhutan resulting in floods over NE India and
up to 12 kt < 1 / 2 times the norm~l
Bihar. Very strong Wly surface winds are also experienced over East Up, Bihar and
adjoining states. During this phase the weather is of Pre monsoon type with widespread 13 - 22 kt 1/ 2 to 1 V2 times the normal
dust haze of moderate intensity. 23 - 32 kt 1V2 to 4 times the normal
Strong Monsoon
Subtropical (Mid-tropospheric) Cyclone. Sometimes during SW monsoon a cyclonic Vigorous Monsoon > 32 kt . > 4 times the normal
circulation est ablishes at Lat/Long 60-80E and 18-28 N, between levels 500 and Strength of Monsoon
700 hPa, and a trough at the surface. Heavy rainfall in western India and NE Arabian
Table 19.2
sea are mostly attributed to this system. Even the very heavy, unprecedented rains
in the year 2005 over Mp, Maharashtra, especially Mumbai were attributed to the\ El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ESNO)
prolonged presence of such a system over the area. The heavy rainfall is due to thick
The termEI Nino was applied by fishermen to a period ofreduced fish catch due
stratiform clouds in which CB douds are embedded. Such heavy build up and rainfall
to suppression of upwelling (bringing of nutrient rich bottom waters to the surface)
occur is mainly to the Wand SW of the subtropical cyclone centre.
by the warm surface coastal current. During this period there is a rise in sea surface
Fixing Normal Date of Monsoon. A comparison is made with the rainfall of previous temperature off the coast of Ecuador and N Peru. It is an annual event arouud
two/three pentads (A year is divided into 72 pentads, of five days each, commencing Christmas, hence the name; El Nino is the Spanish equivalent of Christ Child.
01 Jan. Normals are prepared for each of the pentads). If there is a significant During El Nino, a warm coastal ocean current runs southwards along the coast of
increase in rainfall, the mid date of the pentad is declared as the date of onset of Ecuador. Extremely warm sea surface temperature anomalies occur once in every
monsoon, provided the increase in rainfall is maintained thereafter. few years which are accompanied by weather extremes over widely separated
regions of the world. About seven ESNO have occurred in the recent times. The
Strength of Monsoon. The strength of monsoon is described in terms of winds at
1972 ESNO was a year of large deficiency in summer rains in India. This lead to
sea and rainfall over the land, as follows:
173
172
AVIATION METEOROLOGY CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA
postulate that there is a link between El Nino and monsoon rainfall over India. The Aviation weather Hazards
ESNO of 1982-83 was probably the most intense. It displaced storm tracks hundreds
(a) Low Clouds. Very low clouds (150 to 200 m agl) and strong surface winds
of km to SE, and occurrence of heavy rains in California, worst flooding of Ecuador,
are common during the strong monsoon conditions and passage ofMonsoon
severe drought in Australia, Indonesia, S Africa etc., were noticed.
Depressions.
(b) Poor Visibility. Generally visibility is good. However, it may deteriorate
during precipitation.· Dust haze in the north during Break in Monsoon and
monsoon haze along the west coast reduces visibility to a certain extent.
(c) CAT. CAT is likely in the vicinity of TJ..
(d) TS Activity. During the onset of monsoon TS activity of a longer duration
is a common feature, with its attendant hazards. During Break and then
during revival of monsoon also TSare experienced.
Post Monsoon
The monsodn starts withdrawing from NW India by September. The withdrawal
proceeds in stages, eastward and southwards. It withdraws from NE India by middle
October and from the entire count~y by December. The period is therefore referred
as Retreating Monsoon.
Pressure Pattern. During this season the summer pressure and wind patterns undergo
slow but steady modification to finally change to the winter patt~rn. One isobar
(1010 hPa) surrounds the entire cpuntry including Bay Islands, Pakistan and parts
figure 19.6 Warm Coastal Ocean Current along the coast ofEcuador
of Myanmar. The monsoon trough shifts to the Bay of Bengal with its axis along
Southern Oscillation. It is the air pressure gradient between the eastern and western 13 0 N. The pressure field is flat over the country. A weak low (1008 hPa) lies off
tropical Pacific. It was discovered by Gilbert Walker, who noted that the pressure Chennai coast and another over Baluchistan.
at Darwin, Australia, is inversely proportional to the pressure in Tahiti, a south Surface Wind. Due to a flat pressure distribution over the country, the surface winds
Pacific island. El Nino begins when the air pressure gradient between the eastern are light and variable. The sea breeze effect is pronounced along the coasts in the
and western tropical Pacific starts to weaken.
afternoon hours and is felt up to 160 km inland.
La Nino. It is a period of strong trade winds and unusually low sea surface Surface Temperature. Temperatures are nearly uniform, 18° C, over the country.
temperatures in the central and east equatorial Pacific. La Nino is accompanied by The diurnal range is 6-70 C, over the country. The temperatures start falling allover
weather extremes that are usually opposite those of an El Nino. the country and by October. It is cool and·pleasant at most of the places. Hence
During intense ESNO the SE Iy Trades become Wly and drive warm waters Eastwards it is also known as Cool Season~
and cause dry weather over a large area. Then due to high sea surface temperatures Upper Winds. Gradually Wly winds start establishing at all levels and the pattern
off the coast of S America, which is arid, heavy convective activity and rainfall occur. changes to that of Winters. The STJ reappears over J&K. Above 500 hPa level Ely
remain confined to extreme S of the country, which weaken to 20 kt.
174 175
55° 60° 65° 10· 75° 80° 85· 90· 95° 100°
in October. They usually form near Andaman seas and move towards Tamil Nadu,
1.. ') 40
40
.. 1 • Andhra and Orissa. The CS normally strike Tamil Nadu coast. Some of them move
_N and strike West Bengal or Bangia Desh Coasts. A few of them after crossing over
!Ol+ the peninsula emerge over the Arabian Sea, revive, recurve and strike Maharashtra
35°
and Gujarat coasts.
30° Aviation weather Hazards

(a) Poor Visibility. Generally visibility is good. However, as the season progresses
visibility starts deteriorating near industrial areas during dawn and dusk.
25° After the passage of a WD there may be fog" or mist. In the 'South poor
visibility is during precipitation.
20°
(b) Low Clouds. Low clouds, very strong winds, heavy rain and TS activity
is experienced during the passage of a CS.
15 15· (c) CAT. CAT may be experienced due to STJ in the north.
ROUTE WINDS
10 10"
The general pattern of winds over various routes in India is summerised below:
S"
From Oct to May (8 months)
,;" /i~ ,;"-,' ~ '\, I O· Winds allover India are Wly. They becoming stronger with
1. Above 3 km
90° 95° 100· height. STJ (WLy/80-150 kt) over DLH - CAL Route at 12 km.
NW- Wly over N India and NEly over S India
Below 3 km
From June to September (4 months)
Weather
2. Above 6 km : Ely becoming stronger with height. TJ (Ely /60 -100 kt) over.
During this season Tamil Nadu gets its maximum rainfall. A few (1-2 per month)
MDS lat. at 15 km
Below 6 km: W - SWly over S India and SEly'N India
WDs affect N parts of the country. They cause clouding and precipitation over J&K
and Punjab.
Q1JESTIONS ON CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA

This is the best period for flying except over southern India. Good visibility, and
clear skies are the main features during the period. A few tropical storms form over
Q 1. During winters
the central Bay and the Arabian sea and cause weather over the coastal areas.
(a) Advection fog occurs over northern & central part of India
Maximum cycloni~ storms (CS) occur in October over the Bay of Bengal and in
(b) Radiation fog occurs in southern part of country
(c) Activity of Radiation fog increases after the passage of a WD over N India
November over the Arabian sea. Severe cyclonic storms are more in November than
177
176
Q2. CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA
Low Temperatures and low humidity is the characteristic of
(a) Post Monsoon (h) Hot weather (c) Monsoon (d) Winter months Q13. Post monsoon weather period is
Q3. Hot weather period is (a) Mar to May (b) Jun to Sept (c) Oct to Dec (d) Jan to Feb
(a) Jan-Feb (b) Mar-May Q14. During post monsoon, pressure gradient over India is
(c) Jun-Sept (d) Oct-Dec
Q4. During hot weather (a) weak (h) steep (c) same as winters
(a) WDs cause TS / DS over Punjab & Rajasthan Q15. During monsoon period, low pressure lies over
(b) No WD affect N-parts of country (a) Bay of Bengal (b) NE India (c) Central India (d) Pakistan
(c) Track of WD is southern most
Q16. During vigorous monsoon period the pressure gradient over west coast is
Q5. The monsoon current over the West coast of India is (a) Weak (b) Steep (c) Norm"!}
(a) SWly (b) SEly (c) NEIy
Q6. Monsoon period is Q17. An aircraft flying in Monsoon season from Chennai to Kolkata at 14 km will
experience winds
(a) Jan to Feb (b) March to May (c) June to Sep
(d) Octto Dec (a) Easterly (b) Westerly (c) Nly (d) Southerly
Q7. The monsoon advances with
(a) Bay of Bengal current only Q18. An aircraft flying in Winter season from Chennai to Kolkata at 12 km will
(b) Arabian Sea current only experience winds
(c) Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea 'currents W~ ~~ ~~ ~~
Q8. The rainfall over India during monsoon depends on Q19. An aircraft flying in Pre monsoon season from Delhi to Kolkata at 10 km will
(a) Low over Pakistan experience winds
(b) Depression over Bay of Bengal (a) Easterly (b) Westerly (c) Northerly (d) Southerly
(c) The position of the axis of Monsoon Trough.
.
Q20. An aircraft flying in Monsoon season from Mumbai to Ahmedabad at 03 km will
Q9. Rainfall Occurs all over the country during monsoon when experience winds
(a) Axis of MT is in its normal pOsition along Gangetic plains (a) SEly (b) SWly' (~) Nly (d) NWly
(b) Axis of MT is along Himalayas
Q21. An aircraft flying in winter season from Delhi to Kolkata at 06 km will experience
(c) Depression has formed over Bay of Bengal
winds
Q10. Break in monsoon occurs when (a) SEly (b) SWly (c) Nly (d) NW - Wly
(a) Axis of monsoon trough is along Gangetic plains
Q22. An aircraft flying in winter season from Delhi to Kolkata at 06 km will experience
(b) Axis of monsoon trough is along foot hills of Himalayas
(c) Depression over Bay of Bengal. (a) Port drift (b) Starboard drift (c) Tail wind (d) Head wind
Q23. An aircraft flying in winter season from Kolkata to Nagpur at 02 km will
Q11. With a depression over the head Bay fair weather during monsoon occurs over
(a) Assam (b) W Bengal (c) Orissa experience
(a) Port drift (b) Starboard drift (c) Tail wind (d) Head wind
Q12. Monsoon is also called
(a) NE monsoon (b) SW monsoon (c) SE monsoon Q24. During break monsoon the pressures all over the country
(a) Rise (b) Fall (c) Do not change
178
179
Q25. During break monsoon sometimes surface winds over East UP and Bihar are
(a) very strong (b) weak, (c) normal
Q26. Mid tropospheric cyclone occurs during
(a) Pre monSOon (b) Winters (c) Post monsoon (d) SW monsoon
Q27. Mid tropospheric cyclone during monsoon form over
(a) Orissa (b) Punjab (c) Gujarat (d) Chennai 20
Q28. El Nino episode is applied by fishermen (of Ecuador and N Peru) to a period
of reduced fish catch due to suppression of upwe11ing
(a) warm surface coastal current
(b) Wly surface coastal current GENERAL CIRCULATION
(c) Cold surface coastal current

Q29. Maximum cyclones occur over India in
(a) Pre monSOon (b) Winters (c) Post monsoon
(d) SW monsoon The surface and upper air charts show systems like highs, lows, cyclonic circulation
Q30. Tropical Jet stream occurs in India during
etc., which change position and intensity with time. These systems are associated
(a) Pre monSOon (b) Winters (c) Post monsoon
Cd) SW monSOon with distinct types of weather. The weather changes when these systems affect a
Q31. Pressure gradient over West Coast of India is steep during locality. A study of the behaviour of these systems, known as Synoptic Meteorology,
(a) Pre monSOon (b) Winters (c) Post monsoon is of great importance in weather forecasting.
Cd) SW monsoon
Q32. During break in monsoon rain occurs These moving systems are components of the large scale, static or semi-permanent,
(a) along foot hills (b) NW India pressure and wind patterns over die globe. The knowledge of these provide an useful
(c) S India
background in Aviation and Synoptic Meteorology.
ANSWERS
The large scale, static or semi-permanent, pressure and wind patterns on the globe
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6
are termed as General Circulation, which is as a result from the following:
A. 7 8 9 10 11
c d b a 12 13
a c c c (a) Energy balance (b) Transport processes
a b a b c
Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Energy Balance. The Earth receives its energy from the sun as incoming short wave
A. a d b a b 25 26
b b d a a radiation and looses energy through the outgoing long wave radiation. Over the
a a d
Q. 27 28 29 30 31 32 globe, when averaged over a year, the incoming energy nearly balances the outgoing
A. c a c d d energy. Latitudinally, the average radiation is surplus in the tropics and deficit in
a
the polar regions (where the outgoing radiation is more than the incoming radiation).
Transport Processes. The surplus and deficit energy in different regions of the globe
is transported and re-distributed equally around the earth by the atmospheric winds
and oceanic currents.
180
181
GENERAL CIRCULATION
deserts near/30N and 30S. Once the sinking air reaches the ground, a part of it
Three Cell Model of General Circulation flows towards the,equator, turning west (in the northern hemisphere) due to the
This model represents the average circulation of the atmosphere and describes the CorioUs force. This surface air forms the trade winds, that blow steadily from the
atmospheric energy transport: Over the globe the energy balance is described in northeast in the northern hemisphere and southeast in the southern hemisphere.
terms of three cells as follows. Thus a huge vertical circulation forms between the equator and 30N and another
between equator and 30S, called Hadley Cells.
Hadley Cell
NP
The intense incoming solar radiation in the equatorial region heat up the surface NP
and cause air to rise. The rising air forms convective clouds and heavy precipitation
in the region. This area is called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). In
O·
this zone NE Trades from the N hemisphere and SE Trades from S hemisphere
converge, hence the name. ITCZ moves north and south following the sun during 30·S
30·S
the year. Due to solar heating the heated air rises up to tropopause and, then
stratosphere being stable region can not rise further up, instead it moves polewards.
By the time this air reaches about 30 N it becomes a westerly wind due to the
I
Coriolis force. These winds are known as the Zonal Westerlies. Because of I SP
SP
conservation of angular momentum and S - N temperature gradient, the westerly SURFACE PRESSURE BELTS
SURFACE WINDS
wind keep strengthening with height and establish as Subtropical Jet just below the
tropopause. The polewards moving air piles up in the subtropical regions and forms
Figure 20.2 Global Surface Winds and Pressure Belts
high pressure belt at the surface, called the subtropical high. To compensate for the
ascent of air near the equator, subsidence occurs over the subtropical highs. The
subsidence inhibits cloud formation. This is the reason for the occurrence of large
Polar
Tropical tropopause front 90·~
90·r ~-..rrx Middle
Tropopause
Trade Winds
--... ..:.e &orth Surface O·
(1) Hadley Cell (2) Ferrel Cell (3) Polar Cell
H; Subtropical High
Figure 20.3 Three Cell Models
Figure 20.1 Hadley Cell
183
GENERAL CiRCULATION
Ferrel Cell
Pol~r Easterly Winds: Cold polar air moving southwest (in the northern
Some of the diverging air at the surface near 30N moves polewards and is deflected hemisphere) where it eventually meets with the prevailing westerlies to form the
to the east by the Coriolis force resulting in the westerly winds at the surface. At polar front.
about 60N the air rises, cools and condenses and forms clouds and precipitation.
This is the general region of the polar front. Some of this rising air returns
equatorwards.
Polar Cel)
The sinking air at the poles warms and results in a high pressure over the poles.
At the surface, the polewards moving air gets pulled to the right by the Coriolis
force (in the north-ern hemisphere) forming the polar easterly winds. This cold polar
air meets the warm subtropical air moving polewards and forms the boundary
between these two air masses known as the polar front Due to the large temperature
contrast, the polar front jet stream occurs in the vicinity of the polar front.
The major surface characteristics of the Three Cell Model are:
Equatorial Doldrums: Rising air creates calms or doldrums in the equatorial

regIOn.
Figure 20.4 Idealised Global Pressure, Winds and three Cells
ITCZ: Along the equator the rising air forms this zone of convection around
the globe.
The sub-tropical highs are not of great vertical extent and their effect becomes
Trade Winds: Steady NE winds in the N hemisphere and SE winds in the S negligible at higher levels. At these levels the temperature gradient is from S to N.
hemisphere. Thus, except in a narrow belt near the equator, the winds in the upper troposphere
are westerly, known as the Zonal Westerlies. In the equatorial regions the upper
Horse Latitudes: The descending branch of the Hadley cell marked by calm tropospheric winds are Easterlies.
winds and high pressure at the surface.
These zonal flows in the upper troposphere govern the movement of disturbances
Roaring Forties: In both the hemispheres, Westerly winds blow between 3Soand in the pressure and wind patterns. The disturbances of middle latitudes move from
60° lat. In Southern hemisphere these are of a very stormy nature S of 400S.These west to east in the westerly current and the tropical disturbances which form in
continue almost throughout the year. In the olden days, sailors called them the equatorial low pressure belt move in a westerly direction, being steered by the
Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Crying Sixties, as these winds were very high level easterly flow. Tropical disturbance which reach the zone of transition in
noisy and were not favourable for them. This is the major air flow pattern of the upper level flow change course (or recurve) and begin to move in an opposite
the mid latitudes (3S0to 60° lat.). direction.
Polar Front: Boundary between the cold polar air moving equatorwards and the
warm subtropical air moving polewards.
184 185
AVIATION METEOROLOGY . GENERAL CIRCULATION
Q1JESTIONS ON GENERAL CIRCULATION

Q 12. Latitudinally, on the average there is radiation ........... in the tropics than in the
polar regions
(c) balance
(a) surplus (b) deficit
Q1. The polewards moving air piles up in the subtropical regions and forms high
pressure belt at the surface, called Q13. The systems like highs, lows, cyclonic circulation etc are associated with distinct
(a) Subtropical high (b) Polar High (c) Equatorial high types of weather. A study of the behaviour of these systems, known as
Q2. ........ '" occurs over subtropical high

(a) Synoptic Meteorology
(a) advection (b) convection . (c) subsidence (b) Climatology
(c) Physical Meteorology
Q3. The occurrence of large deserts near 30N and 30Sa:re due to large scale
(a) subsidence (b) convection (c) advection Q14. Rising air creates calms or doldrums.in the equatorial region.
(a) ITCZ (b) .Horse Latitudes. (c) Equatorial Doldrums
Q4. A part of the sinking air over the subtropical highs flows towards the equator,
turning west (in the northern hemisphere) due to the Corioli~ force. This surface Q15. SteadyNE winds in the N hemisphere and SE winds in the S hemisphere are called.
air is called (a) Easterly win.ds (b,) Trade Winds· (c) Tropical Winds
(a) Trade winds (b) Roaring forties (c) Doldrums
ANSWERS
Q5. The huge vertical circulations, one betWeen the equator and 30N and another
between equator and 30S, are called 8 9 10 11 12 13
.1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(a) Hadley Cells .(b) Ferrel Cells (c) Polar cells Q c b a b b a a
a c a c a c
A
Q6. The descending branch of the Hadley ~ell marked by calm winds and high pressure
at the surface are called Q. 14 15
(a) Tropical Latitudes (b) Middle latitudes (c) Horse Latitudes A. c b
Q7. The winds in the upper troposphere are westerly. These are known as
(a) Natural Westerlies (b) Steady Westerlies (c) Zonal Westerlies
Q8. In the equatorial regions the upper tropospheric winds are
(a) Westerlies (b) Easterlies (c) Zonal Westerlies
Q9. The disturbances of middle latitudes move from
(a) W to E (b) E to W (c) N to S (d) S to N
Q10. The tropical disturbances which form in the equatorial low pressure belt move in .
(a) Easterly direction (b) Westerly direction (c) Southerly direction
Q 11. Tropical disturbance which reach the zone of transition in the upper level flow
change course and begin to move in a . .
(a) Perpendicular direction
(b) Opposite direction
(c) Southwards
186 187
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES FOR AVIATION
Under WAFS there are two World Area Forecast Centers (WAFC) , located at
Washington and London. In addition there are 19 Regional Area Forecast Centers
(RAFC) at various places in the world. One of them is at New Delhi.
India Meteorological Department (IMD) is the National Met agency in India to
caters to the national weather needs. Its web site are www.mausam.~ov.in and
21
:www.imd.~ov.in. It has 6 Regional Met offices at Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai,
Guwanati and Nagpur.
The following Met Offices have specifically been established to provide weather
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES FOR

services for Aviation and to the' national and international flights:
AVIATION·
• Aerodrome Met Offices (AMO) (Total 17). These are located at major
National and International airports They maintain 24 h current weather
watch, issue METARISPECI, RVR, weather forecasts, TAF, Landing
Forecast, Aerodrome Warning, Briefing, VOLMET, ATIS, Radar and Satellite
Pictures. They also provide forecasting cover to the associated Aeronautical
The objective of Met Services is to contribute towards the safety and efficiency of Met Stations (AMS).
a~r navigation. This objective is achieved by providing the required meteorological
• Aeronautical Met Stations (AMS) (Total 51). These Offices take Current
information to the operators, ATC, airfield management and others. Weather observations and provide aeronautical forecast after obtaining
Met Services for Aviation in India are provided by the India Met Department (IMD), from AMOs, during their watch hours.
for which it has the following elaborate organisation. Meteorological Watch Offices (MWO). These are located at Delhi,
•
Meteorological Organisations for Providing Aviation Services Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. They look after the meteorological needs
of FIR and issue SIGMET.
World Met Organisation (WMO) is a specialized agency of UN, which looks after
the weather aspects of aviation in collaboration with ICAO. The purpose ofWMO Notification
is to facilitate world wide cooperation in establishing networks of observatories To keep the required Met information ready for the user in time, it is essential that
providing meteorological services, promoting rapid exchange of weather information, adequate Notice be given to the Met Office by the operators. They keep information
research, application of meteorology to human activities and training. WWW (World for scheduled flights ready as a routine since for routine flights advance information
Weather Watch), under WMO, coordinates the world wide weather activities utilising is already available. For non-scheduled flights the following advance notice (before
Global Observing System (GOS), Global Telecommunication System (GTS) and ETD) is essential:
Global Data Processing System (GDPS).
(a) National Flights
There is a World Area Forecast System (WAFS) for providing high quality en-route
AMOs ( Earlier - Class I Met Offices) 3 hr
forecasts of winds and temperature to Met authorities and Met Offices. 18~24 hr
AMSs ( Earlier - Class III Met Offices)
189
188
AVIATION METEOROLOGY METEOROLOGlCAL SERVICES FOR AVIATION
(b) International Flights

• For Transonic and Supersoruc flights - Cumulonimbus, Moderate Turbulence
(i) At New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai,
or Hail
Nagpur, Banaras, Guwahati, Hyderabad,
3hr • Wind shear encounter in the air is passed to ATe.
Thiruvananthapuram
(ii) AMOs Contents of Air Reports
12 hr
(iii)AMSs Section .1 - Information on Identification, Position, Time, FL and Altitude of
18-24 hr
Aircraft.
The notification is given in respect of time of departure, destination, route, level, Section 2 - Operational Information - ETA and Endurance;
type of met information required, time of briefing and other necessary details about Section3 - Met Information - Air Temp., wind, TURB, Icing and Humidity
the flights.
Routine Meteorological Observations Types of Forecast
Nowcasting: The forecast is valid for less than 24 hr. (Example: TREND, TAF,
METAR - (Aviation Routine Weather Report, in aeronautical meteorological code). SIGMET, Local Forecast, Aerodrome Warnings etc)
These are issued every half an hour by Met offices and are appended with trend
type of landing forecast. Short Range Forecast : The forecast has a validity of 1 to 3 days
SPECI - (Aviation Selected Special Weather Report, in aeronautical meteorological Medium Range Forecast. The forecasts is of validity 4 to 10 days
code). SPECr is issued immediately for deterioration in weather to specified conditions.

Long range !Extended Range Forecast: Forecast having a validity period beyond
In case of improvement it is issued after 10 minutes, when conditions stabilise. Trend

forecast is appended to each SPECI. 10 days. (Example:. IMD Forecast of Monsoon, onset date etc).
Weather FORECASTS for Aviation

Aircraft Observations and Report (AlREP), also called Pilot Report (PlREP)
. (a) Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). Issued by AMOs for own and associated
Arrangements exist with Indian Airlines, Air India and other Airlines operating
AMSs. TAF are valid for atleast 9 hrand a maximum of 30 hr. TAF valid
through the Indian airspace to record and report meteorological observations, at
specified points, as follows: for 9 hr are issued every 3 hr and of 12 - 30 hr validity every 6 hr,
commencing at 0000 UTC.
• Routine aircraft observations during en-route and climb out phase.
• Special (Aircraft Special Report) and other non-routine aircraft observations
(b) Landing Forecast (TREND), AMOs (except Jaipur and Safdarjung) issue
during any phase of fJight.. trend forecast and append it to METAR or SPECr. Their validity is 2 hr.
The term PROB is not used in TREND forecast. NOSIG means no significant
Aircraft is exempt from making observation if: change in weather.
• Flight is of 2 hr or less duration.
(c) Forecast for Take Off. Are issued by AMOs, within 3 hr before ETD for:
•
Flight is one hr or less from the landing place.
• Altitude of aircraft is below 150 m. • Surface wind (averaged for the past 2 min only), Temperature,
Pressure QNH and Any other element, as required.
Special Observations. Special Observations are made for:
(d) ARFOR Area Forecast contains forecast in coded form or in Tabular form
• Severe weather as for SIGMET criteria of Upper winds and Temperatures at various levels, Significant weather,
190 191
Clouds, Freezing level, Turbulence, Icing, Jet stream, Tropopause, Maximum
wind, Wind Shear data, Airfield Warning and Supplementary phenomena. Icing SEV ICING, SEV ICE (FZRA)
(e) Mountain Wave SEVMTW
CODAR It is an Upper Air report from an aircraft (other than weather
reconnaissance aircraft), in Figure Code. Duststorm HVYDS
(f) Sandstorm HVY SS
WINTEM. Forecast upper wind and temperature for aviation. Volcanic Ash VA (+ Volcano name)
(g)
ROFOR Route forecast for aviation contains forecast in coded form of • At Transonic Level (above FL 460)
Upper winds and Temperatures at various levels, Significant weather, Cumulonimbus, Hail (GR) and Volcanic Ash{VA), MODI SEV TURB.
Clouds, Freezing level, Turbulence, Icing, Jet stream, Tropopause and
Maximum wind. AIRMET Information. (AIRMET is SIGMET for low level flights, issued by MWO).
(h) . .
Local Forecast. These are issued three times a day, valid for next 8 hr. They GAMET area forecast. It is an area forecast in abbreviated plain language for low-
are issued at 0600, 1400 and 2200 UTC and area covered is 50 km around. level flights for a flight information region or sub-area thereof, prepared by the
These contain forecast of surface wind, visibility, weather, clouds, upper meteorological office designated by the meteorological authority concerned and
winds and temperature, and information on sun rise, sunset, warning, etc. exchanged with meteorological offices in adjacent flight information regions, as
(i) agreed between the meteorological authorities concerned.
Prognostic Charts. RAFC New Delhi broadcasts the follOWing prognostic
(PRO G) Charts, of 12 hr validity, twice daily each. However, the SIG Briefing. It is an oral commentary on existing and expected meteorological onditions.
weather Chart are issued 4 times a day at 0300,0900, 1500 and 2100 UTC:
Warnings
• Surface
• Aerodrome Warning.
• Wind and Temperature at 500,300,250,200 hPa levels
• Tropopause/Max wind. These are issued for expected weather which could adversely affect aircraft
• SIG Wx Chart below FL 460 on ground and aerodrome facilities and services to ensure safety, proper
(j) picketing and mooring of aircraft :
SIGMET. It is the information issued for aircraft in flight by a MWO for
the Occurrence or expected occurrence of the following en-route weather • The validity of these warnings is not exceeding 4hr.
which may'affect the safety of aircraft operations. It is issued for the FIR, Wmd: Speed 30kt or more.
every 3 hr, COmmencing 0100 UTC. SIGMET is valid for 4 hr. For Volcanic Direction of 20 kt wind changes by 45 degrees.
Ash and and Tropical Cyclones it is issued up to 12 hr before the period
of validity and is reviewed every 6 hr. Weather: SQ, TC, OS, SS, TS, GR, FROST, SN, FZ Precipitation
and Raising Sand or Dust.
• At Subsonic Cruising Level (below FL 460)
Thunderstorm (Obscured, Embedded, Frequent, Squall line, Obscured! Warnings for gliders and light aircraft and.helicopters are issued by AMOs, for own
e andAMSs, and appended to .local forecast when wind speed is expected to reach
Embedd dlFrequent/Squall1ine with heavy Hail) (OBSC TS, EMBD TS,
FREQ TS, SQL TS, OBSC TSGR, EMBD TSGR, SQL TS GR, etc) 17 kt or more and are issued with the prefix Warnings for Light Aircraft.
Tropical Cyclone (Wind 34 kt + cyclone name) The warnings are passed on to local ATS units for further dissemination over the
Turbulence SEV TURB aerodrome to the operators and others. These are not disseminated beyond the
aerodrome of origin. Amendments and cancellations are done as applicable.
192
1£1"
(c) Automatic Terminal Information System (ATIS). ATIS facility is available
• Wind Shear Warning (up to 500 m (1600 ft) above runway). at important aerodromes in India. One of the purposes of this facility is
It is issued for the observed or expected occurrence of wind shear'which to continually broadcast half-hourly current weather information for general
could adversely affect aircraft on approach path, take off path, during
use of the operators.
circling approach or on the RW during landing and take off. WS above
500 m due to topography is also included. (d) Current Weather Display. Computer based display systems are in use at
Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai and Chennai for current weather information
Wind shear warning is also included as supplementary information in METAR,SPECI
in ATC and Met Offices.
and SPECIAL reports. It is prepared in abbreviated plain language. The microburst
reported by pilots is also included in the warning, for example: Q1JESTIONS ON METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES FOR AVIATION
• WS WRNG MBST APCH RWY 30
Q1. For non-scheduled National Flights an advance notice (before ETD) is required
Wind shear warning by an aircraft includes the type of aircraft in the text, for example:
to be given to AMOs
• WS WRNG B747 REPORTED MOD WS IN APCH RWY 28 AT 1000 (a) 3 hr (b) 18-24 hr (c ) 6 hr
Q2. For non-scheduled National Flights -an advance notice (before ETD) is required
Exchange of Meteorological Messages
to be given to AMSs
(a) VOLMET. It is a METinformation for aircraft in flight. It is of two types: (a) 3 hr (b) 18-24 hr . (c ) 6 hr
• Data Link VOLMET (D-VOLMET). It provides current METAR, SPECI, Q3. WAFS provides high quality en-route forecasts of ..... to Met Offices.
9 hr TAF, SIGMET, Special AIREPS not covered by SIGMET, and where (a) high quality en-route forecasts ofwinds and temperature (b) SIGMET
available AIRMET. (c) TREND
• VOLMET Broadcast. It provides METAR, SPEC I, TAP, SIGMET by Q4. IMD has ........... Regional Met offices
means of continuous and repetitive voice broadcasts. VOLMET Radio (a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6
Telephony Broadcasts in India are made on HF Channel from Mumbai and Q5. There are' ........... Aerodrome Met Offices
Kolkata as follows:- (a) 14 (b) 17 . (c) 16
Mumbai Broadcasts at half-hourly intervals at Hour + 25 miri to Hour Q6. There are ........... Aeronautical Met Stations
(a) 42 (b) 51 (c) 62

+30 min and Hour + 55 min to Hour + 60 min. The broadcasts
include METARs of Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Chennai, Colombo, Q7 In AlREP the Met Information is cOhtained in Section
Karachi and Male and TAPs of Mumbai, Male and Colombo. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3
Kolkata Broadcasts at Half-hourly intervals at Hour + 05 min to Q8. TAF are generally valid for
Hour + 10 min' and Hour + 35min to Hour + 40min. The broadcasts W18~ ~12~ ~9~
include METAR s of Kolkata, Delhi, Dhaka, Yangon and Katmandu Q9. The validity of Landing Forecast (TREND) is
and TAPs of Kolkata, Delhi and Ho-Chi-Minh. (a) 1 hr (b) 2 h~ (c ) 3 hr
J
(b) ROBEX (Routine OPMET Bulletjn Exchange). Routine METAR/ SPECI QI0. Landing Forecast is append to
of international aerodromes and their alternates are exchanged outside (a) METAR and SPECI (b) TAF (c ) AlREP
India under ROBEX scheme. Air Reports are also exchanged under ROBEX..
195
194
Q11. Local Forecast is issued three times a day valid for next
'. . Airfield warning is issued for expected wind speed
(a) 18 hr (b) 8hr (c ) 9hr
(a) 30 kt (b) 24 kt (c ) 15 kt
'Q12. Local Forecast covers an area
(a) 50 NM (b) 100 NM . Airfield warning is issued for wind direction of 20 kt changes by
(c ) 150 NM (a) 45° (b) 30° (c ) 60°

Q 13 Prognostic Charts are issued by
Airfield Warning for gliders, light aircraft and helicopters is issued for expected
(a) RAFC (b) Class I Met Offices
(c) MWO wind speed
Q14. Prognostic Charts are valid for
(a) 15 kt (b) 17 kt (c ) 30 kt
(a) 18 hr (b) 12 hr (c ) 9hr
Wind Shear Warning is issued for the observed or expected wind shear above
Q15. SIG Wx Chart are issued for Flight Levels
runway
(a) below 460 (b) 460 (c ) above 460 (a) up to 500 m (b) above 500 m (c) 300 m
Q16. CODAR is
O. VOLMET is a MET information for aircraft
(a) Radar Report (b) Coded ARFOR
(a) on ground (b) in flight . (c) both
(c) Upper report from an aircraft (other than weather reconnaissance aircraft)
Q17. WINTEM is
·1. VOLMET Radio Telephony Broadcast made on HF Channel from
(a) Mumbai only (b) Kolkata only (c) both
(a) Actual upper winds (b) Forecast upper wind and temperature
(c ) Actual temperature and upper winds
. VOLMET consists of
(a)SIGMET (b) TAF only (c) TAF and METAR
Q18. SIGMET is a notice of severe weather for

In ROBEX the METAR/SPECI of international aerodromes and their alternates
(a) actual (b) expected (c) both
is exchanged
Q19. SIGMET is issued for aircraft

(a) within India (b) outside India
(a) in flight (b) on ground (c) both
Q34. SIG Weather Charts are issued ........... times a day
Q20. SIGMET is issued by

(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four
(a) RAFC (b) Class I Met Offices (c) MWO
Q21. SIGMET is valid for

ANSWERS
(a) 4 hr (b) 18 hr (c ) 6 hr
Q22. SIGMET is not issued for 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(a) Rain (b) Volcanic Ash (c ) SEV Icing a b a c b b c c b a b a a
Q23. AIRMET is SIGMET issued by a MWO for the safety of 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
(a) low-level aircraft (b) high-level aircraft (c ) both b a c b c a c a a a b b a
Q24. GAMET is an area forecast in abbreviated plain language for Q. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
(a) high -level aircraft (b) low-level aircraft (c ) both A. a b a b c c b c
Q25. The validity of Airfield warnings is not exceeding
(a) 3 hr (b) 4 hr (c ) 6 hr
196
197
II!
WEATHER RADAR AND MET SATELLITES
II
/' Wavelen2ths: Radars use the following wavelengths:
i Wavelengths (em) 0.86 3.0 4.0 10.0 20.0
I Nomenclature KBand X Band CBand S Band
--------.
L Band
Table 22.1
22 Types of Weather Radars

Quantitative Radar (10.0 cm). The quantitative measurement of rate of precipitation,
total precipitation, intensity of precipitation and snowfall measurements are done
by these radars.
Ultra Sensitive Radar. These are used for detecting convettion before and after the
development of the douds and also to study CAT, gravity waves and lee waves.
Doppler Radar. These radars are used for:
Weather Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) is an important tool for detection Rain Measurement, Hail Detection. Large hails grow within strong updraughts
of rain bearing douds, especially CU and CB, their speed, direction of movement accompanied by strong divergent out flow near the storm top. Hail and heavy
and vertical extent. Aircraft utilize radar information for avoiding hazardous clouds. rain present high reflectivity echoes.
On ground the information is utilized for issuing timely weather warnings so that
precautionary measures are initiated for parked and moored aircraft. Radars installed Tornado Detection. Tornadoes often occur from super cell thunder storms.
along the coast line of India detect storms and enable issuing· of storm warnings. These are detected by the characteristic precipitation echoes. Doppler radar can
To-day radar has become an integral part of aviation. It contributes a lot towards easily detect small scale tornado vortex about 30 min before tornado touches
the flight safety. down. Hence useful warning of 20 min is possible.
In India an integrated upper air sounding system comprising indigenous X-Band Microburst Detection. Doppler radar is well suited for detecting microburst
weather-cum-wind finding Multi Met radars and Radiosonde system, is in use since because of strong divergence observable at low levels. Up to 10 min warning
1975. IMD has a network of lOS-band cyclone detection radars covering the Indian of microburst is possible.
coast-line and an operational network of digital X-band radars, consisting of 9 wind Cloud Echoes
finding radars, 9 storm detection radars and 8 radars with dual capability. These
are being replaced with the state-of-artDop..PIer Weather Radars in a phased manner. The echo characterization associated with Stratiform and Convective douds are as
follows:- .
The range of these radars is 400 km but better resolution is up to 200 km.
Radar Scopes Stratiform Clouds. Echoes from Stratiform douds and steady rainfall are diffused
and ill defined. The echoes are generally of uniform intensity. In the RHI, at
The Plan-:Position Indicator (PPI) scope presents a plan view of the echoes and freezing level, a Bright Band appears because of strong reflection of radio waves
provides the bearing and range of the echo. The Range-Height Indicator· (RHI)I by ice crystals snowflakes in the initial stage of melting. The Bright Band is, seen
enables direct reading of the altitudes of CB cells. only when updraughts are uniform and weak. The band disappears with increasing
convection.
198 199
Convective Clouds. The echoes of convective clouds have clearly defined sharp
The range is indicated by green markings. The range is selectable in 2.5, 5, 10,30,
edges. A blurring of the edges can be regarded as the first sign of decay. In RHI
50, 100 and 200 NM.
scope, the echo consists of one or more sharp-edged vertical level. The developing
shower areas are distinctly visible in the echoes. The squall lines are depicted Rainfall Intensity. It is indic~ted by the radar echoes' as follows:-
by line type of echoes. If the echo is exceptionally intense or if the top ofthe
echo extends to great heights (to about -400 C temperature level), the echo is Colour Storm Rainfall in mm
from a CB cloud.
Red Severe 12
Echoes associated with Severe Storms Yellow Less severe 4-12
Green Moderate 1-4
Intense and Sharp Echoes. The echoes are sharp, well defined and intense when .
updraughts are strong and the size and number of precipitation particles is large. Black 1
A developing storm depicts a sharp boundary near the top. Anvils are indicated
by fuzzy echoes near the top. Table 22.2
Hooks, Appendages and Protuberances. These indicate severe storms with hail. Isocontour. For ascertaining the actual intensity of the storm (precipitation) the
A echo of figure '6' is an indication of a tornado. isocontour switch is turned on. Red color echoes on the scope indicate very heavy
precipitation and associated high turbulence.
Rapidly Moving Echoes. These indicate strong winds associated with severe storms.
Dry Holes: Echo free areas embedded in very extensive and bright echo indicate METEOROLOGICAL SATELLITES
severe storms with strong winds and heavy rain.
In the mid seventies the advent of Geostationary satellites'revolutionized the satellite
Rapidly Developing Echoes. These indicate a vigorous storm.
Meteorology. Now the NOAA (National oceanic & Atmospheric Administration)
Large Horizontal Echoes. Large size strong echo indicate severe storm. series satellites of USA, Meteor series of USSR, INSAT series of India, METEOSAT
of European Met Agencies, Dundee satellite of UK and many,others provide round
Converging Echoes. The area where a number of echoes appear to coverage the clock satellite cloud imagery and other useful weather information. These
indicates severe storm.
satellites carry radiometers for better resolution pictures, by day and by night.
Bright Band~ A Bright Band is indicator of weak storm.
The following two types of weather satellites are currently in' orbit to provide
weather information on global scale. They carry Very High Resolution Radiometers
AIR BORNE WEATHER RADAR (VHRR) for better resolution. .
These radars are light weight, generally X-Band multi mode and digital with Alpha (a) Polar Orbiting Type. These satellites orbit the earth at altitudes varying
Numeric. These radars are designed for:- Weather detection and analysis, Ground from roughly 650 km to 1500 kin. They cover the complete earth twice'
mapping, Transponder beacon interrogation and reception. in 24 hours, passing over the same place every 12 hours. NOAA is polar
Colors Used. Four colors viz. Black, Blue, Yellow and Magenta (bright crimson) are orbiting satellite.
used. These colours show progressively stronger echoes. Provision is also made to (b) Geostationary Type. These satellites are placed in near circular orbit at
flash red areas on and off every 1;2 sec to emphasis areas of heavy precipitation. an altitude of about 36,000 km in the plane of the earth's equator. They
200
201
AVIATION METEOROLOGY WEATHER RADAR AND MET SATELLITES
are earth synchronized and have the same period of rotation as that of imagery in the visible and short wave infrared bands with a spatial resolution of
earth. Therefore, they remain over the same spot on the earth's equator. 1 km. It also collects real time hydrometeorological data from unattended platforms
The entire globe could be covered by five such Geostationary satellites. located on land and river basins. The data is then relayed to a central location. Indian
Geostationary satellite provides round the clock weather information. Area coverage is 44.4°N to 10.3° S 105.6E to 46.4E.
METEOSAT and INSAT are geostationary satellites.
The computer generated output from the Indian Satellites are:
Frequency of Satellite Imagery. The interval of observations of the satellite imagery (a) Vertical temperature profile
is 30 min, h.owever, due to licensing and other restrictions all these satellites provide (b) Cloud top temperature
three hourly pictures. (c) Upper winds at 850 and 200 hPa levels
(d) Sea surface a temperature
Indian Meteorological Satellites
(web sites www.imd.gov.in and www.mausam.gov.in ) American Meteorological Satellites
Polar Operational Satellites (NOAA, K, L, M). The POES satellite system provides
INSAT-2E. It provides cloud imagery in a panchromatic visible (VIS) band with daily global coverage, of clouds, storm location, temperature, and heat balance in
resolution of 2 km x 2 km, water vapour (WV) map of the moisture patterns in

the earth's atmosphere.
the atmosphere and thermal infrared (TIR) images of the earth and cloud patterns.
Both these water vapour and IR imagery have a resolution of 8 x 8 km. The other European Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT)
instrument on-board provides images of the earth in visible, near infrared and short Satellite METEOSAT is operated by EUMETSAT on behalf of European Met Agencies
wave infrared regions. The resolution of these images is 1 km x 1 km for all the 0
near 00 meridian, GMS (Geostationary Met Satellite) by Japan at 130 E and INSAT
three bands. at 83° and 93°. There are two Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
Kalpana. METSAT (Meteorological Satellite), named Kalpana, launched by PSLY, System (GOES) of USA near its East coast and West coast. GOES provides temperature
is the first exclusive meteorological satellite built by ISRO. It carries a VHRR for .data of atmosphere every hour. Interval of observations is about 30 min.
imaging the Earth in the visible, thermal infrared and water vapour bands. It also
Characteristics of Clouds
collects data from unmanned meteorological platforms and relays the data to the
The douds are identified in the satellite imagery from the six general characteristics,
Meteorological Data Utilisation Centre at New Delhi. Such platforms have been
installed all over the country. viz. Brightness, Texture, Pattern, Shape, Structure and Size.
-.."
Thicker clouds and water clouds are brighter than the ice clouds. CU douds occur
METSAT (India) receives satellite pictures every three hours, commencing at 0300
in great variety and are organized into small regular lines Qr bands. Wave phenomena
UTe. The satellite pictures are received by SDUC in about 40 min. They are then
also produce distinctive features which make them easily identifiable. In IR images
processed and transmitted in the IR, Visible,. Colour composite and Water Vapour
the lowest temperatures are the whitest and the warmest dark grey or black.
modes. On website the imagery is received after 1 hr 15 min (i.e. 0300Z picture
is received by 0415Z). In the event of cyclones hourly observations are provided. Temperature, Winds and other Weather Data
Animation of hourly and three hourly satellite pictures are also available on the·
Radiometers are used for measuring radiation, temperatures of cloud tops and earth
above web site.
surface and for global )I1apping of clouds by day and night.
INSAT-3A. It provides 3 hourly imagery with 2 km resolution in the visible band Winds are derived from clouds associated with jet streams, mountain waves, cirrus
and 8 km resolution in infrared and water vapour bands. In addition, it provides
streams, tropical cyclones, cloud lines, ice and lithometeors.
202
203
MET INSTRUMENTS
Unit of Measure
S.
Element Instruments Used
No
Direction in degree from
7
Surface
True North in clockwise
Wind a. Wind Vane (for Direction)
Speed in knots (KT).
(Direction & b. Anemometer
Speed) c. Anemograph (Self-recording)
23
8 Cloud Base a. Search light ILaser beam
Feet (ft) or m
b. Ceilometer I Ceilograph
c. Ceiling Balloon .
d. Nephoscope
MET INSTRUMENTS
e. Alidade
9 Visibility AVRA, Trans.missometer or

Scopograph m
RVR'
up to 1500m Forward Scatterometer
Manually - Visibility Landmarks m or km
S. Element I~truments Used Unit of Measure
Direction: in degrees
No 10 Upper Winds a. Optical Theodolite
b. Hydrogen filled Pilot Balloon Speed: Knots (KT)
1 Pressure a. Mercury barometer Hectopascal (hPa) or ......
.~
Millibar (mb) or c. Radio Wind (RAWIN) or

b. Aneroid barometer
km per hour (KMH); or
c. Barograph (Self-recording) Inches (in) of mercury
m per sec (MPS)
2 Air Dry, Max (Mercury) thermometer
Temp. (TT) Min (Alcohol) thermometer Degree Celsius °C 11 Upper Air Hectopascal (hPa)
Pressure, Radio Sonde
3 Dew Point Dry & Wet bulb (Mercury) Degree Centigrade
Temp (TdTd) thermometers Temp and
%
Humidity
4 Relative a. Dry & wet bulb thermometer
12 Clouds Weather Satellites , RADAR
Humidity b. Hygrometers Percentage (%)
(RH) c. Hygrograph (Self - recording)
d. Psychrometer
.'
5 Humidity
Mixing Ratio Hygrograph gm!kg
(HMR)
6 Precipitation a. Raingauge
. Rain b. Self-recording rain-gauge mm or cm
c. Hyetograph
Snow d. Snowgauge depth, amount (by
melting)
10,
STATION MODEL
MEANING OF SYMBOLS
C H Type of High Clouds
~Wind Direction and Speed
C M Type of Medium Clouds
1T Temperature in 0 C
C L Type of Low Clouds
T d T d Dew Point Temperature in 0 C
N Total Cloud Amount
24
w Visibility in Code 90 - 99
Nh Amount of Low/Medium Clouds
ww Present Weather in Symbols
h Heig~t of base of C L Qr C M
W 1 W 2 Past Weather in Symbols
STATION MODEL
PPP Sea Level Pressure QFF
P 2 4 P 2 4 Pressure Change in 24 hr
a Pressure Tendency Symbol
RRR Rainfall since 03 UTC in Code
V. Average Speed of Ship(kt) in 3 hr
p p Pressure Change in 3 hr 1/10 of hPa
GG Time of observation (full Hr UTe)
tit t It Duration of Precipitation
STATION MODELS Ts Ts Difference in Sea Surface temperature and TT in 0 C
H W 1 H W 1 Height of first Wave (swell) (repeated for subsequeQt waves)
Inland Plain Station Coastal Station Ship
p W 1 P W 1 Period of first Wave in Second (repeated for subsequent waves)
MAIN SVIII BOLS .. ww

~ FZ RJI.
•
WWW
CM
y--, P
PPP
24 P 24
TT
I Www
\ CM
ru\ P
PPP
24 P 24
I TT\
I Www r::\
CM PPP
ppa I ..
.,
-c::r-
AA
DZ
Slf
Iflf CII'i..u::N!:I
lIli:AVY TEl SII
~
~
.+
FZDZ

s:rq l:'ALLIt TS
DltIF'!'NO' If1f
BLOWING BN
Td Td CL W 1 W2 Td Td CL WI W 2 Td Td CL WltR
::Fa
-
lLUL taR')
Nh / h RRR Nh /h RRR Nh I h
6 DR ~IrQ
V. CIIiI:I' lIZ
\
GGII- Dt1!iIT HZJl>U r--- SMOKE
Hw Hw S
P Ts Ts RR
Pw Pw 4 w
H w Hw
Hw Hw
Pw
~ FO EiKY VMble
LIOH,l'l'fING ~T)
e.
-&
D'1J!fr
DEVIL
I:iUST STORM
Pw Pw .( WIS>
• Pw Hw T~ADO
V
SQ )( WATER 8l"OtJ'I'
:Fe
TlUtA
~
T~Dl!:R
Table 24.1 T
207
206
STATION MODEL
Symbols of Low, Medium and High Clouds as plotted in the Station Mudel:
Example:
34 998
CLOUDS AND THEIR SYMBOLS
15
Symbol.
Symbol Kind of high
27 == Symbol Kind of medium Cloud (CH)
3/2 Code, Kind of Low Cloud (CM)
Fig Cloud (CH)
No medium cloud No high cloud
0 No low cloud
. --'
Cirrus infilarments
e:;::,. Thin AS L-
Interpretation of above Station Models Fair weather CU
1 Dense Cirrus .....1/
Wind Direction and Speed 330/15 kt 4
-
Thick AS or NS
2
CU of large vertical ~
Temperature 34° C Type of Low Clouds Fracto Stratus development Dense CI remnant
of dissipated CB
Visibility SOOm but not 1000 m Amount of Low Clouds 3/8 AC at single level \.AJ
CB without anvil c!B. CI becoming denser /'
3 AC at different (;,
Present Weather Fog Height of base of Low Clouds 100 -199 m
4 SC with CU with ..() levels CI and CS and
Dew Point Temperature 27° C Sea level Pressure QFF 999.8 hPa bases at same level
AC in bands; progressively 1.
Thickening and
W increasing
Type of High Clouds CI Pressure change in 24 hr 1.5 hPa .......r
Stratocumulus spreading
Type of Medium Clouds ASI NS Past Weather in Symbols Fog
5
6 ST of fair weather - AC resulting from

spreading of CU
'1"'l
CI and CS
progressively
increasing, covering
"
Total Cloud Amount 818 Rainfall since 03 UTC Trace most of sky
AC with AS or CS covering ~ntire ~
-- &:,
Past Weather (W\W2) WI for higher weather code and w 2 for lower weather code 7 ST of Bad weather NS sky
CS not covering .-.4.
H
,•
Coded 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ""'V'" AC with turreted entire sky
SC and CU at
8 ~ structure l.;
~
CC Predominate
W\W2
Cloud
C
Cloud
0
Cloud
/f * V 9
different levels
CB with anvil
"6 AC in chaotic sky
Table 24.3
~ . -
Cover Cover >4/8 DS FG DZ RA SN SH TS
<4/8 >4/8 Throughou
Part Period
_ .,--
Table 24.2
C Cloud coverage > 4/8, part of period o Cloud coverage > 4/8, throughout
-s. Sandstorm == Fog, Drizzle • Rain* Snow V Shower p Thund~rstorm

209
STATION MODEL
Symbols for ww
Meanings of Codes h, RRR, and VV
code
0
Cloud Base
m
0-49
RRR
code
Rain Amount
mm
W
code
90
Visibility
m
< 50 VERY
: I:
'n------"
I ~ ~t~"~14 t~ rS i~ ;~ ;(~)
~/ .. - - <- .-
1 --,~ ~
THICK
FOG
20 I II I -J .jj' .] ~
6- t-& ~l ~ \(
1 50-99 990 Trace 91 50 to <200 THICK
... FOG 30 I .c.-,1
2 100-199 991-999
-
0.1-0.9
Trace
92 200 to < 500 MOD
FOG 40 1(=)I~I=1 ==1
3 200-299 1 1-1.5 93 500 to < 1000 FOG ~n 1 ~ l·fj, I ) , i',
4 300-599 2 1.6-2.4 94 1000 to < 2000 THICK
MIST 60 I_ I •• , :
5 600-999 3 2.5-3.5 95 2000 to < 4000 SLIGHT
MIST 7n I--r*
6 1000-1499 4 3.6-4.4 96 4000 to < 10000 80 IV
-
7 1500-1999 extrapolate extrapolate 97 10000 to < 20000
00 1,!!,
A 1.---.... I .-
., .
1 -.",..-,. ~.jA.t --
8 2000-2500 62 61.6-62.5 98 20000 to < 50000
Table 24.5
9 No Cloud 63 62.5-63.4 99 50000 or more
below2500
Base not
/ known
Or below
hill Stn.
Table 24.4
211
210
STATION MODEl
Code Fig Present Weather

Description of Present Weather ww Code:
Code Fig Present Weather
Moderate or heavy rain and 67 Moderate or heavy freezing rain
69 Slight rain and snow mixed
Code Fig Present Weather Code Fig Present Weather
snow mixed 68
00 No Cloud 40-49 Fog at time of observation
7Q.-79 Solid precipitation
01 Clouds decreasing 40 Distant fog 30-39 DS, SS or blowing SN
02 Clouds unchanged 41 Fog in patches at the time of observation
03 Clouds increasing 42 Fog, sky visible-thinning
04 Smoke haze 43 Fog, sky invisible-thinning Slight duststorm decreasing 70 Slight intermittent snow
30
05 Moist haze 44 Fog, sky visible no change Slight duststorm no change 71 Slight continuous snow
31 72 Mederate intermittent snow
06 Dust haze 45 Fog, sky invisible no change
32 Slight duststorm increasing
07 Dust raising winds 46 Fog, sky visible-thickening Severe duststorm decreasing 73 Moderate continuous snow
33
08 Dust devil 47 Fog, invisible-thickening Severe duststorm no change 74 Heavy intermittent snow
34
09 Distant sandstorm 48 Fog, sky depositing rime, sky visible Severe duststorm increasing 75 Heavy continuous snow
35
10 Mist 49 Fog, depositing rime, sky invisible Slight drifting snow low level 76 Ice prisms
36
11 Shallow fog in patches Heavy drifting snow low level 77 Snow grains
37 78 Isolated star-like snow crystals
12 Shallow fog SQ.-59 Drizzle at the time of observation 38 Slight blowing snow high level
13 Lightning Heavy blowing snow high level 79 Ice pellets
39
14 Rain not reaching ground 50 Slight intermittent drizzle
Shower at time of observation 9Q.-99 TS with precipitation
15 Rain at a great distance 51 Slight continuous drizzle 80-89 90 Moderate or heavy shower of
16 Rain dose to station 52 Moderate intermittent drizzle 80 Slight shower
hail after thunder has

17 Thunderstorm without rain 53 Moderate continuous drizzle 81 Moderate of heavy shower
18 Squall 54 Heavy Intermittent drizzle ceased
91 Slight rain after thunder has
19 Funneldoud 55 Heavy continuous drizzle 82 Violent shower

ceased
56 Heavy freezing drizzle 83 Slight shower with snow mixed

92 Moderate or heavy rain after
2Q.-29 Weather phenomena during last 57 Moderate freezing drizzle 84 Moderate or heavy shower with
thunder has ceased thunder
one hour but not at the time of 58 Slight drizzle and rain mixed Snow mixed
93 Slight snow or hail after
85 Slight snow shower
observation 59 Moderate or heavy drizzle and rain has ceased
86 Moderate or heavy snow shower
mixed 94 Mode~ate or heavy snow or
87 Slight shower of ice pellets
20 Drizzle hail after thunder has
88 Moderate or heavy shower
21 Rain 60-69 Rain at the time of observation
ceased
22 Snow 95 Light thunder storm with rain,
snow or hail of ice pellets
23 Rain and snow 60 Slight intermittent rain 96 Light thunderstorm with hail
89 Slight shower of hail without
24 Freezing drizzle 61 Slight continuous rain: 97 Heavy thunderstorm with rain
thunder
25 Shower of rain 62 Moderate intermittent rain or snow
26 Shower of snow 63 Moderate continuous rain 98 Thunderstorm and dust storm
27 Shower of hail 64 Heavy intermittent rain 99 Heavy thunderstorm with hail
28 ,Fog 65 Heavy continuous rain
Table 24.7
29 Thunderstorm 66 Slight freezing rain
213
212
STATION MODEL
Q7. Amount of lowest cloud is

Total Cloud Amount N
(a) 2/8 (b) 4/8 (c) 3/8
l:m·l~ I~I~J~I~-~;' ~ ~
Q8. Dew Point temperature range is
(a) 29.5 to 30.4 0 C
(b) 29.1 to 30.4 0 C
Table 24.7 0
(c) 30.6 to 30.4 C
Note: 9 Octa symbol indicate sky not discernable.
Q9. Temperature 34° C is
I symbol indicate data not available. (c) Dew Point
(a) Dry (b) Wet
QI0. 962 represents

Q!)ESTIONS ON STATION MODEL (b) QFF (c) QNH
(a) QFE
Q1l. Pressure value in hPa is

Example: (a) 996 (b) 996.2 (c) 1096.2
~
I~ Q12. Pressure change of 1.5 hPa is in
(c) 24 hr
(a) 6 hr (b) 3hr
ro 962
34 _ 14
Q13. Past weather is
~~ :1.__.. 5 / (a) Moderate Light Rain
(b) Continuous Rain
3/22
(c) Heavy Rain
Q1. The direction of surface wind is Q14. Rainfall amount is

(a) NW (b) NE (c) SE (a) 2 mm (b) 1.5 mm (c) 1.6 to 2.4 mm
Q2. The range of wind speed is Q15. Rainfall reported is from

(a) 20-25 kt (b) 16-22 kt (c) 18-22 kt (a) 0300Z of yesterday to 0300Z of today
(b) 0100 to 2400Z
Q3. The type of medium cloud is
(c) 0530 to 0830 1ST
(a) AC (b) AS (c) AC &AS
Q16. Speed of Ship is
Q4. Low clouds are
(a) 5 KMH (b) 5 MPS (c) 5 KT
(a) CU (b) SC (c) ST
Q17. Direction of movement of Ship
Q5. High clouds are
(a) NW (b) SW (c) NE
(a) CC (b) CI (c) CS
. Q18. Speed of Ship reported is averaged for
Q6. Height of base of low clouds is
(a) 3 hr (b) 6 hr (c) 12
(a) 200 m (b) 250 m (c) 100 to 199m
",.A
21'\
Q19. Surface visibility is
(a) 500 to <1000 m (b) 1000 to 2000m

(c) 2000 to < 4000 m
Q20. Weather reported is
(a) Rain at the time of observation
(b) Rain during last one hour
(c) Rain not at station but within 5 km
25
ANSWERS
Q~
A.
1
a
2
c
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
AVIATION WEATHER REP.ORTS AND
a c b c c
Q. 14 15
a a b b C a CODES OF METAR SPEC! AND TREND
16 17 18 19 20
A. c a c c a c b
Note: For practice the STATION MODELS are at given in Appendix G

AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS: METAR AND SPECr
Met Offices take weather observations for aviation purpose. These ~re encoded in
Aeronautical Meteorological Codes ( Reference WMO Manual on Codes WMO
306). These reports are called METAR and SPECI and are widely used for exchanging
with other stations and by the Pilots, Flight and ATC staff.
METAR is the code for Aviation Routine weather Report and
SPECI is the code for Aviation Selected Special weather Report.
Both METAR and SPECI have the same code. METAR is issued at half hourly or
hourly interval and SPECI is issued any time as per the specified criteria.
Code:
METAR or SPECI CCCC YYGGggZ dddffGfmfmKT/MPS/KMH dndndnVdxdxdx
WWDv VxVxVxVxDv RDRDJVRVRVRVRi w'w'
or or
CAVOK RDRDJVRVRVRVRVVRVRVRVRi
Ns Ns Ns hs hs hs T' T' lTd' Td' QPHPHPHPHRE w' w' WS RWYDRDR
or or
VVIII WS ALL RWY
216
217
or AVIATION WEATHER REpORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPECI AND TREND

SKC or NSC
(i) Lowest layer is reported regardless of amount (FEW, SCT, BKN or OVC).
(WTsTs SS) (RRRRERCReReRBRBR) (ii) Next layer is reported when cloud amount is 3/8 or more (SCT, BKN or
OVC).
Reporting of Met Elements in Aviation Reports (iii) Next layer is reported when cloud amount is 5/8 or more ( BKN or OVC).
(a) Surface Wind (iv) In addition CB is reported whenever observed.
• Direction and Speed are reported as: 27010 KT/MPS/KMH (f) Temperature involving 0.5°C are rounded up to next higher value e.g. + 2.SoC.
• Variable wind is reported if wind is less than 3KT reported as 3°C and - 2.SOC as M02°C.
For example: VRB02KT
Stronger wind if direction changed 180 0 or more: (g) Pressure is rounded down to the nearest whole hectopascallower value e.g.
For example: VRBI0KT QNH 996.6 hPa is reported as QNH 996 hPa. In inches exact value is reported.
• Calm wind (less than 1 kt) is reported as: OOOOOKT (Range of pressure over the world is 0850 hPa - 1100 hPa)
• Gusty Wind 32020 gusting 40KT is reported as: 30020G40KT (h) Fog (FG) is reported when visibility is < 1000 m due to water drops or icecrystals
• Extreme directions are reported only if variation or both, except when prefixed by MI, BC, PR or Vc.
0
is 60 to 1800 and wind ::::3KT e.g.: 270V050
• Wind:::: 100 KT eg 240100KT is reported as: (i) Mist (BR) is reported when .visibility is 1000 m but not more than 5000 m.
240P99KT
(b) Visibility is reported in steps of: (j) HZ, SA, DU, FU, VA are reported when visibility is 5000 m or less, except
SA when specified by DR (Low Drifting).
• 50 m when visibility is 0 to 800 meg. 50, 100, lSO, ...... , 750, 800 m
• 100 m when visibility is (k) Present Weather
800 m to 5000 meg, 900, 1000, 1100 ... 4900,5000 m Drizzle (DZ), Rain (RA), Snow(SN), Snow Grain(SG), Ice Pallet(PE), Ice (IC),
• 1 km when visibility is Hail (diametre 5 mm or more) (GR),Hail (diametre <5 mm) (GS), Fog (FG),
5000 m to 9000m ego Mist (BR), Sand (SA), Dust (DU), Hqze (HZ), Smoke (FU), Volcanic Ash (VA), .
6000, 7000, 8000, 9000 km etc
• Visibility is reported as 9999 Dust Devil (PO), Squall (SQ), Funnel Cloud (FC), Dust Storm (DS), Sandstorm
when it is 10 km or more
(SS), Shower (SH), Thunderstorm (TS).
(c) RVR: Runway Visual Range observations, for Touch Down Zone, are made
when visibility or RVR is < 1500 m. It is reported in steps of: (1) Supplementary Information. Recent significant weather information is also
25 m when RVR is 000 m to 400 m included in abbreviated plain language e.g. WIND 320110 KT, WIND AT 60
50 m when RVR is 400 m to 800 m M 360/25 KT IN APCH OR MOD TURB AND ICE INC IN <;LIMOUT, WS
100 m when RVR is 800 m to 2000 m RWY 12.
RVR lSOO to 2000m is reported under RMK and not dessiminated internationally. (m) CAVOK. CAVOK signifies Visibility, Cloud Ceiling and Present Weather better
(d) Cloud base is reported in steps of: ·than the prescribed values or conditions (pronounced as KAV-OH-KAY). It is
30 m up to 3000 m and 300 m above 3000 m issued when the following conditions occur simultaneously: .
(i) Visibility 10 km or more.
(e) Clouds: For reporting clouds the Terms used are: FEW (1- 2 Okra), SCT (ii) No clouds below 1500 m or below the highest minimum sector altitude,
(3 - 4 Okta), BKN (5 - 7 Okta), OVC (8 Okta) and SKC (clear sky). which ever is greater and no cumulonimbus.
(iii) No weather of significance.
218
"110
AVIATION METEOROLOGY AVIATION WEATHER REpORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPECI AND TREND
CAVOK replaces information on Visibility, RVR, Present weather and Clouds in SPECIAL. In addition to the SPEci, Special Report (in abbreviated plain language)
METAR. are issued for Height of Base of Clouds and Visibility in India as follows. These
are passed to ATC only for their local use and not disseminated beyond the aerodrome
Minimum Sector Altitude of origin:
The lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a minimum clearance
(i) Visibility 2000 or 4000 m
of 300 m (1000 ft) above all objects located in the area contained within a sector
(ii) Cloud base 90 or 120 m, where Ceilograph/Ceilometer exist.
of a circle of 46km (25NM) radius centered on a radio aid to navigation.
Criteria for issue of SPECI Explanation of various groups of METAR and SPECI code:
SPECI is issued when any of the following changes take place from the last report.
Code Meanings
. Coded As
METAR or SPECI Code Name METAR
SPECI for deterioration is reported immediately and for il1}provement after 10
Identification or SPECI
minutes.
Groups CCCC ICAO location Indicator VIDP (Delhi)
(a) Surface Wind
ITGGggZ Date and time (UTC) of 241130Z
(i) ~hange in wind direction by ;;::: 60° and speed before and/ after change is obversation
;;::: 10 kt.
Wind 27010KT 27010KT
(ii) Mean speed has changed by ;;::: 10 kt
dddffGfmfm Variable 2 KT: VARB02KT
(iii) Variation from mean speed by ;;::: 10 kt and speed before and! after change KT/MPS/KMH Calm: 00600KT
;;::: 15 kt Surface Wind Wind 32020 gusting 45KT: 30020G45KT
Direction and 240100KT: 240P99KT
(b) Visibility: When passes 800, 1500,3000 or 5000m. Direction varying between
Speed
(c) RVR changes or passes dndndn Vdxdxdx 170 .deg and 050 deg: 270V050
150m, 350m, 600 or 800 m.
VWVDv Min. Visibility 6000 m in South 6000S
(d) Present Weather - Onset, cessation or change in intensity of: FZ precipitation, VxVxVxVxDv Visibility < 1500 in one
FZFG, MOD or HVY precipitation, drifting and blowing snow, sand, dust, DS, direction and >5000 in other then: 1400SW 6000E
TS, SS~ squall and funnel~ clouds (tornado or waterspout). Visibility Or Direction variation Dv:
N, NE, Nw.. 3000NW;
(e) Clouds
(i) BKN or OVC base at 30, 60, 150, 300, 450 m . Visibility 10 km or more: 9999
(ii) Cloud amount below 450 m changes:
CAVOK CAVOK: CAVOK
From SKC/ FEW/ SCT
to BKN / OVC RDRDJVRVRVRVRi R - RVR, DRDR - Runway,
From BKN/ OVC i-tendency of RVR in last 10 min:
to SKC/ FEW/ SCT.
i as N - nil as D - decreased, as
(f) When sky is obscured and vertical visibility changes or passes 30, 60, 150 or U - increased
.300 m (100, 200, 300, 1000 ft), where laser ceilometer is installed. Runway
Visual Range RDRDJVRVRVRVR
RVR 1200m, RWY 27, Decreased: R27/1200D
RVR > 1500m has Increased: R27P1500U
(g) When surface temper~ture has increased by 2° C or more from the last (if available) RVR below the value assessable
observation. RDRDJVRVRVRVRi (e.g 150m) by the instrument R27/M0150
220 221
AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPECI AND TREND
I! Code
Meanings Coded As
forecast only those elements are included for which significant, change is expected.
When no significant cbange is expected to occur it islhdicated by the abbreviation
!:I
Present w'w' Heavy Shower + SHRA , NOSIG.
l
Iii Weather Shailow Fog MIFG
I
I,
TREND forecast is appended to a METAR or SPECI and is valid for TWO hours. '
I,i
Clouds NNNhhh
s s s S 5 S
Cloud Amount and Base FEW,SCT,BKN,
OVC, Note: In case of significant change (SPECI criteria) in respect of:
I 3/8 at 1550 ft SCT015
1-2/8 CB at 2000 ft FEW020CB (a) Clouds. All cloud groups, including cloud groups expected to change and.
Or
3-4/8 at 10000 ft BKNI00 those not expected to change are included in the TREND.
(b) Visibility. Phenomena causing reduction of visibility is also indicated in the
Vertical Vis. WII/ When Sky is Obscured: WIll TREND. '
Or Or
SKC or NSC SKC or NSC Sky Clear or No Sig. Cloud SKC or NSC TREND Code:
TTITT or NOSIG TTGGgg dddffGfmfmKT/MPS/KMH VVVV or CAVOK
AirTemp & T' T' lTd' Td' Temp 24.3 C, Dew Point -02.7 C 24/M02
Dew Point NsNs Ns hs hs hs or VIII or SKC or NSC (RMK)
w'w' or NSW
, Pressure QPHPHPHPH Rounded down to whole Number
Explanation of various groups of TREND (Landing Forecast)
QNH Or 999.9 hPa: Q0999
APHP~~H 30.05 inches (reported as such): AJOOS TREND Code Name
Change TTTTTT BECMG(Becoming), TEMPO
RecentWx REw'w' Recent Rain; Recent TS RERA;RETS Group TITTT

(Temporary change of 1 hr or less)
or
(Becoming - gradual and permanent change)
Winde Shear WS RWYDRDR or Wind Shear Runway 09: WSRWY09

WS ALL RWY Wind Shear All Runway: WS ALLRWY NOSIG No Significant Change
TT: FM (From), TL (Until), AT (At)

Time of TTGGgg
Sea Surface (WTsTs 55) Sea Surface Temp. 19 and Sea WI9/S4
Temp & State State: Moderate: expected GGgg: Time in Hr and Min eg 0430, 0800
occurrence of
change BECMG FM1230 TL1300 TEMPO FM0800
State of (RRRRERCReReRBRBR (RWY covered with Snow, its
RWY depth etc information)
29010KT OR
Surface Wind 27010G40KT; G for Gusting
Direction and dddffGfmfm
At the end of the report RMK (Remarks) may be added
Speed KT/MPS/KMH
Table 25.1 Visibiiity 4000 m in Rain and Showers:
Visibility VVVVor
4000 RASH
TREND FORECAST (LANDING FORECAST) CAVOK
CAVOK:as in METAR I
TREND forecast is a statement of expected significant changes in anyone or more

I------
Weather
Phenomena
w' w' or
NSW (no sig wx)
FZRA,FZFG, Mod to Heavy (RA,SH),
DS,SS,TS,SQ, FC, BLDU/SNSN I
of the weather elements: surface wind, visibility, weather and clouds. In the TREND
223
222
AVIATION WEATHER REpORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPEC! AND TREND
Clouds Ns Ns Ns hs hs hs eg BECMG TL1230 OVCOOS
Explanation of hshshs Code:
eg BECMG ATI030 OVC010
or or
Vertical WIll hs hs hs 000 001 002 003 004 etc 011 009
When sky obscured: Will
Visibility Or Code
SKC: Sky Clear Clond Base m <30 30 60 90 120 330 2970
SKC or NSC SKC or NSC NSC: No Significant Cloud
Table 25.4
Table 25.2
Note: TEMPO change lasts for less than one hour and the aggregate of such repeated changes Example of SPECI:
is less than half the period indicated by GGGeGe

SPECIVIDP 230300Z 30015G35KT 270V020 1200NW 6000S R27/P1500 +SHRA
BECMG (Becoming) is a gradual permanent change, starts at .... UTC and complets
at .... UTe. FEW020 FEW025CB SCT100 BKN250 34/27 Q1004 RERA WS RWY27 =
W' W' Significant Present and Forecast Weather: Interpretation:
Qualifier SPECI VIDP Aviation Selected Special weather Report for Palam
Description Precipitation Obscuration Other (New Delhi)
- Light MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Dust/ 230300Z for 23rd day at 0300 UTC .
Moderate Sand Whirl 30015G35KT Surface Wind 300/15 KT gusting to 35 KT
BC Patches RA Rain FGFog
(no qualifier) (dust devil) 270V020 Wind direction varying from 2700 to 0200
(random
coverage) SN Snow FU Smoke 1200NW 6000S Visibility 1200 m in NW direction and 6000m in the
+ Heavy (well SQ Squall
PR Partial South.
developed: (substantial SG Snow Grain VA Volcanic
dust/sand whirl, FCFunnel R27/P1500 Runway Visual Range for R/W 27 more than 1500m
coverage) Ash
dust devil, funnel Clouds +SHRA Weather - Heavy shower and Rain
DR IC Ice Crystals,
cloud) (Tornado FEW020 FEW025CB Clouds 1-2/8 at 2000 ft, 1-2/8 CB at 2500 ft, 3-4/8 at
Low Drifting Diamond dust DU Widespread or
Dust SCT100 BKN250 10,000 ft and 5-7/8 at 25,000 ft
Water Spout)
BL Blowing PL Ice Pellets 34/27 Temperature 34° C and "Dew Point 27° C
VC In the
Vicinity QI004 QNH 1004 hPa
SH Shower GR Hail SA Sand
(not at station SS Sandstorm RERA Recent Rain
TS
but within 8 km) Thunderstorm GS Small Hail WS RWY27 Wind Shear Warning for R/W 27
HZ Haze DS Duststorm
FZFreeiing
Example of TREND:
Note: FZ (super cooled water droplets or precipitation) is used only with RA and DZ;
DR is used with DU,SA, or SN raised by wind to < 2 magI; TEMPO FM0830 TL0900 24025G45KT 2000 RATS FEW020 FEWCB025 SCTI00
BL is used with DU,SA or SN raised by wind to 2:: 2 magi; BKN2500 BECMG FM0930 27005KT 6000 NSW.
MI, BC and PR are used with FG only e.g. BCFG, MIFG, PRFG
TREND forecast: From0830 UTC Until 0900 UTC Surface Wind 24025 KT Gusting
Table 25.3 to 45KT Visibility 2000m in Rain and Thunder Shower, Clouds 1-2/8 at 2000 ft,
224
225
AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPEC! AND TREND
SPECIVOTV 0400Z30005KT 6000 -RABKN008 OVC100 24/22 Q1008 TEMPO
1-2/8 CB at 2500 ft,3-4/8 at10000 ft, 5-7/8 at 25,000 ft, Becoming from 0930 UTC,
4000 + RA
Wind 270/05 KT Visibility 6000 m and No Significant weather.
International Station Code Names are at Appendix L

Examples of METAR with appended TREND:
Q1]ESTIONS ON AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS
METAR VIAM 211500Z 33010KT 6000 FEW040 FEW050CB 29/25 Q1004
METAR SPECI AND TREND
NOSIG =
METAR VEGK 1600Z OOOOOKT 6000 LT FEW010 FEW020CB SCT025 24/22

METARVIDP 160230Z30005KT290V050 1500S 5000NR15/P1500UBRFEW020
QI004NOSIG
FEW025CB SCT120 BKN300 32/29 QI003 REFG TEMPO FM0330 22015G25KT
3000 + TSRA FEWOI0 SCT025CB BKN150 BECMG At0415 27008KT CAVOK~
METAR VIJO 1230Z 23015KT 5000 SA SKC 37/18 Q1004 TEMPO 1314
24015G28KT
Q1. The METAR has been issued on ........... day
METAR VIAS 1300Z 25015KT 2500 HZ SKC 39/19 Q1001 BECMG AT1400
Wl~ ~1~ ~1~
25015G30KT 2000 =
Q2. The METAR has been issued at

METARVABB 0210Z OOOOOKT 3000 HZSCT015 24/22Q1011 TEMPOTL0310
(c) 0230 1ST
(a) 0630 1ST (b) 0230UTC
1400BR
Q3. The surface wind speed is
Examples of METAR and SPECI for various Weather elements with trend
(c) 4-6 kt
(a) 2-6 kt (b) 3-7 kt
1. Surface wind Q4. Wind direction is varying from

0
METAR VIDP 0900Z 23015KT 8000 SCT015 FEW020CB SCT100 32/18 Q1010 0 (c)200 to 050
(a) 290 to 0500 (b) 050 to 290
BECMG FM0930 28025G35KT

Q5. Visibility 1500 m is towards
SPEC! VIDP 0945Z 27025G40KT 0800 TSSH SCT010 SCT020CB BKN100 28/ (c) Allover the airport
(a) N (b) S
24 Q1012 BECMG FM1130 27010KT 8000 FEW025

Q6. Visibility towards N is
(c) 3000 m
2. Visibility (a) 1500m (b) 5000 m
METAR VAPO 0130Z OOOOOKT 6000 SCT015 26/24 Q1008 TEMPO TL0300
Height of base of low clouds above station level is
2000BR Q7.
(a) 2000 m (b) 2500 ft (c) 2500 m
SPECI VAPO 0225Z 15005KT 4000 HZ SCT025 27/24 Q1008 BECMG AT 0300
2000BR Q8. Runway Visual range is
. (e) < 1500 m
(a) 1500 m (b) > 1500 m
3. Present weather
SPECI VABB 0845Z 32015KT 3000 TSRA SCT015 SCT020CB BKN120 26/25 Q9. Runway Visual range has
Q1016 BECMG FM1000 NSW (a) Decreased i(b) Increased (c) Remained same
4. Clouds Q10. The poor visibility is due to the Present weather, which is
METAR VOMM 0340Z 30005KT 6000 BKN012 OVC100 24/21 Q1008 TEMPO (a) Fog (b) Brown Dust (c) Mist
RA BKN008 OVC 100
227
1.2.11
AVIATION WEATHER REpORTS AND CODES OF METAR SPECI AND TREND
Ql1. Amount of lowest cloud is
Q24. Visibility is reported in steps of 100 m when visibility is
(a) 1-2/8 (b) 2 -4/8 (c) 5-7/8
(a) 800 m to 5000 m (b) 0 to 800 m (c) 5000 m to 10 km
Q12. Amount of CB cloud is

(a) 1-2/8 (b) 2-4/8 (c) 5-7/8
(a) 800 m to 5000 m (b) 0 to 800 m (e) 5000 m to 9999
Q13. Height of base of CB is
Q26. Visibility is reported 9999 when· visibility is

(a) 2500 m (b) 3000 ft (c) 2500 it
(a) 800 m to 5000 m (b) 9000 to 9999 m (c) 10 km or more
Q14. The height of topmost layer of cloud is
Q27. Temperature + 2.5°C is reported as

(a) 3000 m (b) 30000 m (c) 30000 ft (a) 2°C (b) 3°C (c) 2.5°C
Q15. The landing forecast appended to any METAR is valid for Q28. Temperature - 12.5°C is reported as
(a) 1 hr (b) 2hr (c) 3 hr (a) - 12 (b) - 13 (c) M 12
Q16. The wind in TREND from 0330 UTC is valid up to ........... UTC
Q29. Pressure is rounded down to the nearest whole number in hectopascal
(a) 0400 (b) 0430 (c) 0415 (a) exact value (b) upper value (c) lower value
Q17. Expected visibility after 0415 UTC is Q30. QNH 1002.6 hPa is reported as
(a) 6000 m (b) 10 km (c) ~ 10 km (a) Q1002 (b)QI003 (c) QI002.6
Q18. The group Q1003 in the METAR indicates Q31. QNH 29.92 inches is reported as
(a) QFE (b) QFF (e) QNH (a) Q2900 (b) A2992 (c) A 3000
Q19. The difference between IT and TdTd is 3 0 C. The atmosphere is
Q32. Fog is reported when visibility is
fa) Very Dry (b) Moist (c) Saturated
(a) < 1000 m (b) 1000 m (c) > 1000 m
Q20. Just before the METAR was issued the weather was Q33. Mist is reported when visibility is
(a) Rain (b) Mist (c) Fog (a) < 1000 m to 2000m (b) 1000 to 5000m (c) > 1000 m
Q21. The range of pressure reported as QI003 is Q34. CAVOK signifies Visibility, Cloud ........... and present weather better than the
(a) 1002.5 to 1003.5 hPa prescribed values or conditions
(b) 1003.0 to 1003.9 hPa (a) ceiling (b) base (c) amount
(c) 1003.1 to 1003.5 hPa
Q35. CAVOK is issued when visibility is
Q22. The range .of temperature reported as 32 is (a) 9-10 km (b) 10 km or more (c) 10 km only
(a) 31.5 to 32.4 0 C (b) 32.1 to 32.4 0 C (c) 31.5 to 32.40 C
Q36. CAVOK is issued when
(i) Visibility 10 km or more
General Questions on METAR and SPECI
(ii) No weather of significance.
(iii) No clouds below 1500 m or below the highest minimum sector altitude,
which ever is greater and no cumulonimbus.
(a) 800 m to 5000 m (b) 0 to 800 m (e) 5000 m to 10 km
(a) Anyone. condition (b) Any two conditions (e) All the three conditions
228
229
Q37. SPECI is issued when

(i) Change in wind direction is;;::: 60° and speed before and! after change;;::: 10 kt.
(ii) Mean speed has changed by ;;::: 10 kt
(iii) Variation from mean speed by ;;:::10 kt and speed before and! after change;;:::
15 kt
(a) Any two conditions (b) Anyone condition (c) All the three conditions 26
Q38. SPECI is issued when Clouds are

(i) BKN or OVC base at 30, 60, 150, 300, 450 m
(ii) Cloud amount below 45C m changes: AVIATION WEATHER FORECASTS
From SKC! FEW! SCT to BKN ! OVC OR
From BKN! OVC to SKC/ FEW/ SeT. (CODES OF AERODROME FORECAST,
(a) Anyone condition (b) Any two conditions (c) All the above conditions AREA FORECAST AND ROUTE
Q39. SPECI is issued for vertical visibility, by stations having Ceilograph, when sky is
obscured
FORECAST)
(a) True (b) False
Q40. SPECI is issued when surface temperature has increased by ........... or more from
the last observation.
(a) 3° C (b) 4° C (c) r C
1. AERODROME FORECAST (TAF)
Q41. WSRWY28 indicates that the wind shear has been reported for RW 28 in
(a) take off path (b) approach path (c) both take off and approach paths
Code Form:
Q42. R26/M0150 in a METAR indicates that

TAF CCCC YYGGggZ YtYtG1G/Y2Y2G2G2
(a) maximum RVR is 150 m

(b) minimum RVR is 150 m dddffGfmfmKT/KMH/MPS VVVV or CAVOK
(c) 150 m is the lowest RVR instrument can measure and RVR is < 150 m w' w' or NSW NsNsNshshshs or VVIII or SKC or NSC
PROB C2C~ GGGeGe
ANSWERS ......
I GGG.G. (TXTFTFI GFGpZ TNTpTFI GFGpZ)
\ or
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10" 11 12 13 TIGGgg
A. b b b a b b a b b c a a c Meaning of terms used are similar. to those of METAR except for:
Q. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
A. c b c c c b c b c b a c c TAF is the name of the code for an Aerodrome Forecast. TAF are valid for atleast
Q. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 9 hr and a maximum of 30 hr. TAF valid for 9 hr are issued every 3 hr and of 12
A. b c c a b a b a b 'c b a a _30 hr validity, every 6 hr, commencing at 0000 UTe. 9 hr TAF is not disseminated
Q. 40 41 42 internationally but used for domestic flights and in VOLMET broadcast.
A. c c c
231
230
AVIATION METEOROLOGY AVIATION WEATHER FORECASTS
YtY1GjG/Y2Y2GZG2 Valid on date Yl Yt from time G 1G l to date Y Y timeG G UTC Sample TAFs:
2 Z 2 z
I
For example: 1200/1306 (TAPvalid from day12 time 0000 to dayl3 time 0600 UTC)
TAP VOMM 031500Z 0318/04 240000KT DZ/HZ SCT015 FEW025CB BI4N080
1606/1615 (TAF valid on day 16 time 0600 to time 0600 UTC). TEMPO 0321/0403 1500 RA/BR SCT010 SCT015 FEW025CB OVC080 BECMG
0405/0406 07005KT 7000 TEMPO 0409/0415 2000 TSRA SCT008 FEW025CB
PROB C ZC2 Probability of occurrence 30% or 40% : PROB30 or PR0B40

BKN080 BECMG 0416/0417 OOOOOKT 4000 HZ=
YYGGIYYGeGe Change likely to occur between timings GG and GeG

e TAF VECC 031500Z 0318/0424 09005KT 5000 HZ SCT015 SCT080 TEMPO
(1809/1812 indicates change on 18th between 00900 and 1500 UTC).

0321/03243000 HZ SCT008 SCT250 TEMPO 0400/0403 0800 FG BKN004
(TXTFTF/GFGFZ TNTFTF/GFGFZ) Maximum temperature (TXTpTp) and minimum SCT010 BECMG 0403/0404 3000 HZ SCT008 SCT250 BECMG 040,6/04086000
temperatures (TNTpTp) to occur at the time GFGpTX42 / 10Z (Max temperature SCT015 SCr080 TEMPO 0421/0424 3000 HZ SC1'008 SCT250=
42° C at 1000Z) TN05 / 01Z (Min temperature 05° C at 0100Z). TAP VILK 062100Z 0700/0709 27005KT 0500 FG TEMPO 0304/0408 35010G25KT
Amended TAF is identified by TAF AMD 1500 DU FEW040 BECMG FM0800 FEW030CB =
In the TAPs the date and time of issue of TAP is included after CCCC group. Letter TAF VOHS 030900Z 0312/0418 07010KT 5000 HZ NSC TEMPO 0400/0403
Z is an indicator for time of issue in UTC and KT for wind speed. 1500 BR FEW020 SCT200 BECMG 0405/0406 09010KT 6000 SCT020
Example:
SCT200 BECMG 0415/0416 09005KT 3000 HZ NSC=
TAP VECC 10200Z 1100/1109 09012KT2500 BRFEW040SCT150

TAP VABB 251200Z 2515/2524 07005KT 6000 SCT015 SCT020 BKN100 TEMPO
BECMG 0204 16015KT 6000 TEMPO 1107/1109 FEW030CB =

2515/25184000 -TSRNRA SCTOl5 FEW020CB OVC080 BECMG 2516/2517
OOOOOKT 4000 HZ=
Interpretation:
TAP VIDP 030900Z 0312/0418 VRB03KT 3000 HZ NSC BECMG 0316/0318

TAF
AERODROME FORECAST
VECC OOOOOKT 1500 BR BECMG 0400/04020800 FG BECMG 0403/0404 VRB03KT
FOR KOLKATA
102100Z ISSUED ON 10TH DAY AT 2100UTC, 1000BR FEW020 BECMG 0404/0406 33005KT 3000 HZ BECMG 0408/0410
110009 VALID FOR 11TH DAY FROM 0000 TO 0900 UTC
4000 HZ NSC BECMG 0412/0414 VRB03KT 3000 HZ BECMG
09012KT SURFACE WIND 09012 KT
2500BR VISIBILITY 2500 m DUE TO MIST TAP VEVZ 250600Z 2509/2518 12010KT 5000 HZ FEW018 SCT250 PROB40
FEW040SCT150 CLOUDS 1-2/8 AT 4000 FT, 3-4/8 AT 15000 FT BECMG 2516/2517 VRB03KT 4000 HZ=
BECMG0204 BECOMING FROM 0200 TILL 0400 UTC
16015KT 6000 SURFACE WIND 160/15 KT, VISIBILITY 6000 m TAF VOML 251500Z 2518/2624 VRB05KT 6000 FEW015 SCT020 TEMPO
TEMPO 0709 TEMPORARILY FROM 0700 TILL 0900 UTC 2521/2603 3000 DZ/HZ SCT008 SCTOl2 BKN080 TEMPO 2609/2618
FEW030CB 1-2/8 CB AT 3000 FT
3000 RNSHRA SCT015 SCT020 FEW025CB BKN080 PROB30 TEMPO 2621/
26243000 SCT008 SCT012 BKN080=
232 233
AVIATION WEATHER FORECASTS
TAF VOCI 251500Z 2518/2624 OOOOOKT 3000 HZ Scr012 FEW025CB

Q9. Direction of gusty wind is
BKNI00 TEMPO 2600/2603 1500 RNBR SCTOI0 FEW025CB OVC080 (a) 0900 (b) 1000 (c) 1200
BECMG 2604/2605 27010KT 6000 TEMPO 2610/2615 2000TSRA
SCT012 FEW025CB BKN090 BECMG 2615/2616 OOOOOKT 3000 H2\= QI0. Expected weather up to 2SI0400UTC is
(a) Fog (b) TSRA . (c) Mist
TAFVOCL 141500Z 1418/1524 00000KTDZ/HZSCT015 FEW025CBBKN080
TEMPO 1421/15031500 RNBRSCT010 SCT015 FEW025CB OVC080 BECMG Ql1. Amount of lowest cloud is
(a) 1-2/8 (b) 3-4/8 (c) 5-7/8
1505/1506 07005KT 7000 TEMPO 1509/15152000 TSRA SCT008 FEW025CB
BKN080 BECMG 1516/1517 OOOOOKT 4000 HZ = Q12. Amount ofCB cloud is
(a) 1-2/8 (b) 2-4/8 (c) 5-7/8 •
Q!JESTIONS ON TAF
Q13. Height of base of CB is
(a) 2500 ft (b) 3000 m (c) 2500 m
TAF VILK 241800Z 2500/2509 09008KT 0800 FG BECMG 2504/2505 09015KT
6000 SCT008 BKN120 TEMPO 2506/2508 12015G30KT 3000 TSRA FEW012 Q14. The height of topmost layer of cloud is
FEW025CB BKNI00 BECMG AT 25/0800 09010KT 7000 FEW030 SCT120 (a) 2800 m (b) 28000 m (c) 28000 ft
BKN280 =
Q15. Period of validity of TAF is
Q1. The TAF has been issued on ........... day
(a) 23 to 00 1ST (b) 00 to 09 UTC (c) 20 to 12 UTC
(a) 23rd (b) 18th (c) 24th
ANSWERS
Q2. The TAF has been issued at
(a) 2330 1ST (b) 1830 UTC (c) 24 UTC 9 10 11 12 13
Q•. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Q3. The expected surface wind speed is A. c a c b c b c a cab a a
(a) 09 kt (b) 06 kt (c) 08 kt
Q. 14 15
Q4. Initially expected wind direction is A. c b
(a) 120° (b) 0900 (c) 0500
Q5. TAF is Valid for Date
(a) 23rd (b) 24th (c) 25th
Q6. Lowest forecast visibility in TAF is
(a) lS00m (b) 0800 m (c) 0200 m
Q7. Height of base of lowest douds in TAF is
(a) 1000 m (b) 1000 ft (c) 0800. ft
Q8. Weather TSRA is expected after
(a) 0600 UTC (b) 0600 1ST (c) 0800 UTC
234 235
'i::
2. AREA FORECAST FOR AVIATION (ARFOR)
ARFOR: It is the name of the code for an Aviation Forecast in figure code for a
B
0
Type of Turbulence
Nil
.
I Type of Icing.
0 Nil
W t W t W 1 Reported as
111 Thunderstorm (TS)
specific Area.
1 Light 1 Light 222 Tropical cyclone(TRS)
SECTION 1 ARFOR (YYGGggZ) 1
Y-IYIGIGtGZGZ [KMH or KT or MPS] 2 Moderate CAT OCNL 2 Light Icing in Cloud 333 Severe Line Squall' (LSQ
AAAAA (VVVV) {W1W t W 1)
3 Moderate CAT 3 Light Icing in 444 Hail (HAIL)
(NsCChshshs or Will or SKC or NSq 7ht h t h t hPPf 6IChjhjhitL Frequent Precipitation
5 BhllhllhlltL
4 Moderate in Cloud 4 Moderate Icing 555 Marked Mountain
(4hxhxhxThTh dhdhfhfhfh) (2h'p h'p T p T)
p Occasional . Waves (MTW)
SECTION 2 (11111 QLaLaLoLo h'jh'jf/l) 5 Moderate in Cloud 5 Moderate Icing in 666 Widespread
SECTION 3 (22222 h'mh'm fmfmfm (dmdm VV» Frequent Cloud Sandstorm (SAND)
SECTION 4 9i3nnn 6 Severe CAT OCNL 6 Moderate Icing in 777 Widespread
Occasional Precipitation Duststorm (DUST)
Explanation of terms: !
7 Severe CAT FREQ 7 Severe Icing 888 Freezing Rain (FZRA)

AAAA - Description of area in plain language, e.g. VECC AND 50 NM AROUND.
VVVV - Forecast visibility eg 6000

8 Severe in Cloud 8 Severe Icing in Cloud
OCNL
(N-sCChshshs or W/// or SKC or NSC) Cloud Group eg 2/8 AC at 10000ft reported
9 Severe in cloud FREQ 9 Severe Icing in
as2AC100
Precipitation
Criteria of reporting clouds: Code Figures and their Meanings.for Turbulence, Icing and WtWtWt
tst Group: The lowest layer (Ns 118 or more)
Table 26.2
nd
2 Group: The next higher layer (Ns 3/8 or more) Example:
rd
3 Group: The next higher layer (Ns 5/8 or more)
In addition CB if not already included ARFOR VIDP 091400 AREA FCST UPTO FL460 VALID 100000 FOR AREA
28N72E 30N80E 20N90E 15N75E 28N72E SYNOPSIS TC CENTRED 23N74E
7ht ht ht hpPf 7 Indicator for altitude hththt Altitude of cloud layer hfhfh AT 0300UTC MOV NW 20KT INTSF=
Altitude of Freezing Level f

Interpretation
6IehjhjhjtL 6 Indicator for Icing, IeType of icing, hjhihit -Altitude of
icing', tL Thickness ARFORVIDP AREA FORECAST ISSUED BY DELHI PALAM
091400 UPTO FL460 ON 09TH DAY AT 1400 UTC AREA FCST UPTO FL460
5B~~~~ 5 Indicator for Turbulence 100000 VALID ON 10TH DAY FROM 0000 UTC TO NEXT
4hxhxhxThTh 4 Indicator for Wind and Temperature DAY 0000 UTC
FOR AREA 28N72E 30N80E 20N90E 15N75E 28N72E
2h2 p hz p Tp Tp 2 Indicator for Tropopause level pressure and temperature SYNOPSIS TC CENTRED AT 23N 74E AT 0300UTC
MOVE,INTSF MOVE Nw, SPEED 20 KT, AND INTENSIFY
236
'.~7
3. ROUTE FORECAST FOR AVIATION (ROFOR)
Code:
SECTION 1
(YYGGggZ) YIYIGIGIG2G2 (KMH or KT or MPS]
WeatberSymboJs Used in Forecasts ROFOR
CCCC Oizzzz
+ CCCC (QLaLaLOLo>
00 Widespread Haze Widespread
6I chj hj h j
Blowing Snow (WIW1W1) N sCChJ1shs 7hthththfhfhf
(VVVV)
rJu Widespread Snnke iIV Freezing
tL
Precipitatlon
-- Widespread Mist r: Thundersto nn 5BhBhBhBtL
(4hxhxhxThTh dhdhfhfih) (2h' p h'p T p T)
. h'jh'j fjfjf)
Widespread Fog Tropical SECTION 2 (11111 QLaLaLoLo
-
-- Cyclone Jet Streana I)ata
dmdm VV)
y Freezing Fog
.~
Severe Line
Squall
SECTION 3 (22222 h' mh'm fInmrn
f f
Maxinauna Wind and Wind Shear
S Severe Sand or Dust Haze J':. Moderate

Turbulen~e SECTION 4 9i3nnn
Supplenaentary Weather Phenonaena
~ Severe
&0
,
Widespread Dustst:onn or
Sandstonn Turbulence
Sectiop 1 Contains Code identification and time group of ROFOR
.Drizzle ~ Mam.ed
Mountain Section 2 Contains Symbolic Figure: 11111, and Jet Stream Data (optional)
Wave Section 3 Contains Symbolic Figure: 22222, and Data of Max wind and Vertical
·IIlW
1/1111 Rain Light Ice wind shear (optional)
"-V Accretion Section 4 Contains Supplementary weather phenomena eg Lowest msl pressure,
Snow Moderate Ice typf: of Front, Change at Latl Long, BECMG, FROM, TEMPO etc.
* \.;..V
Accretion
(For details refer to Aviation Weather Code Books of IMD or WMO)
~ Hail
'+t-r'
Severe Ice
Accretion
Coded Message of ROFOR
V ShoW!.r
LJ Volcanic
Eruption ROFOR 060300Z 060612 KTVlDP 12580 2AC120 4CI300 71/118040302827010
405020280154070153002041001033025 5233066312091111112775 40120
222223815027115=
Note: Height of winds and temperature are prefixed by (INDICATOR 4) followed
Figure 26.2 by direction in 2 digits (eg 28 for 280) and speed in 3 digits (eg'20 kt is coded 020)
")20
238
AVIATION METEOROLOGY·
Q11ESTIONS ON ROFOR
Interpretation of the above ROFOR Coded Message:
ROFOR ROUTE FORECAST ROFOR 010000Z 010610 KT VECC VILK 2SC030 2CB030 3AC100 2CI300 7/
060300Z ISSUED ON 06 DAY AT 0300 UTC //17062180054150140502228015 40701028020410005 29030 420M05 27045
060612 VALID ON 06 DAY FROM 0600 TO 1200 UTC 440M4127105 111111287038012022222361402825=
KT WINDS SPEED IN KT
VIDP 12580 ROUTE PALAM (DELHI) TO (QUARDRENT 1) 25N 80E
Q1. Time of issue of ROFOR is
2AC120 4CI300 CLOUDS 2ACI0,000 FT 4CI30,000 FT (c) 0000 UTC
(a) 0610 UTC (b) 0000 1ST
7///180 (INDICATOR FIG 7) FREEZING LEVEL 18,000 FT
Q2. Period of validity of ROFOR is
WINDS AND TEMP. (INDICATOR FIG 4) (a) 0000 to 0000 1ST (b) 0600 to 0100 1ST (c) 0600 to 1000 UTC
40302827010 3000FT TEMP 28°CWIND 270/10 KT Q3. Wind speed in ROFOR is in

40502028015 5000FT 20°C 280/ 15 KT (a) KT (b) MPS
(c) KMH
407015 30020 7000 FT 15°C 300/20 KT
41001033025 10000 FT lOoC 330/25 KT Q4. Base of CB cloud is
(a) 300 m (b) 300 ft

(c) 3000 ft
·523306 (TURB. Group starts with Indicator 5) MODERATE
TURBULENCE IN CLEAR AIR AT 33,000 FT THICKNESS Q5. Height of Freezing level?
OF TURBULENCE 6000 FT (1800m) (a) 1700 m (b) 17,000 ft

(c) 1.7 km
631209 ( ICING Group starts with Indicator 6) LIGHT ICING IN
PRECIPITATION AT 12,000 FT(THICKNESS tL 2700m or Q6. Icing group in the ROFOR is
(c) 54/1609
9000 ft) (a) 7///170 (b) 621800
111111277540120 JET STREAM (INDICATOR 11111) LOCATION

Q7. Type of Icing?
(QUARQRENT 1) 27N 75E AT 40,000 FT WIND SPEED (a) Nil (b) Light (c) Light icing in cloud
120KT
22222381502715 MAX WIND (INDICATOR 22222) AT 38,000 FT SPEED Q8. Indicator figure for turbulence group in the ROFOR is
150 KT DIRECTION 270 DEG VERTICAL WIND SHEAR (a) 7 (b) 6 (c) 5
15 KT PER 300m = Q9. Height at which Icing is expected?
(a) 21,000 ft (b) 18,000 m (c) 15,000<ft
Interpret the ROFOR:
ROFOR 070530Z 070915 KT VECC VANP 4000 444 3CB020 7///170641809 Q10. Thickness of Icing is expected to be?
5416009405016 1601241000624015 415003 28025 4200M04 27045 4300M25 (a) 300 m (b) 600 m (c) Up to Cloud Top
. 2808011111128814015022222421602825= Q11. Height at which Turbulence is expected?
Hint: 444 stands for Hail, 64 (Moderate icing),.54 (Mod Turbulence in Cloud (a) 15,000 ft (b) 5,000 ft (c) 12,000 ft
Occasional) (Note: See ARFOR for explanation of terms)

Q12. Thickness of turbulence expected is?
(c) Up to Top of cloud

(a) 2000 ft (b) 300 m
241
240
ANSWERS
Q13. Wind at 5000 ft expected is?
(a) 280/10 kt (b) 280/15 kt (c) 280/20 kt 12 13
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Q14. Wind at 20000 ft expected is? A c c a c b b c c b c a b b
(a) 270/45 kt (b) 270/45 KMH (c) 270/40 kt
Q 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Q15. Temperature at 20000 ft expected is? A a a b b b a c b c a b c a
(a) - 05 °C (b) 05 °C (c) 265 K
Q16. Temperature at 40,000 ft expected is?
, (a) - 45°C (b) - 41 °C (c) 233 K
Q 17. Date of issue of forecast is?
. (a)10 (b) 01 (e) 02
.(l18. Indicator group for Jet stream in ROFOR is
(a) 22222 (b) 11111 (c) 111111
Q19. Indicator group for Maximum Wind in ROFOR is
(a) 22222 (b) 11111 (c) 111111
Q20 Maximum Wind speed expected is
(a) 120 kt (b) 130 kt (c) 140 kt
Q21. Maximum Wind speed expected at height
(a) 40000 ft (b) 36000 ft (c) 38000 ft
Q22. Jet stream is expected at Lat/Long
(a) 27 N/70 E (b) 28 N/75 E (c) 28 N/70 E
Q23. Vertical Wind Shear per 300 m expected is
(a) 25 kt (b) 30 kt (c) 38 kt
Q24. Jet stream core speed is expected to be
(a) 125 kt (b) 120 kt (c) 140 kt
Q25. Jet stream is expected at a height of
(a) 40,000 ft (b) 36,000 ft (c) 38,000 ft
Q26. Wind at 40,000 ft expected is?
/ (a) 270/105 kt (b) 270/115 KMH (e) 270/140 kt
243
242
RADAR REpORT, SIGMET MESSAGE AND SATELLITE BULLETIN
Character of echoes:
EYE AN ECHO OF EYE WALL OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE
SPRLBAND A CONTINUOUS OR BROKEN CURVED LINE OF ECHOES
OF SPIRAL BAND ASSOCIATED WITH A CYCLONE
SQLLN SQUALL LINE HAVING LENGTH 60 KM OR MORE AND
27
LENGTH TO WIDTH RATIO ABOUT 10 TO 1
BRKNLN BROKEN LINE OF ECHOES
SLD AN AREA FULLY COVERED WITH ECHOES
BRKN AN AREA 4/8 TO 7/8 COVERED WITH ECHOES
RADAR REPORT, SIGMET MESSAGE
SCT AN AREA 1/8 TO 4/8 COVERED' WITH ECHOES
AND SATELLITE BULLETIN
WDLY SCT AN AREA LESS THAN 1/8 COVERED WITH ECHOES
ISLTD ISOLATED SOLID MASS OF ECHO
ECHO ALOFT ECHOES SEEN ONLY AT ELEVATIONS HIGHER THAN THE
BEAMWIDTH
1. RADAR REPORT (RAREP) Intensity Tendency
Code: INCG INCREASING

DEC DECREASING
RAREP FEBB Iiiii YYGGg NOCHG NO CHANGE
CHARACTER (b i b i b 1 Irl r 1 r 1 bn bn bn Irn rn rn) ds ds DIRECTION IN TENS OF DEGREES IN WHICH ECHO IS
Intensity Tendency MOVING
fs fs SPEED IN KILOMETER PER HOUR OF THE ECHOES
ds ds fs fs ALTD (bbb/Ht H t Irrr) ALTD INDICATOR OF ECHO HEIGHT INFORMATION
Note: Ht H t HEIGHT OF TOP OF ECHO amslINkm (MAYBE REPEATED
AS REQUIRED)
RAREP is normally be reported only at synoptic hours. In the case of any break
in observations or rapid development, additional message are transmitted as BRIGHT BAND AND ANOMALOUS PROPAGATIO~ (AP) ARE REPORTED IN
necessary. PLAIN LANGUAGE
Iiiii Station Index number Notes:

YYGGg Date and time of RAREP 1. The groups within the brackets ( ) are repeated as many times as necessary.
bbb Azimuth in three digit degrees of points on the periphery of an 2. To define the shape of the line echoes, spiral bands and eye wall, as many bbbi
echo area rrr points as necessary are used. The points are given along the line in antidockwise
Rr r Range three digit in kilometer direction..
244 245
RADAR REpORT. SIGMET MESSAGE AND SATELLITE BULLETIN
3. To define the shape of areas, as many bbb/rrr points as necessary to are given
• Indication whether the information is observed or forecast and expected
in the anticlockwise order starting from the northernmost point. The first point to continue and related time, e.g. OBS AT 1150 UTC, FCST AT 1000 UTC
is repeated as the last point to indicate that it is a closed area. • Location (latitude and longitude and/or locations or well known geographic
4. If an echo system with a distinct characteristic is partly or wholly
features) and level, e.g. FCST TOPS FL 390 S OF 54 DEG N or OVER
embedded in another, the two systems are reported in separate groups.
KOLKATAAT FL250
5. Reports of heights are restricted to a maximum range of 200 km from the station. • Movement or expected movement, e.g. MOVE E 25 KT
• Change in intensity using as appropriate the abbreviations INTSF, WKN
Example 1:
orNC
RAREP 42375 15030270/050300/060350/025 280/010 SLD INCG 1525 ALTD • On the next line, an outlook providing information beyond the period of
270/09/050340/10/060280/12/010 = validity specified above, of the trajectory of the volcanic ash cloud and
positions of tropical cyclone centre etc., e.g. VABB SIGMET 3 VALID
Explanation: 221600/222000 TC FCST 20.2N 89.2E AT 1800 UTC FRQ TS TOPS
Radar Report for 42375 (International Identification No.) (say) Palam Date 15th at FL400 WI 100NM OF CENTRE MOVNW 15 KT OTLK TC CENTRE
230300 21N 87.9E 231200 21.5N 86.4E.
0300 UTC Area of Solid echo from and 270 deg 50, 300 deg 60 km, 350 deg 25
km, 280 deg 10 km. Increasing Moving in 150 direction with speed of 25 KMH, SIGMET for subsonic aircraft is identified as SIGMET, and those for supersonic
Altitude of echoes in 270 direction 9 km at 50 km, in 340 direction 10 km at 60 aircraft during transonic or supersonic flight as SIGMET SST. Separate series of
km, in 280 direction 12 km at 10 km = sequence number is used for SIGMET and SIGMET SST messages.
Example 2: SIGMET information is disseminated to all the forecasting offices in India and also
RAREP 43003 10143270/030330/040050/020 MDT INCG RPD NW /012 transmitted on AFTN under DD priority to MWOs in neighbouring countries within
ALTD 260/15/ 030 BRIGHT BAND 280/30 AP 300/330/150 Angles between a distance of 1100 NM from the boundaries of local FIRs.
1
the Azimuth 270 0 to 340 0 Range 15 to 20 nQ1 (AP - Anamolous Propagation) SIGMET information from other MWOs is also passed on to the local FIe.
2. SIGMET MESSAGE Examples:

• VECC SIGMET 4 VALID 101200/101600 TC OBS 20.2N 89.2EAT 1130
SIGMET messages is prepared in abbreviated plain language, using ICAO approved UTCFRQ
abbreviations and contains the following information as necessary and in the order • TS TOPS FL350 WI 150NM OF CENTRE MOV NW 10 KT OTLK TC
indicated. CENTRE 110300 21N 87.9E 111200 21.5N 8·6.4E.
• VABB SIGMET 4 VALID 201200/201600 SEV TS OBS AT 1150 UTC
• Identification of the MWO originating the message, e.g. VECC TOPS FL 390 S OF 25 N W OF OR OVER MADRAS AT FL250 MOVE
• Message Identification and sequence No. e.g. SIGMET 2 i.e. 2 nd SIGMET E 25 KT INTSF OR NC
• Date-time group indicating the period of validity in UTC e.g. "VALID • VECC SIGMET 3 VALID 151600/152000 TC OBS 20.2N 89.2EAT 1600
221215/221600 UTCFRQ
• Description of the phenomenon, e.g. SEV, FRQ • TS TOPS FL500 WI 150NM OF CENTRE MOV NW 10 KT NC OTLK
• Phenomenon for which the message is issued, e.g. TURB, TS TCCENTRE
• 160300 21N 87.9E 161200 21.5N 86.4E.
246
247
RADAR REPORT, SIGMET MESSAGE AND SATELLITE BULLETIN
3. SATELLITE BULLETIN Pakistan, rest J&K, HP, Uttaranchal, Punjab and NW Gujarat. Scattered to broken
low/medium clouds embedded, moderate to intense convection over sea areas between
lat 5 .ON to 14.8N long 60.0E to 68.0E SE, Arabian sea, adjoining Indian ocean between
Weather Satellites
lat 2.0N to 8.0N long 69.OE to 76.0E, S Srilanka, Gulf of Martban, Sumatra, adjoining
Satellite imageries are analysed and supplied as Bulletins in abbreviated form. An W cost of Borneo, Java, islands and sea extending N of Madagascar. Scattered to
example is given below: broken low/medium clouds embedded moderate to intense convection over S China
SAT BLTN BASED ON METSAT PIC OF 271200 UTC. sea between lat 3.0N to l1.5N in association with low level circulation over the area.
Scattered low/medium clouds imbedded weak to moderate convection over S parts
THE CONVfE CLOUDS CURVED BANDS OF VORTEX OVER EC BAY HAS
of W Australia.
REDUCED NOW CENTERED OVER 16.5 N/91.0E RPT 16.5N/91.0E(.)
INTERSITYT 1.5 RPT T 1.5 (.) ASSTD BKNLOW MED CLOUDS EMBDD SCT
MOD TO INT CONVTN (ATI0.5NTO 14.0NLONG 85.5E TO 91.5EAND LAT
14.0N TO 18.5N EAST OF LONG 87.5E ARAKAN COT AND S MYANMAR(.)
SCT M/LAYERED CLOUDS OVER NW JK AND AREA BET LAT 37.0N TO
16.0N LONG 60.0E TO 100.OE(.) SCT LOW /MED CLOUDS OVER SKM NE
STATES BAY IDS KER(.) SCT MED/HIGHCLOUDS OVER AFSN PAK REST JK
HP UTRCL PJB AND NW GUJ(.) SCT TO BKN LOW/MED CLOUDS EMBDD,
MODTOINTCONVTNOVERSARESABETLAT5.0NT014.8NLONG60.0E
TO 68.0ESEARSEAADJINDIANOCEANBETLAT2.0NTO 8.0NLONG69.0E
TO 76.0E S SRILANKA GULF OF MARTABAN SUMATTRA ADJ W' COT
BORNEO JAVA IDS AND SEA EXT. N MADAGASCAR(.) SCT TO BKN LOW/
MED CLOUDS EMBDD MOD TO INT CONVTN OVER S CHINA SEA BET
LAT 3.0N TO 11.5 N IN ASSW LOW LEVEL CIRCILATION OVER THE AREA(.)
SCT LOW/MED CLOUDS INBDD WK TO MOD CONVTN OVER S PARTS OF
WEST AUSTRALIA(.)
TSO 27/1825EF
Interpretation of the Bulletin:

Satellite Bulletin based on METSAT satellite picture of 27th day at 1200 UTe. The
connective clouds curved bands of vortex over East Central Bay has reduced. It is
now centered over 16.5 N / 91.0E. Repeat 16.5 N / 91.0E. Intensity 1.5. Associated
broken low and medium clouds embedded scattered moderate to intense convection
at 10.5N to 14.0N long 85.5E to 91.5E and lat 14.0N to 18.5N east of long 87.5E,
Arakan coast and S Myanmar. Scattered medium layered clouds over NW J&K and
area bet lat 37.0N to 16.0N long 60.0E to 100.0E. Scattered low /medium clouds over
Sikkim, NE states, Bay islands, Kerla. Scattered medium/high clouds over Mghanistan,
248.' 249
FLIGHT FORECAST (TABULAR FORM)
ROUTE (ZONE, LAT, KOLKATA LUCKNOW DELHI

LONG OR GEOGRAP~
HICAL INDICATORS)
30,000 ft M 33 300/ 60 BACKING AND STRENGTH. 270/70 M30
28
UPPER WINDS 20,000 ft M20 330/45 BACK 260/55 M18
(DEG/KT) 10,000 ft 12 050/15 . VEERING 120/25 14
TEMPERATURE
FLIGHT FORECAST (TABULAR FORM)
fq 5,000 ft 22 050/10 KT VEERING
>
160/15 24
AND CROSS SECTION FORECAST OF
FEW SC XXX / 2500 SCT ST XXX / 1000
" ISOL EMBD CB 2000 / 35000 SCT
ROUTE CONDITIONS (SAMPLES)
CLOUDS AC XXX / 12000 SCT AS XXX / 9000
BKN CI XXX / 35000
3000 M IN RAIN AND
SURFACE VISIBILITY 6 KM 1500 M IN THUNDERSTORM
1. FLIGHT FORECAST (TABULAR FORM) ISOL THUNDERSTORM

MOD ICING IN CB 25000 / 15000
MET FORM NO. MET - T 3 SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
DATE 04 APRIL 06 HEIGHTS IN FEET MOD TURBULENCE IN CB 25000 / 15000
ABOVE MSL
HEIGHT OF 0 0
ROUTE FROM VECC TO VIDP VIA VILK
ISOTHERM 15000 14000
VALID FOR DEPARTURE BETWEEN 0300 UTC AND 0500 UT C
FORECAST QNH (hPa) 1006 1008
VALID FOR ARRIVAL BETWEEN 0600 UTC AND 0800 UT C
SPECIAL FEATURES OF MET
SITUATION Issued by Met Office Kolkata at 0000 UTC on 04 April 06 by XYZ Forecaster
Abbreviations: SKC - 09ktas, FEW - 1 to 2 Oktas, SCT - 3-4 Okras, OVC 8 Oktas,
LYR - Layered, LOC- Locally,
A WD LIES OVER W RAJASTHAN WITH UPPER AIR CYCLONIC ISOL - Isolated,OCNL - Occasional, FREQ - Frequent EMBD - Embedded, MOD
CIRCULATION UP TO 20,000 FT Moderate, M - Minus
Table 28.1
250
... ,,~
2. CROSS SECTION FORECAST OF ROUTE CONDITIONS Appendix A
MET FORM NO. MET - T 4
HEIGHT INDICATIONS ARE IN FLIGHT LEVELS

METEOROLOGICAL CHARTS
VIDP
VECC
400
Significant Weather Charts

300
a The following weathers are shown in the Signifi6nt Weather chart (Figure: Appendix
. / '
R~ -/
FLIGHT
200
8 8 • Forecast positions of Synop)12systems (Low, Cyclone, High, Fronts etc.)
AC
LEVELS and their direction (by arrow) and speed of movement in Kts is shown.
• Significant clouds and flight levels of their base and top alo'ng with flight
155 Conditions are shown within scalloped boundaries.
CD
• CAT is shown within pecked lines.
MSL
100
8
CD
8
SC
a •
•
•
Symbols of TS, Cyclont'!, Moderate and Severe Icing and Turbulence
Freezing Level
Maximum Winds
• Tropopause heights within boxes
REMARKS
8 • These charts are made for levels below FL 460.
VIS 8-10 KM VIS 2000 M IN
SCATTERED TS Wind and Temperature Charts
LOWEST
MSL In these charts winds for a given flight level for a selected grid position
PRESSURE are depicted by use of shaft for direction and feathers and pennants for
400 speed. Temperatures are indicated dose to wind shaft (as below) (Wind
FLIGHT 300 Wly 50 kts, temperature - 45° C). If the temperature is positive it is
200
indicated as PS12 (12° C).
LEVELS 150
100
h 45
253
ApPENDIX A (CONTINUED)
AppendixB
Tropopause and Maximum Wind Charts
• Tropopause heights are shown in boxes in Pressure altitude. Centers of
High and Low with tropopause altitude, e.g. FL400, are shown as
G:J r%l
SATELLITE IMAGERIES
• The maximum wind is shown by the bold arrows indicating the paths of
Jet stream, annotated with Flight levels. Solid Pennants for 50 kts and half
feather for 5 kts and full feather 10 kts winds, with a double dash through
the arrow where a significant change (3000 ft or 20 kts) occurs, as follows:
,""',
..... FL 300 II11 ....""'''- FL 250
1100....
-,..
• O°C Isotherm in Flight Levels is shown by a broken line of short dashes

(- - - - - - - 0° FL150)
Spot Wind and Temperature Charts

• Forecast Wind and Temperature data is provided for various positions Satellite Imagery on 5/4/06 0700 UTC
across the chart for various Flight Level Altitudes (at an interval of 1000 W Dover N India and further N
ft). Forecast altitude of Freezing Level is also indicated, as follows:

__ "2
30 280100 - 32
-AO """-011
20 290070 - 08
i
15 300040 02
10 300025 10
05 330020 18
O"C 17
Satellite Imagery 7/4/06 1100 UTC:
Western Disturbances one over Himalayas and other approaching
Figure Appendix A 1 Spot Winds and Temperature

255
2.,4
I'
ApPENDIX B (CONTINUED) I
Appendix C
SYNOPTIC CHART (COMPUTER PLOTTED)
Satellite Imagery 914106 0600 UTC IT C Z Clouds close to the Equator and
WD over N India and further N
,'"
H
S
Satellite Imagery 714106 1100 UTC
IT C Z Clouds close to the Equator
257
'''"
ApPENDIX D (CONTINUED)
Appendix D
CLOUDS
CUMULONIMBUS WITH ANVIL ALTOCUMULUS
CUMULUS STRATOCUMULUS
CIRROCUMULUS ALTOSTRATUS
NIMBOSTRATUS TOWERINGCU
CUMULUS & TOWERING CU CIRRUS
258 259
ApPENDIX E (CONTINUED)
Appendix E
Term Abbreviation Term Abbreviation
Light to Moderate LGT TO MOD Thunderstorm TS
Longitude LONG Town (over or near) CIT
STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS USED IN Latitude LAT Trough or Low Pressure TRH LOPAR
LocallLocally LOC Upper Air Analysis UANL
WEATHER BULLETIN Low Pressure Area LOPAR Valleys (in) VAL
Low Temperature Warning LTW Visibility VIS
Line Squall LSQ Variable VRB
Maximum MAX Warning WRNG
Minimum MIN Widespread. WDSPR
Term Monsoon MONSN Wind Discontinuity WINDDISCON
Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Move or Moving MOV Western Disturbance WD
Arabian Sea ARSEA Mountains or High ground MONT Weather
Neighboring NBOURlNG WX
Active ACT Neighborhood NBRHOOD
Associated with ASSW Old Data
Terms used to describe Spacial Distribution of Rainfall
Bay of Bengal RETARD
BAYBENG Occasionally OCNL
Overcast OVC
(stations ofa Met Division reporting at least 2.5 mm rainfall)
Cities CIT Pilot PLT Widespread (Most Places) 75 % or more number ofstations
Coast COT Pressure Gradient PRESGRAD
Continuous CNS Rain RA Fairly widespread (Many Places) 51% to 74 % number ofstations
Cyclonic Circulation CYCIR Rain fall RAFL
Degrees DEG Rain Squall RASQ Scattered (at a few Places) 26 % to 50% number ofstations
Duststorm or Sandstorm SA Radio Sonde or Rawin RS/RW
Direction DIR Rapidly RAPID
Expect or Expected EXPC Scattered
Isolated (At isolated Places) 25% or less number ofstations
Extend or Extending SCT
EXTD Sea (at or over)
From MAR
FM Shower SH
Intensity ofRainfall (Rainfall amount in a day is)
Fog FG Summary SMRY
Forecast FCST Severe SVR Trace.
0.01 to O.04mm
Heavy Rainfall warning HRW
Hail
Slow or Slowly SLW VeryLight Rain.
0.1 to 2.4mm
GR Snow
Heavy SN LightRain.
2.5 to 7.5mm
XX Squall
Intermittent INTER
SQ Moderate Rain..
7.6 to 35.5mm
Stationary STNR
Inland
LAN Rather Heavy Rain.
35.6 to 64.4mm
Intensify Temperature TEMP
INTSF Temporary
Heavy Rain.
64.5 to 124.4mm
Inference TEMPO
INF Thundershower Very Heavy Rain.
124.5 to 244.4mm
Isolated TSHWR
ISOL Thunder rain THRA
ExtremelyHeavy Rain
244.5 mm or more
Exceptionally Heavy Rainfall
amount exceeds 12 em
Rainy Day
2.5 mm or more
260
ApPENDIX F (CONTINUED)
Appendix F Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Term
EST Estimate or estimated

FIC Flight Information FBL Light FC Funnel cloud
Centre
FIR Flight Information FCST Forecast FEB February
ICAO ABBERVIATIONS FG
Region
FOG FL Flight Level FM From
FREQ Frequency FRQ Frequent FRJ Friday
FST First FZ Freezing FU Smoke
FZFG Freezing Fog FZDZ Freezing FZRA Freezing Rain
Drizzle
Abbreviation Term GR Hail or soft hail GRADU Gradual or GND Ground
Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Term Gradually
AAL Above Aerodrome ART HURCN Hurricane HR Hours HZ Dust haze
About AIREP AiNeport
Level HVY Heavy HYR Higher
APRX Approximate or ACFT IMPR Improve or Improving INC In cloud INTER Intermittent
Aircraft ALT Altitude
approximately INTSF Intensify or intensifying INTST Intensity ISOL Isolated
ACT Active JAN January JTST Jet Stream
AGN Again ALTN
AGL Above Ground Alternate LOC Located LV Light and LYR Layer or
APR April AS
Level Altostratus variable layered
AMD Amend or Amended AUG LAT Latitude LEN Length LONG Longitude
August AVG Average
AMSL Above mean sea level AC LVL Level
Altocumulus ARFOR 1\rea Forecast
BASE Could Base BFR METAR Aviation routine MAR March MAX Maximum
Before BR Mist
BCFG Fog Patches BKN weather report
Broken BTN Between
BLO Below clouds BLW MOV Move or moving or MAY May MIFG Shallow fog
Below BTL Between layers
BLSN Blowing Snow movement
C Degree Celsius CI MWO Meteorological Watch MIN Minutes MNM Minimum
Cirrus CC Cirrocumulus
(Centigrade) Office
CAT Clear Air Turbulence MOD Moderate MON Monday MS Minus
CLD Cloud CB
CNL Cancel Cumulonimbus
CNS Continuous COND MSL Mean sea level MTW Mountain waves
CONT Continue or continued CS Condition
Cirrostratus CU N North or northern NC No change NE North-east
COR Correction Cumulus
COT
At the cost . CUF latitude
COV Covering
Cumuliform
CAVOK Visibility, cloud and present weather NOSIG No significant change NNE North NNW North North
better than prescribed values or conditions NorthEast West
DEV Deviation or deviating DEC
December DEG Degrees NSC Nil significant cloud NOV November NS Nimbostratus
DP Due point temperature DIF
Diffuse DIST Distance NW Northwest
DTRT Deteriorate or DPT Depth DRG OBS Observe or observed OBSC Obscure or obscured or obscuring
deteriorating During
DUC or observation
Dense Upper Cloud DUR Duration OCNL Occasional or occasionally
E DZ Drizzle
East ELEV OVC
EMBD Elevation ENRT En route OPMET Operational Overcast OCT October
Embedded EXC
. EXP Except ESE .East South East meteorological
Expect or expected ENE East North Dust devils PROB Probability Provision
EXTD Extend or PO PROV

or expecting
East extending PS Plus PSN Position
262 263
Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Term
QFE Atmospheric Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Term Abbreviation Term
QNH Altimeter Sub-scale
pressure at aerodrome setting to obtain elevation when on the W West or western WED Wednesday WDSPR Widespread
elevation longitude
RAPC ground
Regional area forecast RAPID Rapid or RASH WAFC World Area Forecast WI Within WID Width
centre Rain showers
rapidly Centre
RASN Rain and snow or RE Recent REF Reference to WKN Weaken or weakening WNW West North WRNG Warning
showers West
or refer to
of rain and snow RMK Remark WSW West south west WS Wind shear
ROFOR Route Forecast
WTSPT Waterspout WX Weather
ROBEX RegionalOPMET RTE Route RVR Runway Visual
bulletin exchange RWY Runway
S Range
South or southern SAT Saturday SC Stratocumulus
ISO LINES
latitude
SA Duststorm, sandstorm, SCT Scattered SE Southeast
rising Dust or rising SEV Severe
sand
SFC Surface Iso Lines
SIGMET Information concerning SG Isobar A line of constant (atmospheric) pressure.
Snow grains SH Showers
en route Weather SN Snow SIGWX Significant Isohyet A line of constant rainfall amount.
phenomena which may
weather Isotach A line of constant wind speed
Affect the safety of SQ Squall SKC Sky clear
aircraft Isogon A line of constant wind direction
SIMUL Simultaneous or ST Stratus SLW Slow Isotherm A line of constant temperature
, simultaneously
SNSH Snow showers
Isallobar A line of constant (atmospheric) pressure change
SSE South South SPECIAL Special Met Isopicnic A line of constant density
East Report
SPECI Aviation Selected SSW Isohel A line of constant sunshine
South South STF Stratiform
Special west Isomer A line of constant % of average annual rainfall in a month
Weather report STN Station STNR Stationary Isopleth A line of constant ,any quantity, a generic term
SUN Sunday SW Southwest
TAF Aerodrome forecast T (e.g. isopleths of pressure, temperature etc)
Temperature TC Tropical
Cyclone Isohypse /Contour .A line of constant (atmospheric) height
TCU Towering cumulus TOO Tornado TEMPO Temporary or
TEND temporarily
Trend or tending to THU Thursday
TSGR TIL Until
Thunderstorm with TOP Cloud top Trop Tropopauose
hail
TSSA Thunderstorm with TUE Tuesday TURB . Turbulence
dust storm or sand
storm
UTC Co-ordinated Universal VIS Visibility VRB Variable
Time
VOLMET Meteorological information
for aircraft in flight
264
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40N
N
0\
~
~
~
~
_ ~ ~ _ m ~ m * ~ ~ ~ 1m 1~ ~ ~
~
~
900!! AON , 10 ,Oin 00
SlsAIIUV 9UIIWI9J1S ed~ 099
f't
~
.~ 30U
1<u
~ soz
~
ss~
so~
ss
03
NS
NO~ QO
1.0
N
NS~
NOZ
NSZ
"l> NO£
NSf:
NOv
NSF
900Z AON to 10 !)~n 0000 (PI) SPU!M edll OS8
500 hPa Contour/Chart
SQN. j 7 II
SN" ."... ,..;. ...... .:' ... ,... ,.. ' ~

1
~
~.
EQ
SOE SSE 60E 6SE 70E 7SE SOE SSE 90E 9SE 100E lOSE HOE
~
~
----- ""~---- ----------------
0000 UTe of 4 Noy 06. 300 hPa Winds
~
.... '
~
~
~
~
~.
~
Appendix-I
Appendix H-6
Weather Associated With Fronts

Prognostic Significant Weather Chart
Issued at 0300, 0900, 1500, & 2100 UTC each valid for 12 hrs WARM FRONT
Before At After
Temperature Steady Rise Little change
Pressur.e Falls Arrested Slight Rise
Wmd Veers and

Strengthens I Backs Steady
. Clouds CI,CS,AS,NS,
ST,SC,CU,CB ST,NS,CB,CU ST, SC
Precipitation - RA becomg +RA RA Ceases, DZ OCNLDZ
Visibility Gxxl Very Poor Poor in DZ
COLD FRONT
Before
At After
Temperature Wann
Abrupt Fall Cbld
L-
Pressure Falls
Fall Arrested Rises
Wind Veers and
Suddenly Backs Weakens
Strengthens
andSquaHy
ST, CS,AS
CU,CB,NS Rapid Clearing,
Clouds
Isolated CB, CU
Precipitation Uncommon +9-:1 SH cease then
Maybe Hail Isolated SH
CONTENTS
Fronts, Convergence Zones, Areas of TS, TC, SQ, GR, MOD/SEV Turbulence, Marked Very Poor in SH Very Good
VlSibility Gxxl
Mt Wave, FZ Precipitation, WDSPR SA/DS, Clouds, Low, High, 0° Isotherm, Volcanic
Eruptions
273
272
Appendix -J(Contd)
Appendix - J
Synoptic Systems
Synoptic Systems
Western Disturbance and Western Depression. Low pressure area on the surface
Cyclone: Wind flow in upper levels associated with any low pressure system, in or cyclonic circulation/trough in the mid and lower tropospheric levels, which occur
which wind flow is counterclockwise in the N-Hemisphere and clockwise in the in middle latitude westerlies and originate over the Mediterranean Sea, ~aspian Sea
S-Hemisphere and Black Sea and move eastwards across north India. 'Such systems on the surface
~ .
Anticyclone: Wind flow in upper levels associated with any high pressure system. '~ith two or more closed isobars are called Western Depressions.
\
The wind flow is clockwise in the N-Hemisphere and counter clockwise in S
Induced Low
Hemisphere
Under the influence of the western disturbance, sometimes a low develops to the
Low pressure Area (Iopar)/well • An area in which the pressures are lower than south of the system. It is called as an Induced Low and a cyclonic circulation
the surrounding region at the same level. Details have been given above. in the upper air' developed to the south of the system is called Induced cyclonic
Depression. Intense low pressure system represented by two or three closed isobars \.,
circulation
at 2 hPa interval and wind speed from 17 to 27 kt. Easterly Wave
Deep Depression . Intense low pressure system with two or three closed isobars A shallow trough in the Easterly current of the tropics, more evident in the upper
at 2 hPa interval and wind speed from 28 to 33kt. ~
level winds than in surface pressure pattern. Its passage westwards causes marked
intensification of clouds and showery weather. The southern peninsular region of
Cyclonic Storm. Intense low pressure system with more than four dosed isobars
India is affected by easterly waves.
at 2 hPa interval and in which the wind speed on surface level is 34 - 47kt.
Severe Cyclonic Strom. Intense low pressure system with more than four closed HighIHigh pressure area
isobars at 2 hPa interval, in which the wind speed on surface level is 48 - 63 kt. Area in the atmosphere in which the pressures are higher than those of the surrounding
region at the same level and is represented on a synoptic chart by, at least, one
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm. Intense low pressure system having more than four closed closed isobar. Details have been given above.
isobars at 2 hPa interval and wind speed on surface level between 64 - 119 kt.
Shear line
Super Cyclonic Storm. Intense low pressure system having more than four closed
isobars at 2 hPa interval and the wind speed on surface level is 120 kt or more. A line or narrow zone across which there is an abrupt change in the horizontal
wind component. It is a line of maximum horizontal wind shear.
Trough in Westerlies. A wave, in mid latitudes, which moves from west to east over
the globe. These systems generally affect the northern parts of India. Wind-discontinuity
A line across which there is an abrupt change in wind direction.
Trough in Easterlies. A wave in the equatorial easterlies moving from east to west.
~I
275
274
Appendix-K Appendix -L
Fujita Damage Scale Number for Tornadic Winds INTERNATIONAL STATION CODE NAME
FO 35-62 kt light damage
F1 63-95 kt : moderate damage caravans overturned, cars Agartala VEAT Jammu VIJU
pushed off roads. Agra VIAG Jodhpur VIJO
F2 96--135 kt considerable damage roofs off, large trees uprooted, Ahmedabad VAAH KhajurallO VAK]
light missiles
Allahabad VIAL Kochi VOCI
F3 136-18 0 kt: severe damage house walls off, heavy cars lifted
Amritsar VIAR Kolkata VECC
and thrown
Aurangabad VAAU Kozhikode VOCL
F4 181-225 kt: devastating damage well constructed houses levelled,
structures blown some distance, Leh VILH
Bangalore VOBL
large missiles generated Baroda VABO Lucknow VILK
F5 226-275 kt: incredible damage strong timber houses lifted, car , i,' Bhopal VABP Madurai VOMD
sized missiles fly
Bhubaneswar VEBS Male VRMM
Saffir-Simpson Damage-Potential Scale VABj Mohanbai VEMN
Bhuj-Rudra
j
This scale was developed in the early 1970s by Herbert Saffir, and Dr. Robert ~ Chandigarh VICG· Mumbai VABB
Simpson
Chennai VOMM Nagpur VANP
Category (damage) Central Pressure Winds Surge Coimbatore VOCB Patna VEPT
1 (Minimal) > 980 hPa 64 to 83 kts 4 to 5 feet Colombo VCBI Pune VAPO
2 (Moderate) 965 to 979 hPa 65 to 96 kts 6 to 8 feet
3 (Extensive) 945 to 964 hPa 97 to 113 kts 9 to 12 feet Delhi VIDP Ranchi VERC
4 (Extreme) 920 to 944 hPa 114 to 135 kts 13 to 18 feet Gauhati VEGT Siliguri VEBD
5 (Catastrophic) < 920 hPa > 135 kts > 18 feet Goa VAGO Sri Nagar VISR
T Classification of Cyclonic Storms. Gorakhpur VEGK

Hyderabad VOHS
jaipur VIJP
Cyclonic Disturbance L D DD CS SCS VSCS SuSC
. T/ CI Number Tl.5 T2.0 T2.S T3.0 T3.S T4.0-6.0 T6.5-S.0
276 277
Appendix-M Appendix-N
Miscellaneous Terms Meteorological Scales

Terms for Spatial distribution of Rainfall The weather producing systems can be expressed in the scales of time (hours and
Most places 76-100% days) and space (in km and areas covered). These are:
Many Places 51-75% Microscale. Phenomena of 1 km or less, e.g. Individual.TS, clouds, local turbulence,
At a Few Places 26-50% etc
Mainly dry Very light rain 'f'
I
Dry Mesoscale. Mesoscale systems range horizontally from 5 to 500 km and have
No rain
"'lifetime of a day or less. For example TS, squall lines, fronts, precipitation bands
Part of the Day in tropical and extratropical cyclones, mountain waves and land & sea brc;ezes.
Early hours 0000 - 0400 hrs. 1ST Synoptic Scale. Synoptic scale generally covers large area, e.g. extratropical cyclones,
Morning 0400 - 0800 hrs. 1ST . troughs and ridges, frontal zones, and jet streams.
Forenoon 0800 - 1200 hrs. 1ST , /'
Global Scale. Global scale meteorology is study of weather patterns related to the
Afternoon 1200 - 1600 hrs. 1ST transport of heat from the tropics to the poles. Also, very large scale oscillations
Evening 1600 - 2000 hrs. 1ST are of importance. Those oscillations have time periods typically longer than a full
Night 2000 - 2400 hrs. 1ST annual seasonal cycle, such as ENSO, ITCZ, Rossby Waves etc.
Description of CB/TS in Forecasts Meteorological Sub-Divisions of India I
Isolated (ISOL) : Individual feature which affects less than 50% area /
Northwest India: Jammu &KashmirG&K), Himanchal Pradesh. (HP), Punjab,
Occasional (OCNL) Well separated features which cover 50 - 75% of area Haryana, Delhi, East & West Uttar Pradesh (UP), Rajasthan, Uttarakhand
Frequent (FREQ) Area ofTS fCB with little or no separation between East India :Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal (WB) and Sikkim
adjacent cells, with coverage of more than 75% area Northeast India : Arunachal Pradesh; Nagaland, Mizoram~ Manipur, Tripura, Assam,
Meghalaya
South India: Tamil Nadu (TN), Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Lakshadweep,
Andaman & Nicobar
West India : Konkan & Goa, Madhya Maharashtra, Marathawada, Gujarat, Saurashtra
II & Kutch
t Central India: Madhya .Radesh (MP), Chhattisgarh, Vidarbha
278
I 279
INDEX
Abbreviations
Atmospheric Electricityy 97
ICAO, 262
Aurora Australis! Borealis, 96-97
Weather Bulletins, 260

Aviation Weather Forecasts
Adiabatic! Isothermal Process, 85

ARFOR, 191, 236
Air 1, 2
AIRMET, 193
Air Masses, 125

Flight Forecast, 250
AIREp, 190
GAMET, 193·
\ Albedo, 31
Local, 192
AlticorlD Value 15
ROFOR,192
Altimeter, 17
ROBEX, 194
Altimetry
SIGMET, 192
QNH,QFE,QNH,QNE, 18
TAF, 191
Anabatic, Katabatic Winds, 54

TREND, 223
Anemometer, Anemograph, 45
VOLMET, 194
Anticyclone, High, 21
WlNTEM,191
Anvil Cloud, False Cirrus, 113

Aviation Weather Reports METAR,
ARFOR, 231
SPECI, SPECIAL, 109,217
Artificial Rain Making, 102
CODAR,191
Atmosphere, 1-11
RAREP, 244
Composition, 1
ATIS, 194
. Homosphere, Hetrosphere, 2
AVRA, 68
ISA, 7
JSA,8
Backing, 46
Mesosphere, 6
BECMG, 224
Stratosphere, 6
BKN,80
Thermosphere
Barometer, 15
~ Troposphere, 4
Barograph, 204
280
281
INDEX INDEX
Ball Lightning, 98
Cyclonic Storm, 154, 155
Green House Effect, 30
Causes, 140
Beaufort Scale, 59
Frequency, 159
Green House Gases, 3
Core, Streaks, 136
Bishops Ring ,95

Gust Front, 113
Subtropical, 139
Bora, 59
Density, 36-39
Haboob, 60
Tropical, 13 9
Breeze, 55
Density Altitude, 36
Hadley Cell, 182
Jet Standard Atmosphere, 8
Buys Ballots Law, 46

Dew Point, 41
Hail, 116
Divergence, 75
Harmattan, 60
Katabatic wind, 54
CAT, 143
Down Burst, 117
Halo (Optical), 94
Low, 21
CAVOK, 219
Dol-Drums, 60
Heat,
Depression, Cyclone, 154
Ceilometer, 205
DALR, SALR, ELR, 86
Latent, Specific, 27
Lightning,_ 97
Chinook Wind, 60
Dust Devil, 121
Heat Transfer,
Clouds, 75
Dust Storm, 119
Conduction, Convection,
Macroburst , Microburst, 117
Altitude of, 79'

Radiation, 28
Mesoscale Convective Complex, 111
Amount, Ceiling, 80
Easterly Waves, 151
Horse Latitude, 184
Mesoscale Systems, 111
Anvil Cloud, 113

El Nino - Southern Oscillation, 173
Humidity, 40
Met Scales, 22, 280
Burst, 102
Equatorial Trough, 151
Humidity Mixing Ratio, 41
Mid Tropospheric Cyclone, 172
dmdensation Trails, 82
Evaporation, 28
Hurricane, 156
Mintra, Mextra, Drytra Levels, 82
Echoes - Radar, 200

Eye, Eye wall, 157
Hyetograph, 204
Mirages, 95
Low, Medium, High, 77

Hygrometer, Hygrograph 41
Micellaneous Terms
Nacreous/ Mother of Pearl, 78

FEW 80
RlF,
Noctilucent, 78
Flash Floods, 102
Ice Accretion (icing), 105
Parts of Day,
Vertically Developing, 78
Fohn Wind, 53
Ice Crystal Theory, 100
CB/TS Forecast, 279
Roll Clouds, 113

Fog, 70, 219
Inertial Wind, 50
Rotor Clouds, 146, 147

Forecast, 191
International Standard
Mist 66, 219
Seeding of Clouds, 102

Now casting, 191
Atmosphere, 7
Mistral, 60
Shelf Clouds, 113

Short Range Forecast, 191
International Stn Code Name, 226,
Monsoon, 165
Species, 81
FREQ 279
Break, Trough, 172
277
CODAR, 191
Friction, Effect on Surface Wind, 51
Monsoon Depression, 154
ITCZ, 150
Condensation, 28
Layer, 51
MountainWave, 145
Instability, 86-88
Conditional Instability, 87
Fronts, 127-131
Multi Cell, 111
Inversion,S, 86
Conduction, 28
Frontogenesis, 128
Irisation, 96
Condensation Trails, 81
Frontolysis, 128
Isallobar, 17
Nephoscope, 205
Contour, 16
Furious Fifties, Crying Sixties, 60
ISOL , 279
Normand Theorem, 90
Convection, 28, 74
Fujita Damage Scale -Tornado, 121
Isolines ,265
Northern Lights, 97
Convergence, 74
Notification, 189
Coriolis Force, 47
General Circulation, 181
Jet Streams, 136

Now Casting, 191
Corona - Optical, 94
Glory, 96
282
283
INDEX INDEX
Occluded Front, 130 Severe TS 114 Transition Altitude, Level, Layer, 17 Anemometer, Anemograph,
OCNL, 279 Shear Line, 153 Transmissometer, 68 45Backing, Veering, 46
OVC - Overcast, 80 Short Waves, 29 Tropical Cyclones, 155 Effect of Friction, 51
Sheet Lightning, 98, Single Cell~ 111 Tropopause, 5 Forces causing wind, 47
Pilot Balloon, 205 Troposphere, 4
Saffir-Simpson Scale, 160 Wind
Precipitation, 100 Troughs In Westerlies, 132
SKC - Sky clear, 80 Cross, 45
Ice Crystal Theory, 100 In Easterlies, 151
Sleet, 102 Cyclostrophic, 50
Coalescence Theory, 101 Tornado, Fujita Damage Scale, 121
Southern Lights, 97 Gale, 46

Giant Nucleus Theory, 101 . T Scale Cyclones, 160
Squall, 46 Geostrophic, 48
from Clouds, 101 Turbulence, 51, 52
Squall line, 113 Gradient, 50

Pressure, 12 , Twilight Colours, 96
Stability/ Instability, 85 Gust, Lull, 45

Altitude, 12, \ 17
Station Model, 206 Katabatic/Anabatic, 54
Semi Diurnal Variation, 14 Veering, 46
Standard Isobaric Levels, 19 Inertial, 50

Gradient of Pressure, 16 Virga, 117
Isallobaric, 50
Stefan Boltzmann Law, 29
Tendency, 17 Visibility, 65
Sea/land breeze, 55
Pressure Patterns L, H, Trough, Ridge, Sublimation, 100
Causes of, 66 Shear, 53
Col 21,22 Subsidence, 76
RVR,66 Squall, 46
Subtropical High, 182 Super Cell, Vorticity, 58
111
Surface, 47
Radar, 198, 200 Warm and Cold Advection,S 8 Thermal, 56
Echoes, 200 Super Cyclone, 154
Waterspout, 121 Vane, 45
Radiation Laws of, 29 Surge, 153
Weather Charts Synoptic, 257, 267 WAFC,WAFS, 188
Nocturnal, Terrestrial, Solar, 30 Synoptic Scale Systems, 111

Upper Air, 268 - 270
Warning Aerodrome, 193
IR, uv, Visible, 30 Temperature, 26

Contour, 270
Wind shear 193
Radiosonde, 205 . Diurnal Variation, 31 Prognostic, 272

Western Disturbances, 132
RAFC, 189 \ Terms Micellaneousl
Wet Bulb Temperature ,41
R/F 102, Parts of Day,

Wind, 44
Rainbows, 93 WMO, www, 188
Raingauge, 204 CB/TS Forecast 279
RAWIN, 45 Thermal Eddies, 52
Relative Humidity, 41 Thermosphere, 7
Roaring Forties, 60 Thunder Bolt, 97
Route Winds in India, 177 Thunderstorm, 110
Saint Elmo's Fire, 98 Hazards, 114
Satellites, 201 Life Cycle, 111
Scales of Met, 280 . Lightning Super Cell, 113
SCT - Scattered, 80 Tornado, 120
Seasons, 164 T phigram, 89
, Sensible Heat, 4 Trade Wind, 60
~ ')Q4
?JH'
BOOKS FOR
CPL TECHNICAL (GENERAL)
Prescribed I Recommended by D. G. C. A.
REFERENCES
s. No.1 Author Ti tI e Price
J. Aircraft Manual (India) 150
2. Capt. R. L. Biala Indian Private Pilot Licence Manual 400
3. Personal Flying Log Book 450
4. K. D. TuB Guide for FlightRadio Telephony Operator Licence 400
5. From The Ground Up With Workbook(in 2 vols.) 695
6. AC Kennode
Mechanics of Flight 475
India Meteorological Department Publications -7. AC Kermode
Flight Without Formula 275
8. Peter D: Godwin
The Airplane Technical: Vol. IV 1720
Froecasting Manual Part I Climatology of India and Neighbourhood 9. Peter D. Godwin
The Pilot's Manual ofFlightTraining 1720
By yP Rao and KS Ramamurty 10. Pallet
Aircraft Instruments 450
II. Jeppesen
Commercial Pi lot Tcst Prcp. 1695
Froecasting Manual Part III Winter - Westerly Jetstreams and Troughs in Upper 12. ASA
PrivatePilotTestPrep.2002ASA-TP-P-02 1150
Westerlies
By George Alexander and Srinivasan The Commercial Pilot Study Manual Series
14. Irvin N. Grein
Commereial Pilot: Flight Maneuvers 1050
Meteorological Services for Air Navigation 15. Barry Schiff
The Pilot Manual Ground School 3250
16. Jeppesen
Instrument I Commercial Manual 6878
Aviation Weather Codes 2004
Surface Weather Code Ground Studies For Pilots
Monsoons By PK Das 17. R. B. Underdown Vol. 1: Radio A ids 750
18. P. Swatton Vol. 2 : Ploting & Flight 750
Climatological Atlas for Airmen 19. R. B. Underdown Vol. 3: Navigation 750
Meteorology for Airmen 20. R. B. Underdown Vol. 4: Meteorology 750
I 21. D. HatTis Vol. 5 . Flightlnstrurncnl &Automatic. Flight Control Systems 750
ICAO Publications The Professional Pilot Study Manual Series

Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation 22. Mike Burton Piston Engine & S lIper Charger Vol. I
23. Mike Burton Gas Turbine Engine Vol. II 1030
Meteorological Services for International Air Navigation 24. Mike Burton 1030
Propeller Vol. III
25. Mike Burton Electrics Vol. IV 1030
26. Mike Burton 1030
WMO Publications Hydraulic Vol. V
1030
27. Mike Burton Cabin Pressurization Vol. VI
28. Mike Burton Pneumatics Vol. VII 1030
Technical Notes 29. Mike Burton Advance Flying Systcms Vol. VIII 1030
Manuals- 30. Mike Burton Undercarriages Vol IX 1030
1030
Compendium on Meteorology
International Cloud Atlas 1(lJI!LQ..\'LA -l: l<:xplanations for J AR ATPL& C PL I<:xams
31. Principles of Flight 750
32. Aircraft Performance 550
33. Instruments 750
34. General Knowledge 750
35. Mass & Balance 750
36. General Naviagatioll 750
286

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1000 Q &A + Explanations for JAR ATPl

Principles of flight Rs.850

17-L. Connaught Circus, New Delhi-11000~

Published in 2006 by Pawan Chowdhri and Bhupinder Chowdhri

for Himalayan Books, New Delhi 110013

The English Book Store

17-L, Connaught Circus, New Delhi- 110001

Tel: 2341 7126,23415031,2341 7936

© IC Joshi (Group Captain Retd)

First Published 2007

Second Edition 2008

First Reprint 2009

Third Edition 2010

form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any

Thakur Enterprises, Delhi

Meteorology is the, science of atmosphere. All weather activities occur in the

standard books on meteorology and IMD web sites www.imd.gov.in or

ISA Deviation: For evaluating aircraft performance or making corrections to

QI0. Troposphere is generally ...........

ob~erved temperature is 08°C warmer than ISA, the deviation is + 08°C.

(a) Stable. (b) Unstable- (c) Neutral

(a) Unstable (b) Neutral (c) Stable

• Lapse Rate 2°CI 1000 ft (a) 50 km (b) 60 km (c) 40 km

(a) Troposphere . (b) Tropopause (c) Stratosphere

Q1. Lowest layer of atmosphere is ...........

Q2. Height of Tropopause at equator is ......... ..

. Q3. Height of Tropopause at Poles is ...........

Q5. Height of tropopause ...........

Q6. Above 8 km the lower temperatures are over ......... ..

Q7. Atmosphere is heated by ...........

Q8. Tropos means ...........

Q28. In actual atmosphere temp. at 19 km is -60°C. Find the ISA deviation?

Q29. Nacreous clouds occur in

Q31. Half of the atmospheric air mass is contained ........... below

(a) 20,000 ft (b) 15,000 ft (c) 10,000 ft

Q32. In jet standard atmosphere the Lapse Rate is :'

Q33. The rate of fall of temperatures with height, called

Q34. In actual atmosphere the lapse rate could

Vertical Variation of Pressure

WARM 850 hPa ma~

Isobaric Levels are at Lower Height over

Hence at higher Levels Low Over Cold

Semi Diurnal Variation of Pressure Measurement

True Height Pressure Patterns "

Port DrIft or Aircraft

. Q!}ESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Q25. 18,000 ft height in ISA corresponds to pressure level

Q22. On either side, perpendicular to the ........... pressures rise

Instruments for Measurement

Evaporation, Condensation and Latent Heat

When water changes to vapour, a certain quantity of heat is supplied. To change

Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, and least at the Poles.

It is released as latent heat when the vapour condenses to water.

important. However, radiation plays a significant role in heat transfer.

of convection. In the atmosphere Free Convection is triggered by intense solar

(a) Wind direction (b) Wind speed (c) Radiation

Q19. Warmer the earth............ will be the Nocturnal radiation

Q23. Intense radiation are emitted by