MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

INFLUENCE OF SELECTED CULTURAL PRACTICES ON PUPILS’ SCHOOL

ATTENDANCE IN NAWEYO SUB-COUNTY, BUTALEJA DISTRICT

BY
KAYENDEKE PERUSI
REG No. 2015/HD04/1810U

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DIRECTORATE OF RESEARCH AND

GRADUATE TRAINING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATION IN
EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

NOVEMBER, 2018

i
DECLARATION

i
APPROVAL

ii
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my husband, Haumba Isaac and my children who endeavoured lots of
discomfort while I was away to write this dissertation.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Above all, the Almighty God receives the highest appreciation and acknowledgement for sparing
my life and for providing me with sufficient energy, time and wisdom to write up this
dissertation. I do recognize all their contributions, which have enabled this study attain its current
shape.
On a special note, my heartfelt appreciations go to my Supervisors: Dr. Genza Gyaviira Musoke,
my Lecturer in Educational Leadership and Management, and Dr. Itaaga Niholas for their
fatherly and untiring close supervision they accorded this work despite their busy schedules;
from topic selection, research proposal development, to its current form. In a similar vein, I am
indebted to Professor C. Mugimu, Dr.S. W. Wafula, Dr. Victoria Tamale among others, I say
thank you very much for sparing time during the proposal vetting and your suggestions added
value to this study.
I thank the following Lecturers for their contribution towards the whole work: Dr. Badru Musisi,
Dr. Peter Senkusu, Dr. Gillian Kasirye, Dr. Betty Ezati, Dr. Sempala, among others.

Special thanks go to the office of the District Education Officer, Butaleja district for allowing me
to go for further studies. I must not fail to thank all the Head teachers of Naweyo Sub-county
who gave me time and permission to carry out data collection. I also thank them for their
cooperation. Special thanks go to all respondents for being flexible in giving me enough
information. I also thank all the teachers of primary schools in Naweyo Sub-county for their rich
information and cooperation during my data collection. I wish to express my utmost appreciation
to my course-mates, particularly with the 2015/2017 sets, for wise words of encouragement,
which enabled me to carry on during difficult moments of the course. I do recognize your moral,
spiritual and intellectual support. Thank you very much. I fully acknowledge the patience,
tolerance and understanding of my family members, Mr. Haumba Isaac (husband) and my
children. These people had to put up with my absence and a seeming lack of due attention during
the duration of my course. I heartily thank them.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. I

APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................... II

DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ IV

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................. V

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ IX

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... XI

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... XIII

CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1

1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the study ....................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Historical perspective…………………………………………………………………1

1.1.2 Theoretical Perspective………………………………………………………………3

1.1.3 Conceptual Perspective………………………………………………………………4

1.1.4 Contextual Perspective…………………………………………………………….....6

1.2 Statement of the problem .................................................................................................... 8

1.3 Objectives of the study........................................................................................................ 9

1.3.1 General objective .......................................................................................................... 9

1.3.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 9

1.4 Hypotheses .......................................................................................................................... 9

1.5 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................... 9

1.5.1. Geographical scope ...................................................................................................... 9

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 1.5.2 Content scope .............................................................................................................. 10

1.5.3 Time scope .................................................................................................................. 10

1.6 Significance of the study................................................................................................... 10

1.7. Justification ...................................................................................................................... 11

1.8 Working definitions of key terms ..................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER TWO:LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 14

2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 14

2.1 Conceptual framework ...................................................................................................... 16

2.2 Theoretical review ............................................................................................................ 14

2.3. Review of related literature .............................................................................................. 17

2.3.1 Circumcision and pupils‟ school attendance............................................................... 17

2.3.2 Early marriage and pupil‟s school attendance ............................................................ 22

2.3.3 Child labour and pupils‟ school attendance ................................................................ 27

2.4 Summary of lliterature review ......................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 34

3.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 34

3.1 Research design ................................................................................................................ 34

3.2 Study area.......................................................................................................................... 34

3.3 Study population ............................................................................................................... 35

3.3.1 Target population…………………………………………………………………….35

3.3.2 Sampled Population…………………………………………………………………36

3.4 Sample size and selection ................................................................................................. 36

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 3.5 Sampling techniques ......................................................................................................... 37

3.6 Research instruments ........................................................................................................ 38

3.6.1 Interview Guide……………………………………………………………….……..38

3.6.2 Questionnaire………………………………………………………………………...39

3.7 Validity ............................................................................................................................. 39

3.8 Reliability of instruments .................................................................................................. 40

3.9 Data management and analysis ......................................................................................... 40

3.10 Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................... 40

3.11 Limitations of the study .................................................................................................. 41

CHAPTER FOUR:DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION .... 42

4.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 42

4.1 Background information ................................................................................................... 42

4.1.1 Gender of pupils……………………………………………………………………..42

4.1.2 Age of pupils………………………………………………………………………...43

4.1.3 Class of pupils……………………………………………………………………….44

4.1.4 Age of Teachers……………………………………………………………………..44

4.1.5 Duration in the teaching profession…………………………………………………45

4.1.6 Position in school……………………………………………………………………46

4.2 Findings by objectives ...................................................................................................... 46

4.2.1 Circumcision and pupils‟ school attendance............................................................... 46

4. 2.2 Early marriage and pupils‟ school attendance……………………………………...53

4.2.3 Child labour and pupils‟ school attendance ……………………………………59

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CHAPTER FIVE:DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......... 71

5.0Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 71

5.1 Circumcision practices and pupils‟ school attendance .................................................... 71

5.2 Early marriage and pupils‟ school attendance .................................................................. 74

5.3 Child labour and pupils‟ school attendance ...................................................................... 76

5.4 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 79

5.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 80

5.6 Suggestions for further research ...................................................................................... 81

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 83

Appendix I: Pupils‟ Questionnaire................................................................................................ 89

Appendix II: Teachers Questionnaire ..................................................................................... 94

Appendix III: Interview Guide for Head Teachers ................................................................. 98

Appendix IV: Interview Guide for Local and Cultural Leaders ............................................. 99

Appendix V:Krejcie & Morgantasble for determining sample size ..................................... 100

Appendix VI: Introduction Letter ......................................................................................... 101

Appendix VII: Reliability Analysis of Results ..................................................................... 102

Appendix VIII: Time Frame/ Work Plan .............................................................................. 103

Appendix IX: Budget Schedule ............................................................................................ 104

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 LIST OF TABLES

_Toc498082583

Table 3.1: Population and size of primary respondents ................................................................ 37

Table 3.2: Respondent type and technique to be used .................................................................. 38

Table 4.1: Gender of pupils .......................................................................................................... 42

Table 4.2 Class of pupils ............................................................................................................... 44

Table 4.3: Duration of teacher in the teaching profession ............................................................ 45

Table 4.4: Position in the school ................................................................................................... 46

Table 4.5: Pupils‟ response on the occurrence of circumcision in 2016. ..................................... 47

Table 4.6: Pupils‟ involvement in circumcision as expressed by teachers ................................... 48

Table 4.7: Teachers‟ views on pupils‟ participation in the circumcision practice........................ 49

Table: 4.8:Period of the year circumcision is carried out ............................................................. 51

Table 4.9: Number of times children attended circumcision ceremonies in 2016........................ 52

Table 4.12: Children told to get married in the previous year ...................................................... 55

Table 4.13: Awareness about other children who got married in the community ........................ 57

Table 4.14: Reactions of local leaders on the issue of early marriages (teachers) ....................... 58

Table 4.16: Type of work done by pupils with their parents at home .......................................... 59

Table 4.17: Nature of work children do with parents at home ..................................................... 61

Table 4.18: Number of times children do work with their parents in a term. ............................... 62

Table 4.19:Pupils‟ rreason for doing work ................................................................................... 63

Table 4.20: Missing attending school by pupils in the previous year ........................................... 64

Table 4.21: Number of days children missed attending school in the previous term ................... 65

Table 4.22: Reasons for missing attending school (pupils) .......................................................... 66

Table 4.23: Possibilities of children coming back to school after circumcision .......................... 67
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Table 4.24: Teachers views on parents‟ occupation ..................................................................... 68

Table 4.25: Involvement of children in the domestic work by their parents ................................ 68

Table 4.26: Nature of domestic work children do ........................................................................ 69

Table 4.27: Reasons for children‟s involvement in work ............................................................. 70

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 LIST OF FIGURES

_Toc498082583

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework depicting influence of selected cultural practices on pupils‟

school attendance .......................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 4.1: Age Of pupils that participated in the study ............................................................... 43

Figure 4.2: Age of teachers ........................................................................................................... 44

Figure 4.3: Participation in the circumcision ceremony by school children................................. 52

Figure 4.4: Cases of early marriage registered in the school ........................................................ 54

Figure 4.5: Categories of people that told children to get married. .............................................. 56

Figure 4.6: Number of children in the community known to have got married. .......................... 58

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 ACRONYMS

ESSP: Education Sector Strategic Plan

UPE: Universal Primary Education

DEO: District Education Officer

MoES: Ministry of Education and Sports

ILO: International Labour Organization

MDGs: Millennium Development Goals

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Scientists

UNICEF: United Nations International Children Education Fund

xii
 ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to find out the influence of three selected cultural practices on
pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-county, Butaleja District. The three are circumcision,
early marriage and child labour. The study was conducted in that particular area because pupils‟
school attendance had been reported to be poor yet available studies had left out the role of
cultural practices.

The study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design which employed both quantitative
and qualitative approaches. A total of 390 respondents constituted the sample of the study. These
included ten head teachers, four local leaders, four cultural leaders, 66 teachers and 306 pupils
(Primary four, five six and seven classes) from ten schools. The researcher used two types of
research instruments: namely questionnaires and interviews.

The results revealed that circumcision affects pupils‟ school attendance. This means that if more
circumcision is done, learners‟ missing of school attendance will increase. Secondly, early
marriages affect pupils‟ school attendance in that the more pupils engage in early marriage the
more they miss attending school. Finally, child labour affects pupils‟ school attendance. This
means that an increase in child labour would lead to an increase in learner absenteeism or non-
attendance. Therefore, if the rates of child labour increases, then there will be an increase in
learners‟ non-attendance, an indication that child labour has a negative effect on pupils‟ school
attendance.

The conclusions were that circumcision, early marriage and child labour as cultural practices
negatively affected pupils‟ school attendance in that the more those cultural practices are
performed the more children miss school attendance in Naweyo sub-county. The study
recommends that the cultural leaders should circumcise children during holidays or vacation
period. Besides, MoES and Local Councils should operationalize the by-laws of child labour by
punishing the offenders. , Cultural leaders, Local Councils and parents in Naweyo Sub-county
should punish those people who engage pupils in early marriage in Butaleja District.

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

A critical factor facing Uganda is that as much as many resources have been devoted to

education, regular school attendance has not been achieved (MOES, 2015). The current study

investigated the influence of cultural practices on pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub

County, Butaleja District. This chapter covers the background information, purpose of the study,

hypotheses, scope and significance of the study as well as the definitions of key terms.

1.1 Background to the study

The background was given in four perspectives; namely historical, theoretical, conceptual and

contextual.

1.1.1 Historical perspective

School attendance as it exists today, only makes sense if we view it from a historical perspective.

In Europe for example, the idea and the practice of universal compulsory public education

developed gradually from the early 16th century to the 19th century. Much of the process for

universal education came from emerging protestant religion where public education was

promoted as a Christian duty to save souls from moral decay. By the end of the 17 th century,

Germany which was the leader in the development of schooling, had laws in most of her states

requiring that all children attend school (Gray, 2008).

In America, the first compulsory education law was enacted in1642 in the Massachusetts Bay.

By 1918, all states had passed school attendance legislation, although until the 1930s, many were

unsuccessful in enforcing their compulsory schooling laws (Katz, 1976).

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Coming to Africa, an Act was passed in 2004 mandating all the Nigerians to have a right to basic

education funded on the principles of equity, redress, non-racism and non-sexism. However,

according to UNICEF (2007), 40% of Nigerians children aged 6-11 do not attend any primary

school. Despite a significant increase in net enrolment rates in recent years, it is estimated that

about 4.7 million children of primary school age are still not in school.

According to Ssekamwa(1997), formal education was introduced in East Africa by the

Missionaries in 1875 mainly to enable Africans to read and write and interpret their religious

literature and majority were employed as agents and clerical staff in the colonial government.

Teaching was managed and administered by different religious groups notably the Anglican and

Catholic missionaries in 1877 and 1879 respectively up to independence. The government of

Uganda took over the management of schools after independence in 1962 and centralized them.

From that time onwards schools have been run by both public (government aided) and private

administration.

For the last two decades, Uganda has embarked on (UPE) as a government educational

programme. The aim is to elevate literacy levels and to fulfill the requirement of Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs) then, essentially to achieve eight important social priorities that

included goal two which was attaining UPE to fulfill unmet schooling gaps among others (MDG,

2000, ESSP, 2010, EFA, 2010).

When UPE was introduced in 1997 there was no school fees payment and the program was

associated with a significant expansion of pupils‟ attendance more so those from poor

households. This made enrollment in primary education to increase from 2.5 million to 6 million

which was reported as a drastic increment and in the subsequent years the number kept on

increasing notably in 2007 it was 7,537,000, 2008 the number stood at 7963,000, while 2009 it

2
was 8297,000 (Namukwaya, 2014). While enrolment increased to over 80%, there are still many

children whose attendance is irregular (MOES, 2015).

1.1.2 Theoretical Perspective

The current study was based on two theories; namely Ludwig Von Bertalanffy‟s general systems

theory and Bronfenbrenner‟s ecological theory. The General Systems Theory (GST) was

developed by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy in 1968. According to Ludwig, to understand an

organization as a whole we must know both the parts as well as the relationship between them.

The general systems theory states that a system keeps evolving and its properties keep emerging

through its interaction with the environment (Chandan, 2000). The system focuses on the

arrangement of and relations that occur between the different parts that connect them into a

whole. This theory suits the current study in that the community where the child comes from and

the school work as a system in order for the child to attend school and complete the primary

school cycle.

Because of some limitations by GST like failure to look at a child and the contribution of an

environment towards development of a child gives gap to Bronfenbrenners ecological theory to

supplement the GST. Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to

explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects a child growth and

development. The environment in which children live involves even their culture that may

include circumcision, marrying at early age and child labour, which may all be seen as cultural

practices with adverse effects on school attendance.

The ecological theory also best explains the study because it takes into account the child‟s

development as he/she interacts with the environment. Maani (1990) observes that pupils‟

success at school is closely related to their home backgrounds. This means that if parents have

3
strong attachment to culture, pupils‟ school attendance is equally affected. It was therefore,

important to assess the extent to which cultural factors influence pupils‟ school attendance since

they all live as a system.

1.1.3 Conceptual Perspective

This study focused on influence of selected cultural practices on pupils‟ school attendance. The

Oxford advanced learners dictionary defines culture as the customs and beliefs, art, way of life

and social organization of a particular country or group. The term also refers to a set of shared

attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterize an institution, organization or group as

articulated by Dawson (2010). For this study, culture means the sum of attitudes, customs, and

beliefs that distinguish one group of people from another. Some elements of culture which are

passed on from one generation to another are; objects, ritual, institutions and art.

The term cultural practice refers to the traditional practices developed within specific ethnic

cultures especially those aspects that have been done since ancient times. Example of cultural

practices include; religious and spiritual aspects, medical treatment, forms of artistic expression,

diet preference and housing, among others (Robertson, 2003).The study therefore looked at the

sum of attitudes, customs, believes, social norms and activities of families, individuals and

communities within a society that distinguishes one group of people from another that are

directly or indirectly affecting pupils‟ school attendance (United Nations, 2001). Culture is

transmitted from one generation to the next through language, material objects, ritual institutions

and art(Longman & Bradley, 2015).

4
These cultural practices that are shaped by the value systems allow young boys (after

circumcision) and girls to engage in marriage including paying off dowry which affect the status

of the male and female pupils as they turn into husbands and wives which makes such children to

miss attending school (Mbabazi et al.2014).Other practices included early marriage which is

the formal or informal union of children both girls and boys that are below 18 years and in

most instances the girls are disproportionately the most affected.

Another important concept in this study was circumcision which involves the removal of the

fore skin of a male genital organ for several reasons including religious, hygienic measure s

and cultural custom (Wilcken, Keil, & Dick, 2010). In this study, focus was on participation in

circumcision ceremonies (including being circumcision candidates and performing related

activities) and how all these affected pupils‟ school attendance.

On the other hand, child labour is defined as any form of work that is seen to potentially cause

mental, physical, social and/or moral harm to the children, deprives them of their childhood,

dignity and potential where such work interferes with the children‟s school attendance (ILO,

2009). In this study, child labour was measured in terms of involvement of children in work at

home for economic survival and general involvement in domestic work during school days.

According to the Scottish Government (2007), attendance is defined as participation in a

programme of educational activities arranged and agreed by the school. In this study, the

researcher explored school attendance by focusing on the frequency and regularity with which a

pupil is present at school programs.

5
1.1.4 Contextual Perspective

Education is an investment whose returns are highly valued throughout the world(United

Nations, 2001). In most countries, education is increasingly viewed as a primary means of

solving social problems. Through education, people are able to acquire knowledge, skills and

attitudes necessary for sustainable economic growth and general development

(Worthen&Sanders,2007). Education is a key factor in determining development trends,

particularly in contemporary world. However different cultural practices like circumcision have

hindered their regular school attendance.

This study (on influence of selected cultural practices on pupils‟ school attendance) was carried

out in Naweyo Sub County, Butaleja District which is found in Eastern Uganda, bordering Mbale

in the East, Namutumba District to the West, Budaka to the North and Tororo to the South. It has

seven sub counties and two town councils. Butaleja district is among the five districts in Uganda

with a high rate of child marriage in Eastern Uganda at 46%(MOES, 2015). The district is

inhabited by various tribes namely, Banyole who form the largest population with a big

representation of Bagwere, Bagisu, Basoga, Japadhola among others and all these indigenous

tribes are farmers and they need children to give labour as a practice in the area, the boys are

required to stay at home to help the parents to scare the birds from the rice gardens.

The Banyole, Bagishu and other tribes practice male circumcision every leap year which in their

culture is initiation of the boy to manhood. During the circumcision period both the young and

old get involved in one way or the other for instance both follow the dancing group up to the area

where the relatives of the boy are for three days to circumcision and this affects the attendance of

the pupils in the area.

6
Further still, after circumcision the male has to stay at home until the wound heals. The healing

process may take months and after healing the man now has to join the rest to initiate other boys

into manhood as a culture till the year ends. Furthermore early marriage which is a common

practice in Butaleja due to poverty, the parents have to marry off girls at an early age. Equally

the circumcised boys are entitled and free to marry immediately after the initiation since they are

now men (District abstract, 2015) and this culture however, affects the pupils‟ school attendance.

On the other hand (UNESCO, 2015) indicated that Butaleja District had the highest level of poor

school attendance in Uganda standing at a shocking rate of 70% irrespective of gender. The daily

Monitor 24th January 2017 also contends with the above when they report that the statistics from

Butaleja education department showed poor school attendance in the district had risen from 45%

to 70% in the last four years.

An assessment conducted by the Education Department of Butaleja District shows that school

poor attendance rate rose significantly after most parents failed to provide food and other

necessities for their children. Hunger, poor learning environment, bird scaring, ignorance of the

importance of education, peer pressure and desire among the boys to earn quick money are

among the factors identified. According to the District Education Officer Mr. Karyebi, it is

possible to find a school in Butaleja District with less than 25 children (whole school) in a school

day (Butaleja District Local Government, 2015).

In 2016, the district leaders launched a campaign dubbed „back to school‟ to ensure that all

children of school going age are enrolled in schools and the parents were charged with the

responsibility of sending their children back to school and encourage them to attend regularly.

However after all this effort to see children stay in school, there seems to be no improvement on

the attendance of pupils in schools in Naweyo Sub-County and this has left the researcher

7
wondering whether the cultural practices might be responsible for the poor school attendance in

the sub county or not hence the need to carry out the study.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Every school day counts in a child's academic life; therefore regular attendance at school is vital

to help children achieve and get the best possible start in life. Thus, when a pupil misses a school

day, it is a lost opportunity to learn (Kitunzi, 2016). Despite the Government of Uganda

promoting education for all through Universal Primary Education in Butaleja district and Uganda

at large with free educational services with an intention of increasing enrollment and retention,

irregular school attendance in Butaleja district is still high (Butaleja District Local Government,

2015). For Naweyo Sub-County, statistics reported by DEO indicate that at least 50% of the

pupils do not attend school on a daily basis. UNESCO (2015) also indicated that Butaleja District

where Naweyo Sub County is found had the highest level of poor school attendance in Uganda at

a shocking rate of 70% irrespective of gender. Also, The Daily Monitor of 24/1/2017 using

statistics from Butaleja Education Department reported that an increment from 45% in 2014 to

70% in 2017 for the period of four years. However, available studies have focused on factors

such as poverty, teenage pregnancy, failure by the parents to provide basic needs to their

children, lack of interest and family responsibility as reasons for poor school attendance, leaving

cultural factors merely mentioned but not explored (Mwesigwa, 2015; Kitunzi, 2016). Yet

cultural factors might be critical in explaining poor school attendance, hence need for the study

on influence of cultural practices on pupils‟ school attendance with reference to Naweyo Sub-

County, Butaleja District.

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General objective

The study aimed at investigating the influence of selected cultural practices on pupils‟ school

attendance in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja District.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The study was guided by the following objectives.

1. To find out the influence of circumcision practices on pupils‟ school attendance in

Naweyo Sub- County.

2. To find out the influence of early marriage on pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo

Sub- County.

3. To find out the influence of child labour on pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo

Sub- County.

1.4 Research Questions

This study had the following research questions;

1. How do circumcision practices influence pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-

County?

2. How does early marriage influence pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County?

3. How does child labour influence pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County?

1.5 Scope of the Study

1.5.1. Geographical scope

The study was carried out in the selected primary schools in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja

District in Eastern Uganda. The researcher chose Naweyo Sub-County in Butaleja District

9
because it is where the researcher stays and works, and circumcision, early marriage and child

labour are practiced in the area.

1.5.2 Content scope

The study was specifically carried out on the following; the influence of cultural practices on

pupils‟ school attendance and how circumcision, early marriage, and child labour influence

school attendance In Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja District.

1.5.3 Time scope

Field data collection for the study was carried out from May to June 2017.During this period, the

schools had opened for second term. The researcher also considered 2016 information regarding

circumcision.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will be helpful to the following categories of people:

This study sought to contribute and broaden the existing body of knowledge on cultural practices

and pupils‟ school attendance by providing current evidence about the influence of cultural

practices on pupils‟ school attendance which the policy makers in the field of education, school

administrators and respective scholars in the field of primary education as well as interested

individuals can use to inform programming, practice and delivery of quality primary education

that with effective pupil school attendance.

Results from this study may also have practical usefulness and help the educational management,

such as administrative staff, policy makers as well as other stakeholders by acting as a source of

information of the existing cultural practices that can affect school attendance. Similarly, the

study will provide evidence-based information that will be used to inform the formulation of

10
strategies for reducing or eliminating harmful traditional practices that hinder children to access

education. In addition it may arouse interest among other researchers to conduct a further

research on the problem.

1.7. Justification

According to Mwesigwa (2015), the primary level enrolment has improved with numbers in UPE

schools increasing from 3.1 million pupils in 1996 to 8.4 million in 2013. However, this and such

related studies have a gap in that they were conducted basing on UPE-schools‟ enrollment and

ignored pupils‟ school attendance. UPE success seems to be falling apart amid a high number of

dropouts and poor-quality schooling for some of those who complete primary school. This study,

therefore, seeks to fill the existing knowledge gap by investigating the influence of selected

cultural practices on pupils‟ school attendance in Butaleja District since 46% of early marriage

are happening in Butaleja District ranking among the 5 districts in Eastern Uganda alongside the

fact that children are involved in child labour including farming and other informal income and

in-kind activities (United Nations, 2001).

Improved school attendance is a by-product of good educational policies, programs, school

management and teaching structures and infrastructural (MoES, 2015). There is a consensus

among other scholars like Wandera (2015) that irrespective of having in place school building,

teachers and well developed curriculum, what transpires in the family and other social platforms

in communities where pupils live has a significant bearing on whether their school attendance

will be regular or not.

Despite efforts to address structural and policy gaps in primary school enrolment and attendance,

its associated problems like cultural practices had to be understood in detail in order to design

11
appropriate responses and appreciate their causes in order to ensure continuous retention of

pupils in primary schools thus this study will provide a platform to policy makers and

implementers of primary education and educational scholars for understanding and appreciating

the different cultural practices that affect pupils‟ school attendance.

1.8 Working definitions of key terms

The following terms have been specifically defined by the researcher essentially for purposes of

this study;

Universal Primary Education: This is a government programme being implemented by the

majority of government aided primary schools that allows pupils in schools to get education

without paying school fees and other dues.

Culture: The beliefs, values, behavior and material that constitute people‟s way of life like

circumcision, child labour, and early marriage.

Cultural practice: Traditional behavior developed within specific ethnic groups especially those

aspects that have been practiced since ancient times like circumcision, early marriage and child

labour.

School enrollment: In this study, enrollment will mean the act of recruiting or admitting pupils

for academic undertaking (to formally access formal education at a primary school level).

Pupil: A pupil is a person, usually young, who is about six years and above, learning under the

close supervision of a teacher at school. In this study, a pupil will be a child in or expected to be

in a primary school.

12
School attendance: Being available or present in-person at an accredited educational institution

or programme, public or private, for organized learning at any level of education (for this study

at primary schools) at the time of a census or, if a census is taken during the vacation period, at

the end of the school year or during the previous school year.

Child Labour: Is any form of work that is seen to potentially inflict mental, physical, social and

moral harm to the children. It deprives them of their rights and potential where such work

interferes with the children‟s school attendance.

13
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter presents influence of selected cultural practices on pupils‟ school attendance. The

chapter gives also the study‟s theoretical review and conceptual framework.

2.1Theoretical review

This study was based on the general systems theory and Bronfenbrenner‟s ecological theory

which was developed by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy in 1968 (Chandan, 2000). According to

Ludwig, to understand an organization as whole it is important to know both the parts as well as

the relationship between them. This theory is relevant to teachers and other education

practitioners in that a school is viewed as an element which is part of a system. In the context of

this study focus was on the education system and the various parts, that is, the cultural practices

that influence its operations. This theory also suits the current study because children live in a

system comprising of education schools and the surrounding community.

In addition to the above, Chandan (2000) further states that the general systems theory believes

that systems are goal oriented and engage in feedback with the environment in order to meet

goals, for example studying the different components that make up a system. Bertalanffy

recognized the compelling need for a unified and disciplined inquiry in understanding and

dealing with ever increasing complexities, and those complexities that were beyond the

competence of a single discipline for instance education, hence the need to investigate how

cultural practices influence pupils school attendance.

14
Besides, while this theory identifies five environmental systems with which an individual

interacts namely; microsystem, mesosystemexosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem

(Bronfenbrenner, 1979), for the case of this study, focus was on the cultural practices, that is,

circumcision practices, early marriages and child labour.

The ecological theory relate to the institutions and groups that most immediately and directly

impact the child's development including; family and related culture, school, religious

institutions, neighborhood, and peers. Mesosystem refers to relations between microsystems or

connections between contexts. Examples are the relation of family experiences to school

experiences, school experiences to church experiences, and family experiences to peer

experiences. Exosystem involves links between a social setting in which the individual does not

have an active role and the individuals‟ immediate context (Santrock, 2007).

In the ecological theory there is macrosystem which ascribes the culture in which individuals

live. Cultural contexts include cultural practices, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity. A

child, his or her parent, his or her school, and his or her parent's workplace are all part of a large

cultural context. Members of a cultural group share a common identity, heritage, and values. The

macro system evolves over time, because each successive generation may change the

macrosystem, leading to their development in a unique macrosystem.Chronosystemthisrelates to

the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as

sociohistorical circumstances (Kail& Cavanaugh, 2010).

The ecological theory also best explains the study because it takes into account the child‟s

development as he/she interacts with the environment. Maani (1990) observes that pupils‟

success at school is closely related to their home backgrounds. This means that if parents have

15
strong attachment to culture, pupils‟ school attendance is equally affected. It was therefore,

important to assess the extent to which cultural factors influence pupils‟ school attendance since

they all live as a system.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

Independent Variable Dependent variable

CULTURAL PRACTICES
Circumcision SCHOOL ATTENDANCE
 Voluntary and forceful
 Regular/Irregular
male circumcision
Early marriage attendance
 Early marriages  Drop-out
 Early pregnancy
 Early family
responsibilities
Child labour
 Domestic chores
 Rice/cereal growing
 Herding cattle
 Waged/casual jobs

MODERATING VARIABLES
 Government policy on education and culture
 Intra school environment
 School Management Committee

Figure 2.1:Conceptual framework depicting influence of selected Cultural Practices on

Pupils’ School Attendance

Source: Developed by the researcher with a reflection on ideas by Nnazor(2009)

According to the conceptual frame work, in Figure 2.1, the factors that influence pupils‟ school

attendance include; circumcision, this may be voluntary or forceful circumcision. Furthermore,

circumcision is commonly practiced among Bagisu people but also copied by other tribes in

16
Butaleja and is carried out on children affecting young children in terms of attendance at school.

To this effect, some pupils become the victims undergoing that cultural practice while others

become part of it by proxy while observing all that is happening or being told to do related work

to fulfill the practice.

Similarly, early marriage (both forced and voluntary) among other cultural practices also had an

influence on the attendance of pupils in schools with further indicators that early marriage of

pupils may result into early pregnancy, dropping out of school and early responsibilities given to

mothers. In addition, when pupils are involved in child labour for pay and free, in activities such

as domestic chores, cultivation, herding cattle and wage-based activities their quality time for

education is lost and they can‟t effectively be present at school for school activities.

Figure 2.1 also shows that, when government policies are strong and effectively implemented,

with good school environment that motivates pupils to study and a strict but responsive

management committee, pupils‟ attendance can be ensured. If these are not in place or are not

effective, pupils‟ school attendance becomes irregular.

2.3. Review of Related Literature

2.3.1 Circumcision and Pupils’ School Attendance

Globally, 30% of men are circumcised, mostly for religious reasons(Bruce 2010). In many

African societies, male circumcision is carried out for cultural reasons, particularly as an

initiation ritual and a rite of passage into manhood. Traditional male circumcision practice is

usually performed in a non-clinical setting by a traditional provider with no formal medical

training. When carried out as a rite of passage into manhood, traditional male circumcision is

mainly performed on adolescents or young men. The self-reported prevalence of traditional male

17
circumcision varies greatly between eastern and southern Africa, from 20% in Uganda and

southern African countries to more than 80% in Kenya. However, while the views of

Bruce(2010)are convincingly, correct, he does not indicate how such circumcision practices

influence pupils school attendance, a gap which this study filled.

For the case of Uganda, circumcision forms part of the society‟s core values in Eastern districts

and is following basic doctrines that a young male follows to transcend from childhood to

adulthood and nurturing a culturally „fit‟ individual to take on other cultural activities including

marriage, child birth, and family leadership among others. These doctrines are known to most of

the adults in such communities and are passed on to the young generation (Mwesigwa, 2015). In

the context of this study, it can be said that while circumcision practices has got cultural values,

Mwesigwa (2015) does not indicate how it influences pupils school attendance, given the

importance of education to individual and national development.

Kawala (2006) carried out a study in Busiu Sub-County, Mbale District on the effects of

circumcision on pupils‟ performance and the findings indicated that, 86% of the teachers

strongly agreed that circumcision heavily affected the performance of the pupils in the Sub-

County while 70% of the pupils agreed that circumcision affects their school attendance; and

56% of the parents agreed that circumcision had an effect. These findings are in line with a

baseline survey which was carried out in Sironko District by UWESO (2010) whereby the local

leaders unanimously agreed that circumcision rituals be suspended until December. The

suspension follows concerns that the exercise had disrupted normal school routine because many

pupils were dropping out of school to participate in the cultural circumcision rites. The Sironko

LC V chairperson confessed that his office had received numerous complaints about poor

attendance and performance in schools during the Imbalu season. However these studies were
18
carried out in different areas; that is to Busiu and Sironko not in Naweyo Sub-County and their

finding may not be the same thus the need to carry out the study to ascertain whether the same

findings apply to Naweyo or not.

Furthermore Standard UCU News (2006) reports that, before circumcision, there is often an

official launch performed more so at Mutoto cultural site in Mbale, the young children both

in and out of school, old people come and camp at the site as the period is time for merry

making. The people camp at the site for weeks before the real ceremony. Due to much

entertainment at the ground, many pupils tend to escape from home to go and enjoy.

In addition to the views of UWESO (2010) and Standard UCU News (2006) reports,

Namukwaya(2014)argues that time of healing is not predetermined however this depends on

one‟s body as the healing process goes. The pupils who undergo circumcision miss a number

of school activities that may include tests, class work, homework and other forms of

classroom assessments, hence the need to find out if the situation lamented by Namukwaya is

similar or different from that in Butaleja district.

In a study of factors influencing students‟ absenteeism in primary schools in Jamaica

perspectives of community members, Cook(2010)sought to determine the root causes of

absenteeism in selected primary schools in Jamaica by investigating the influence of cultural,

educational, and community factors on student absenteeism from school. Data collection

techniques involved the use of focus group interviews with parents, teachers, and community

members from 71 schools, and with students (aged 7–12 years) from 10 of these schools, who

were identified as having very low attendance rates. However, cook‟s studies were conducted in

schools in Jamaica and back in 2010, hence the need for a similar study in Uganda.

19
In addition, MOES(2014) recognizes the influence of circumcision in enhancing absenteeism in

universal secondary education in Uganda. The study findings showed that, lack of interest in

education, hunger at school/lack of mid-day meals, sexual harassment at school, long distance to

school, illness or disease, loss of parent or close relative, peer influence, and harsh punishment at

school were the top causes of students‟ absenteeism in USE schools respectively. However the

studies above have focused on factors such as lack of interest in education, hunger at school/lack

of mid-day meals, sexual harassment at school, long distance to school, illness or disease, loss of

parent or close relative, peer influence, and harsh punishment as causes of poor attendance in

school. The studies do not explore cultural factors thus the need for the study to find out whether

circumcision as a cultural issue affects pupils performance in Naweyo Sub-County.

Mbugua(2012)in his study about Factors Contributing to Students‟ Poor Performance in

Mathematics in Kenya provided an explicit elaboration that apart from physical change on a

young male‟s biological part, circumcision has profound psychological effects on the initiates

and also affects the way the pupil perceives primary education and the broader academic career

aspirations. Similarly, Chang‟ach(2013)further provides examples of Kenya pupils who tend to

miss class; where a bigger fraction of male pupils do not attend school during the months when

circumcision ceremonies are going on in some parts of Kenya. Since Uganda has also some

months of circumcision, this study was conducted to assess the extent to which circumcision

influences pupils‟ school attendance.

20
In a related development, Longman(2015)strongly provide examples where some boys choose to

run to relatives or distant communities when they feel uncomfortable to undergo circumcision in

periods when they are notified by family members or cultural leaders that they are ready to

undergo this ritual. This finding is supported by Chang‟ach(2013)who puts it clear that children

who come from cultural backgrounds and families where activities like circumcision are done

lack concentration where they spend time watching, cooking, dancing among other activities.

Mbugua(2012)asserts that once those children are circumcised they are expected and tend to

assume new social roles for instance of marriage to turn into husband and wife which later turns

into father and mother. However, these studies were done in different areas of Southern Kenya

whose cultural context may not be the same in Naweyo Sub-County.

Onzima (2010) has similar views with Chang‟ach(2013), Mbugua(2012) and in his study about

Parents‟ Socioeconomic Status and Pupils‟ educational attainment in Malaba Town Council,

Uganda, indicated that a number of children get married after circumcision which is caused by

circumcision ritual and this passage breeds cases of indiscipline in the perception that they are

now adults or men which they carry along to school environment. Furthermore, such characters

tend to mislead other pupils and pose high chances of poor school attendance. However, his case

study focused only at one primary school in Malaba Town Council whose environment and

experiences differ from those in Naweyo Sub-County.

Amssalu(2003) also assert that boys‟ circumcision greatly affects primary school enrolment in

Tanzania. It was noted that sometimes learning was disrupted during the school season due to

cultural preparations for circumcision. It was also observed that boys‟ drop out cases increased

after the circumcision process. There is clear indication that demonstrates that circumcision

21
paves the way for the young man to marry, own properties (animals) and become a warrior. As

such, due to less value placed on education, desire for fame and prestige, some young adults

dropped out of primary school (Akello, 2011).

According to Hari (2009) the circumcision practices are blamed to be a cause of girl dropout

since are often held during the school term and result in girls missing a considerable amount of

school time. Additionally, participation in these practices generally does affect girls‟

participation in education in two major perspectives namely attendance and performance. This

happens due to the fact that time spent at these rites is at the expense of precious school time.

When these girls eventually return to school, teachers find it difficult to find the time to give

them the individual attention required to help them catch up with the others (Kaguamba, 2011).

In a nutshell, majority of the authors agree with the view that circumcision is a cultural aspect

and influences pupil‟s school attendance. The identified gap is that most studies had been

conducted in other areas and not Nawayo Sub-County.

2.3.2 Early Marriage and Pupils’ School Attendance

Throughout the world, marriage is regarded as a moment of celebration and a milestone in adult

life. Sadly, as this story shows, the practice of early marriage gives no such cause for celebration

as many girls are losing out on quality school time due to irregular attendance in many

developing countries (Budoo&Ramnauth,2018). There is widespread consensus that child

marriage violates the rights of girls, limits their school attendance and eventual attainment,

learning, and future earnings, and has negative impacts on their health and that of their children

(Malѐ&Wodon,2016). Child marriage clearly contributes to poor school attendance most

especially in rural areas Chang‟ach(2013). Moreover, the elimination of early marriage was put

22
top on the Sustainable Development Goals from which various countries have developed laws

for instance reforms of family law and strategies to control the practice (Field & Attila, 2008;

Malѐ & Wodon, 2016).In many countries, laws have been adopted to prevent marriage below 18

years of age, but they are often not well-enforced to save school going children for instance

Onzima, (2010) noted that some boys and girls get married at as low as 14 years with a consent

of parents. However, he categorized all pupils without singling out those that were influenced by

circumcision, child labour and cultural practices hence need for the study on the influence of

circumcision, early marriage and child labour on pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub

County.

Furthermore, the practice remains highly prevalent more so in low developed countries despite

efforts by many developing countries to discourage and even outlaw for instance Uganda where

more than ½ of women marry at an early age, a category that comprise of primary school going

girls (UBoS, 2016).Many young girls are suffering due to early marriage as the incidence is very

high in Karamoja, Northern and Eastern Uganda where Butaleja District lies (Malѐ&Wodon,

2016).Given the factor that the areas mentioned are rural, girls are very likely to get married due

to the fact that such areas are characterized by low socio-economic status, lack of scholastic

materials and basic necessities of life including pads and limited school feeding. Early marriage

is also associated with frequent missing of school attendance and the resultant low educational

attainment in that pupils girls who marry before the age of 19 are 50% more likely to drop out of

school and four times less likely to proceed to secondary and postsecondary education

levels(Klepinger, Lundberg, & Plotnick, 1999).Besides, studies by Chang‟ach(2013) and

Malѐ&Wodon, (2016) that early marriage is very prevalent in rural communities where the

institution of marriage is stronger compared to urban areas with less concern on the age of the

23
child to be married. In such communities, there is a tendency of imposing a marriage partner

upon a child which means that a girl‟s childhood is cut short and their fundamental rights such as

education are compromised resulting into irregular school attendance and eventual dropout

(Mutegeki, 2015).Besides, such communities are also characterized by low socio-economic

status thus focus on early marrying off of their children especially daughters as a source of

income and other material gains (Budoo & Ramnauth, 2018).

Early marriage influences pupils‟ school attendance and the causality goes both ways; as early

marriage leads to irregular school attendance as the pupils involved cannot play and balance the

marital roles and responsibilities yet studying which results into school dropout and low

educational attainment. But the reverse is true as well in that keeping pupils both in school is

often one of the best ways of delaying marriage most especially the primary school going

children who are mainly below 15 years of age and are severely affected by the practice

compared to their counterpart 16 years and older (Malѐ&Wodon, 2016). In support of the views

ofMalѐ&Wodon, (2016), Chang‟ach(2013) and Field & Attila (2008) Hunt (2014) asserts that

the negative outcomes associated with early marriage and dropping out of high school have the

potential to affect not only the individual making the decision but also her children and the rest

of society. For example, a high divorce rate combined with low wages and a larger family size

increases the number of children living in poverty. Children of teenage mothers also have lower

birth weights, are often the victims of child abuse and neglect, have academic and behavioral

problems in school, and are more likely to engage in crime(Hunt, 2014).

Becker Friedman Institute (2004) asserts that women who marry early can have a high likelihood

of ending up poor later in life, yet can still be optimizing. However, even if the individual is

24
optimizing, society might still be concerned about the effects of poverty on her children and the

costs associated with transfer programs (Becker Friedman Institute, 2004).

While issues of causality have received little attention in the context of early marriage, a related

line of research has attempted to disentangle the effects of teenage childbearing on education and

wages from preexisting differences between those who parent early and those who delay

childbearing. There are significant consequences associated with teenage childbearing (Moore

and Waite, 2007).

According to UNICEF (2014) birth, marriage and death are the standard trio of key events in

most people‟s lives. But only one marriage is a matter of choice. The right to exercise that choice

was recognized as a principle of law even in Roman times and has long been established in

international human rights instruments. Yet many girls, and a smaller number of boys, enter

marriage without any chance of exercising their right to choose. Some are forced into marriage at

a very early age while still in school (Malѐ &Wodon, 2016). Equally a boy is made to marry, he

is now a man who is expected to put away childish things. Early marriage inevitably denies

children of school age, their right to education the need for their personal development, their

preparation for adulthood, and their effective contribution to the future well- being of their

family and society.

Similarly, Berhane(2006)illustrates that early marriage is often as a result of strong traditions and

social norms which tend to dictate that young girls are married off in order to fulfill their pre-

determined gender roles as wives and mothers. The male pupils that have undergone the

circumcision may have the perception that they are now adults or „men‟ sets up into their mind

25
and it is culturally communicated to children exposing them to circumstances of marrying since

the function „leads‟ children into adulthood as this affects their attendance in school.

However, much as African Union (2015)cautioned about likely dangers of early marriage such as

preventing students from excelling academically, low school attendance rates and maternal death

due to complicated pregnancies among the negative influences of cultural practices, the degree at

which such consequences come about and their direct link to cultural practices needs to be

explored. Mwesigwa(2015)has different views from the African Union (2015) and urges that

early marriage is a result of poverty where parents want to secure their financial security by

marrying off their daughters with an intention of getting bride price.

A study carried out by UNFPA (2012)and International Refugee Trust (2016) on early

marriages using a descriptive case study indicates that parents‟ preference for boys to excel

academically to girls and the cultural perception that makes them consider girls as valuables for

marriage affects pupils‟ school attendance across the gender lines. This perception makes parents

assign girls more roles and domestic chores with an intention of grooming a girl into a potential

future wife, mother and also a responsible cultured female citizen. However this study was done

using a descriptive research design whereby there can be subjectivity of the findings since they

did not use a large population hence the need to do a study using a different research design like

a cross sectional survey that deals with a large amount of data.

In a nutshell, studies done (Budoo & Ramnauth, 2018; Malѐ & Wodon, 2016) on early marriage

collapse the statistics of those who marry early to include in and out of school young persons up

to 18 years of irrespective of the level of education (whether primary or secondary) which makes

it hard to single out the effect of early marriage to only primary school going pupils and how the

26
practices influences their school attendance. Moreover, the studies didn‟t capture and thus don‟t

provide “depth” and “severity” of the practice on pupils‟ school attendance which called for an

alternative study. Besides, various studies have been conducted about poverty, teenage

pregnancy, failure by parents to provide basic needs leaving cultural practices merely mentioned,

a gap which this study filled.

2.3.3 Child Labour and Pupils’ School Attendance

Child labour, amongst other factors, is the key in influencing poor primary school attendance and

even eventual school dropout. According to the recent global estimates by the International

labour organization (ILO, 2016), 215 million children in the world are still in child labour. Out

of these children, 153 million fall in 5-14 age group while 62 million are in 15-17 age group. In

Africa, child labour is on the increase with 65 million children being in child labor. This is

probably the reason that makes Africa, as advanced by the ILO report, to account for 47 percent

of the world‟s out-of school children. These statistics portray child labour to be prevalent among

children aged 5-14. These are children of primary school-going age and their large involvement

in child labour definitely impacts negatively on their school attendance.

Globally, an estimated 150 million children between 5-18 years are involved in both paid and

unpaid forms of work and this classification is based on the fact that some children are too young

to work or are engaged in hazardous activities that are seen to potentially compromise their

physical, emotional, social or educational development. The highest population of children

between 5-17 years that is involved in child labour is found in Africa and on this note Africa is

leading with 59 million children based on the recent findings by UNICEF(2014). Besides, 98

million child labourers globally are working in agricultural sector which forms the biggest

27
employment sector in least developed countries where there is lack of higher returns on basic

schooling where Uganda lies (Roelen & Carter, 2017).

In Sub Saharan Africa with a focus on North and East Africa, 28% of children in age range 5-14

involved in work where 10% of children in this age group are doing potentially harmful work

compared to their counterparts in Latin America as results are explicitly provided by

Namukwaya (2014)the population that is defined to be of working age is 14-64 years in Uganda.

However UNICEF(2014)presents a different perspective based on the various international

agencies like International Labour Organization which define working age population to be 15-

64 years. Findings from UBOS (2013)and UNFPA (2012) highlight an increment in labour force

which results from young population entering the working age bracket and despite a rise in

business ventures the working age population is with low education whereby in the financial year

2009/2010, 75% of the labour force had either primary level or no education at all.

Majority of the working population in Uganda is involved in agriculture and this is more than

68% where Butaleja district falls and small petty business ventures. Further still UBOS

(2013)reported that out of 11.5 million children, 2 million were child labourers and further

elaborated that 16% of entire population of children in Uganda were in agriculture and is one of

the major obstacles in achieving universal primary education as well as the broader national

poverty reduction and development.

Similarly, a study done by Onzima(2010) indicated that children mainly boys absent from school

in order to work and supplement family income notably do casual work during harvest of cereal

thus such activities adversely affect pupils‟ school attendance where the school boys harvest and

carry the produce which makes them spend a substantial number of hours and days off school

28
which findings concur with those from UBOS (2013), Ministry of Education and Sports (2011),

and Butaleja District Local Government Statistical Abstract (2009). However these studies were

carried out many years ago and the trend may have changed thus the need to carry out the study

to find out whether child labour influences the school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County.

Child labour has potentially harmful consequences both for the child and for the society at large.

Child labour affects the health of the children concerned and due to ill health some of these

children are unable to attend school (Kurz, Jain, & Saranga, 2007). Some children are subjected

to work activities, especially in the evenings after school that require long hours to finish. Such

children are deprived of time to attend to any assignments given in school and others, due to

fatigue are unable to attend school the following day. Chronic absenteeism not only leads to poor

academic performance but may also prompt the affected children to eventually drop out of

primary school(Boozer & Tavneet, 2001). Poor academic performance and lack of completion of

primary school affects the future life of the individual child, and also leads to negative social and

economic development of the society and the nation as a whole.

Most children who work are engaged in household enterprise activities, whether it be a farm, a

home-based manufacturing operation, or a retail enterprise. These productive assets would have

mixed impacts on child labour (Rosenzweig & Evenson, 2007). On the one hand, they may raise

a child‟s opportunity cost of time in school because the child is productive in labour activities.

Similarly, adults in the household are also more productive, so the household can better afford

allocating child time to schooling activities.

Child labour is a key obstacle to school attendance in that an increase in child labour ultimately

results in a decline in school attendance more so in rural areas where engaging children in work

29
is not perceived to have an impact on their school attendance and entire education attainment

(Roelen& Carter, 2017).Majority of the working children are engaged in unpaid work whereby

they work with their parents as part of a family enterprise or farm. Family income is a key

determinant in influencing parents‟ choices between child labour and school attendance. In

situations where the parents barely earn enough to meet the household‟s needs, parents may

resort to having their children work in a bid to help supplement the meager household income for

the survival of the whole family. Household poverty is continuous in families where the parents

have low or no education, meaning they too worked as children instead of schooling (Cockburn

& Kabubo-Mariara, 2010). Such parents may see nothing wrong in having their children work

since they also did the same thing, and apart from having the children work in order to contribute

to the family income, they may also argue that child work imparts important qualities into the

children. They may also opt to have more children than their educated counterparts, so as to have

a larger share of money contributed towards the family income when these children work

(Orazem & Gunnarsson, 2003).

Child labour may also arise when families are credit-constrained. For example, if parents expect

family income to be rising over time, they may find it optimal to borrow against the future to

smooth consumption across time (Heady, 2013). However, if parents do not have access to credit

markets, they have to turn to internal assets. In such situations, the credit constrained parents

may borrow from the future by putting their children to work rather than investing in human

capital that will make their children more productive in future. Such credit-constrained parents,

and who have low or no education may tend to have a large number of children so that they may

work and thus, help rescue the family from financial crisis. Children in full time child labour are

left with no chance of schooling. On the other hand, those who combine work with schooling,

30
due to fatigue and lack of enough time, they may fail to complete assignments given at school,

experience poor concentration during class time, and may even skip class or school altogether.

All these definitely lead to poor academic performance, class repetitions, and these coupled with

chronic absenteeism may finally lead to the affected children dropping out of school (Levy,

2005).

Besides, parents in rural settings in least developed countries hardly recognize the positive

potential benefits accruing from regular school attendance and eventual completion of primary

level education. The practice makes pupils to work both domestically and for monetary benefits

with irreversible impact on their education as parents and guardians prioritize sharing time for

child‟s schooling with domestic and income generating activities. From the parents/guardian

perspective, child labour is indispensible in shaping the child‟s morality and strength of character

as well as teaching and transferring skills related to different trades parents do (Budoo et al.

2018).

When a child spends the recommended time at school and at times longer school days, the period

may influence the amount of knowledge such a child gains. However, longer school days may

also influence child labour. The longer the school session, the less time a child has to work. Yap

et al. (2015) found that the imposition of an after school programme in rural Brazil resulted in a

large reduction in the probability of child labour. Length of term can also affect the amount a

child learns in a school year. Differences in the length of school term between black and white

schools in the United States in the segregated era have been shown to explain differences in

school achievement (Orazem & Gunnarsson, 2003) and earnings (Krueger & Card, 1996)

between blacks and whites.

31
While child labour appears to be related with reductions in school attendance, the practice limits

pupils‟ involvement in school environment, classroom sessions and reduces their intellectual

land marketable skills development which are attributed to late arrival, missing of school

attendance and eventual school dropout (Budoo & Ramnauth, 2018). Many schools in

developing countries are of poor quality so that children may receive better informal or on-the-

job training outside school. On the other hand, changes in attendance would understate the

adverse effect of child labour on human capital accumulation if a child who attends school

despite working is too tired to learn or has no time for homework (Ravallion & Wodon, 2000).

Emerson and Souza (2002)explore the impact of one child‟s working on their siblings. Because

earlier-born children are able to command higher wages than their younger brothers and sisters,

this additional income may allow parents to send the late born siblings to school. They found that

in Brazil, first-born males were more likely to work than their younger siblings. Last-born male

children were less likely to be child labourers than their older siblings. For girls, first-borns are

less likely to go to school than later born girls. This possibility that child labour adds schooling

opportunity through income reallocations within the household has not been adequately

explored. In the context of this study, while the views of Emerson and Souza (2002) are

seemingly correct, there is need for a similar study with reference to Uganda.

2.4 Summary of Literature Review

From the literature reviewed, it is found out that most of the studies done were focusing on

structural and absenteeism aspects that influence pupils‟ school attendance. In general specific

districts have peculiar concerns that affect pupils‟ school attendance more so those that still have

strong cultural attachments.Unlike the few previous studies done in Uganda on pupils‟ school

32
attendance notably UNICEF et al. (2014),Namukwaya(2014),International Refugee Trust(2016)

and Kawala(2015), the current study has centered its focus singly on selected cultural practices

in order to provide a detailed perspective about the subject matter.

In addition, most authors cited (Bruce 2010, Mwesigwa, 2015, Mbugua, 2012, Akello, 2011,

Hari, 2009) view circumcision practice as an important cultural practice. Unfortunately, it was

found to have a negative impact on pupils school attendance, hence the need to assess if the

situation was similar or different from that in Butaleja District.

33
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the methodology that was used in the study. It covers the research design,

study population, sampling and sample size, data collection methods, study instruments and

sources. The chapter also contains the research ethics the researcher intends to follow while

carrying out the study, and data management and analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The study used a cross sectional survey design to investigate the influence of cultural practices

on pupils‟ school attendance. According to Amin (2005) a cross sectional survey is the type of

survey that is concerned with describing the characteristics of an event, community or region and

provides the data about the population or item being studied at a specific point in time hence

enables the researcher to interface with the respondents in a single point in a time. The design

included both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The quantitative approach is chosen

because it helps to collect a relatively large amount of information from a cross section of a

population in a short time and results can be generalized to represent the whole population.

While qualitative approach was applied because it helps to give insight of the views, opinions,

attitudes and experiences of the respondents.

3.2 Study Area

The study was conducted in both government and private schools in Naweyo Sub-county

Butaleja District. Naweyo Sub-County is found in the eastern part of Butaleja District bordering

Mbale District, it is inhabited by Banyole, Bagishu among other tribes and all these indigenous

34
tribes are farmers and they need children to give labour as a practice in the area. Both the

Banyole and the Bagishu practice male circumcision every leap year which in their culture is

initiation of the boy to manhood. During circumcision period both the young and old get

involved in one way or the other for instance both follow the dancing group up to the area where

the relatives of the boy are for three days to circumcision. The male is circumcised and this

affects the attendance of the pupils in the area. Further still after circumcision the male has to

stay at home until the wound heals. The healing process may take months and after healing the

man now has to join the rest to initiate other boys into manhood as a culture till the year ends.

Furthermore early marriage which is a common practice in Butaleja the parents tend to marry off

girls at an early age. Equally the circumcised boys are entitled and free to marry immediately

after the initiation since they are now men. This culture however, affects the pupils‟ school

attendance. All those tribes carry out circumcision, practice farming and marry off their children

before eighteen years.

3.3 Study population

The study was conducted in all the ten primary schools in Naweyo Sub-County of which eight

are Government aided while two are privately owned. The study population composed of 5952

pupils from primary four to seven from which a sample was drawn, 96 teachers, ten Head

teachers, four local leaders and four cultural leaders. The total population was 390 respondents.

3.3.1 Target population

The study targeted head teachers, teachers, pupils, of both government and private primary

schools local and cultural leaders in Naweyo Sub-County.

35
3.3.2 Sampled Population

The sampled population composed of 357 pupils of primary four, five, six and seven classes,66

teachers, ten Head teachers four local leaders and four cultural leaders. The head teachers of

primary schools and teachers, of both Government and private primary schools ,pupils from P.4-

P.7, local leaders and cultural leaders who carry out circumcision in Naweyo Sub-County. The

teachers were selected for the study because they are the people who are resourceful and have the

knowledge on the topic of study. Head teachers are on the other hand targeted because of their

supervisory role in the schools. Pupils were selected because they are the main focus of the

study and the local and cultural leaders are thought because they are the ones who stay with the

pupils and are influential leaders that include re-known and senior elders who are taken to be

custodians of power and knowledge in Naweyo Sub-County.

3.4 Sample size and selection

The sample size was respondents, who were selected using Krejcie and Morgan‟s table, (1970).

The respondents were got from ten primary schools of which eight were Government owned

school and two private schools. This included three hundred fifty seven pupils (357) pupils,

Seventy six (76) teachers. The following participants were selected for secondary data; ten (10)

head teachers, four (4) local leaders and four (4) cultural leaders. This population was deemed

representative of the whole population in the area of the study and quite large to present the right

views of the rest of the people.

36
Table 3.1: Population and size of primary respondents

Category Population Sample

Pupils 5855 357

Teachers 97 76

Head teachers 10 10

Local leaders 4 4

Cultural leaders 4 4

Total 5952 451

3.5 Sampling techniques

The study applied two sampling techniques; that is purposive sampling and stratified random

sampling. Purposive sampling was used to identify the head teachers, local and cultural leaders

because of their knowledge about the topic. Stratified random sampling was used for identifying

schools that is government and private, and pupils in order to ensure that all members in this

category have equal chances of being selected to avoid bias. Stratified random sampling gives

equal chance to every member in the population to be included in the study (Amin, 2005).

37
Table 3.2: Respondent type and technique used .

Respondent type Technique

Schools Stratified random sampling

Pupil Stratified random sampling

Teachers Stratified random sampling

Local leaders Purposive sampling

Cultural leaders Purposive sampling

Head teachers/Deputies Purposive sampling

3.6 Research Instruments

The study instruments comprised of the questionnaire and interview guide.

3.6.1 Interview Guide

The interview guide was used to direct on research issues especially in finding out the views of

head teachers, Local and Cultural leaders towards the study‟s research hypothesis. The study

mainly used face to face interviews with generally open ended questions so as to elicit views

from the respondents. In-depth interviews were also used to give chance to the respondents to

discuss issues that are related to the study area. Through these interviews, the researcher gathered

the experiences, perceptions, feelings and other opinions as far as cultural practices are

concerned.

38
3.6.2 Questionnaire

The questionnaire with both closed and open ended questions was used to collect data from

teachers and pupils on the main cultural practices that influence attendance of pupils in schools.

The questionnaire was used as a primary tool that adequately captures quantitative data (Amin,

205). The tool contained questions that were semi-structured which required the participants to

give more information or details and provide an opportunity for new questions to be asked.

3.7 Validity

According to Amin (2005), validity is the degree to which an instrument measures what it

intends to measure. To ensure content validity of the research instruments, the researcher gave

the data collection tools to the supervisors who assessed the items whether they were relevant

before they were given to two independent lecturers who are experts in the area of education

from Makerere University and also to verify the questions whether they match with the intended

objectives.

After designing the questionnaires, they were subjected to rating and Content Validity Index

(CVI) were computed using the following formula;

Number of items rated Valid

Average of CVI =
All items in the questionnaires

19+19+13+11 = 62 =0.93

20+21+13+12 =66

CV=0.93

The CVI for pupil‟s questionnaire was 0.93 which was above 0.7 as recommended by (Amin,

2005)hence the questionnaires were considered valid for data collection.

39
For external validity, the study was carried out in all the ten schools in the Sub-County of which

eight are government and two are private owned schools.

3.8 Reliability of Instruments

Reliability refers to the consistence of the research instrument. For the consistence of the

research results, the researcher used Cronbach co-efficient alpha method so as to determine the

reliability of the instruments. The researcher carried out a pilot study of two primary schools that

were not part of the sample and 10 pupils were selected as respondents. The collected data was

coded and entered into the computer using SPSS Program. The reliability was computed and

Cronbach co-efficient alpha was 0.891. According to Amin (2005)any coefficients above 0.7 the

instrument should be considered reliable. Therefore the instrument having scored 0.891 was

considered reliable and hence proceeded for data collection.

3.9 Data Management and analysis

Quantitative data got from the questionnaires were computed into descriptive and inferential

statistics in form of frequencies, percentages, correlations and regressions. The researcher coded

all the questionnaires and entered the results in computer software called Statistical Package for

Social Scientists (SPSS 20 version) to be analyzed in order to generate the correlation results and

establish the relationships of each variable and regression analysis. SPSS is a computer software

designed for researchers to analyze data in order to develop meaningful figures.

3.10 Ethical considerations

The researcher obtained an introduction letter from the School of Education Makerere University

after approval of the proposal which was used to seek for authorization to conduct the study in

the district from the District Education Officer (DEO) to obtain permission to carry out the study
40
in the primary schools in Naweyo Sub-County. Similarly, permission was also sought from the

head teachers to collect data from teachers and pupils.

Before conducting the study, the researcher took initiative to explain to the respondents about the

general nature of the study and they were assured of their personal protection. Furthermore, the

researcher assured the participants that while publishing the study results, none of their names or

personal identifiers could be shared. The rights of children were protected by seeking consent

from teachers who are reasonable for their day to day life while at school

3.11 Limitations of the study

The study suffered some limitation particularly that regarding recall bias especially on events

and activities involved in the last one year. Since data was given by self reporting, by pupils,

they could have forgotten past experiences like how many days they missed, the number of

children who got married in the village. All this could affect the accuracy or validity of the

information being provided.

41
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.0 Introduction

The study investigated the influence of selected cultural practices on pupils‟ school attendance in

Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja District. The findings in this chapter are presented according to

the specific objectives of the study which were; to find out the influence of circumcision, early

marriage and child labour on pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County. Results are

presented in form of frequencies, percentages and correlations (for results from the

questionnaire) and quotations from interviews in regard to each objective of the study. Results

from interviews are presented in narrative form under each objective of the study.

4.1 Background Information

The demographic characteristics of teachers and pupils were established by looking at the sex,

age, class, duration, position and the level of education of respondents that participated in the

study.

4.1.1 Gender of pupils

Table 4.1: Gender of pupils

Response category Frequency Percent

Male 181 59.2
Female 125 40.8
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.1 reveals that 59.2% of pupils‟ respondents were male whereas 40.8% were females.

This implies that although the majority of the respondents that participated in the study were

42
male, females were also well represented. This means that the study findings reflect the views of

both male and females.

4.1.2 Age of pupils

Age of Respondent
40 36.9
35 29.1 29.4
30
25
20
15
10 4.6 Age
5
0

Figure 4.1: Age of pupils that participated in the Study

Source: Field data

Figure 4.1 reveals that the largest single majority which is 36.9% of the pupils‟ respondents were

in the age bracket of 12-14 years while least was 4.6 % who were 17 years and above. This

implies that most of the pupils were in age group which was able to provide valid answers to

questions asked about cultural practices and pupils‟ school attendance and therefore gave

answers from an informed point of view. In addition, this is still in the age bracket for primary

school going children in Uganda. Therefore, the results from the study can be relied upon.

43
4.1.3 Class of pupils

Table 4.2 Class of Pupils

Response category Frequency Percent

P.4 48 15.69
P.5 64 20.91
P.6 114 37.25
P.7 80 26.14
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field Data

Table 4.2 reveals that the single majority which was 37.25% of pupils that participated in the

study was from P.6 class and the least 15.69% were from P.4 classes. This implies that both the

young and older pupils were well represented in regard to how cultural practices influence

pupils‟ school attendance.

4.1.4 Age of Teachers

37 plus
(36%) 26- 30 years
26- 30 years
(41%) 31- 36 years
37 plus

31- 36 years
(23%)

Figure 4.2: Age of Teachers

Source: Field data

44
Figure 4.2 reveals that the largest single majority of teachers were in the age brackets of 31-36

years which is 41% and only 15% were 26-30 years. This implies that most of the teachers in the

ages of 31-36 years were mature enough to understand the cultural practices which were

circumcision, early marriages and child labour and how these influence pupils‟ school attendance

to answer the questions very well.

4.1.5 Duration in the teaching profession

Table 4.3: Duration of teacher in the teaching profession

Response category Frequency Percent

1-5 years 23 37.7
6-10years 30 41.0
11-15 years 5 8.2
Above 16 years 8 13.1
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field data

The results indicate that the largest single majority of teachers at 41% had worked for 6-10 years

and the least 8% had worked for 11-15 years. From the largest single majority 41% of the

respondents who said had worked in their respective schools for 6-10 years meant that teachers

had enough experience on how some of the cultural practices have affected school attendance of

children during the circumcision period.

45
4.1.6 Position in school

Table 4.4: Position in the School

Response category Frequency Percent

Classroom Teacher 30 45.5

Senior women and men teacher 19 28.8

Deputy Head teachers 9 13.6
Head of infants 4 6.1
Quarter master 4 6.1
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.4 shows that the largest single majority of respondents which is 45% were classroom

teachers and 6.1% of the respondents were head of infants. This implies that the information was

got from teachers who teach and are close to these pupils and can easily understand the

relationship between cultural practices and their influence on pupils‟ school attendance.

Therefore, the researcher got information from respondents who had enough knowledge

regarding cultural practices and pupils‟ school attendance, hence the study was reliable.

4.2 Findings by Objectives

4.2.1 To find out the influence of Circumcision on Pupils’ School Attendance in Naweyo

Sub-County

Respondents were asked about how circumcision influenced pupils‟ school attendance. Results

were computed into frequencies and percentages as well as correlations and regressions and

findings as presented.

46
Table 4.5: Pupils’ Response on the Occurrence of Circumcision in 2016

Response category Frequency Valid Percent

Yes 297 97.1

No 9 2.9
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.5 reveals that 97.1% of respondents agreed that circumcision ceremonies were carried

out in 2016 whereas 2.9% said that there was no circumcision ceremony. This implies that

circumcision as a cultural practice is widely spread and known among primary school pupils in

Naweyo Sub-County. This further means that the information was got from the pupils who had

knowledge on circumcision and how it affects their school attendance.

In addition, one teacher noted that,

Circumcision takes place every even year for example 2014, 2016 and even in the year
2018 and all the following even years. Both pupils and parents enjoy it because it is
their cultural practice which incidentally draws a bigger number of our pupils to miss
attending school. (Teacher)

In addition, the cultural leader agreed that,

Circumcision as a cultural practice takes place every even year and it is known to
everyone including school going children. The arrangements to carry out circumcision
begins early enough for example identifying the circumcision candidates and
organizing drinks among others so the function is not an abrupt event (Cultural
Leader)

Findings from the local and cultural leaders concurred with the fact that most people were

knowledgeable about the even years in which circumcision is carried out and are eager to

participate.

47
 Table 4.6: Pupils’ Involvement in Circumcision as Expressed by Teachers

Response Category Frequency Percent

Yes 62 93.9
No 4 6.1
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field date

Table 4.6 reveals that 93.9% of teachers agreed that children are involved in the practice yet only

6.1% of respondents said children are not involved in the circumcision ceremony. This implies

that during even years, circumcision takes a lot of pupils‟ time and largely prevents them from

attending school regularly. This therefore means that the teachers are aware of the effects of

circumcision practice on pupils‟ school attendance. This further implies that, it is normal for

child to attend circumcision ceremonies during school days hence reduction in pupils‟ school

attendance.

Most teachers commented that,

Some boys participate as circumcision candidates; others get involved in dancing, and
cooking and others do related ceremonial activities (Teacher).

This was re-echoed by one of the head teachers that

Here at our school we know that the moment it reaches an even year, pupils’ attendance
drops significantly because they go for circumcision; you find that upper classes (literally
P.5, P. 6 and P.7) are the most affected and later when they come back they hardly catch
up with what was taught (Head Teacher)

Study findings from Head teachers and teachers confirm that circumcision negatively influences

how pupils attend school and this implies that many school going children in the community get

involved in circumcision ceremonies in different ways every year.

48
 Table 4.7: Teachers’ views on Pupils’ Participation in the Circumcision Practice

Response category Frequency Percent

Some children participate by dancing to the drum

24 36.4
during circumcision ceremonies

Some children participate by singing cultural songs

12 18.2
during the circumcision period
Some children participate in cooking for the
circumcision ceremony attendants and other related 15 22.7
ceremonial work
Some children participate in the ceremony as
5 7.6
circumcision candidates
Others 10 15.1
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.7 reveals that during the circumcision ceremony, children are involved in circumcision

ceremony in different ways. Whereas 36.4% said that children participate by dancing to the drum

music during circumcision ceremonies, 7.6% of teachers said that some children participate in

the ceremony as circumcision candidates. This therefore implies that pupils are involved in

circumcision ceremony. For example, one teacher noted that,

During times of circumcision, the school attendance reduces so much. When i take off time
to observe what is going on during the circumcision ceremony, I find out that some of the
learners are active participants in very many different ways for example dancing and
singing (Teacher).

This implies that teachers have even witnessed their learners taking part in the circumcision

ceremonies.

49
Furthermore, findings from qualitative interviews revealed that some school going children are

involved in circumcision hence affecting their school attendance as one of the respondents

explained that,

Children in our community get involved in circumcision practice, where by some boys
circumcise and others accompany candidates for circumcision, also both boys and girls
participate because girls help in cooking and dancing, which takes a lot of time thus
causing a lot of absenteeism of pupils from school( Local leader).

This illustrates that people like relatives, friends, neighbors and well wishers work together to

ensure that the ceremony is successfully accomplished.

This was re-echoed by a head teacher who explains what he goes through Naweyo Sub-County,

Butaleja District.

Because these parents don’t value education so much, they have failed to help us
reduce poor school attendance levels during circumcision period. In my school I have
tried to put strict rules against absenteeism like telling a child who didn’t attend to
come with a parent .Some parents feel un comfortable to come to school with such a
child and you will see a child in the next school. Some tell their children to stay at home
the whole term (Head teacher).

This implies that whereas some schools are strict on pupils‟ absenteeism, some parents do not

help administrators and teachers to send children to school regularly. Therefore, parents

contribute to learners‟ absenteeism from school during the time for circumcision.

In addition, respondents revealed that there was irregular attendance of pupils at school during

the circumcision period as one of the respondents explained that

The year of circumcision is always characterized by irregular pupils’ school

attendance because the drums attract learners to join the dancing group which limits
pupils ’school attendance. Some attend because they are relatives of circumcision
candidates and others are well wishers. A pupil is free to join the dancing group
because it’s not my responsibility to chase away these children. This is like a training
for those who have not circumcised (Cultural leader).

50
This implies that during the circumcision period most pupils exhibit irregular school attendance

because of entertainment which attracts pupils to join the dancing group. Pupils like this form of

entertainment during the circumcision practice and this renders them to be absent from school

thus reducing pupils‟ school attendance. This further implies that children are free to join the

dancing group at any time whether school hours or not as leaders feel that it is like a training.

Table: 4.8 Period of the year circumcision is carried out

Response category Frequency Valid Percent

From August to December 19 28.8

Throughout even year 32 48.5

During holidays 15 22.7
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.8 reveals that 48.5% of teachers said that circumcision takes place throughout the even

year and 22.5% said that the ceremony takes place during holidays. Many teachers say that

circumcision ceremonies happen throughout the even years which are years for circumcision

hence affecting pupils‟ school attendance. This implies that during even years, schools in

Naweyo Sub-County record highest levels of poor school attendance.

In addition, a cultural leader explained that,

Circumcision ceremonies are allowed to be carried out from January to December of

every even year. The circumcision period depends on the parents’ and boy’s decision.
Some prefer it to be done early that is before the official launch in August (Cultural
leader).

This means that time for circumcising children is not controlled. Circumcision can be done any
time during the year whether during school time or not.

51
Figure 4.3: Participation in the Circumcision Ceremony by School Children

No
18 (6%)

Yes
288 (94%)

Figure 4.3 reveals that 94% of pupils participate in the circumcision ceremony and 6% said that

they did not participate in the ceremony last year. This implies that majority of the pupils

participated in circumcision ceremony and this might have compelled them to be absent from

school.

Table 4.9: Number of times Children Attended Circumcision Ceremoniesin 2016

Response category Frequency Valid Percent

Once 34 11.1
Twice 72 23.5
Thrice 43 14.1
More than three times 157 51.3
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data
52
Table 4.9 reveals that 51.3% of pupils answered that they attended the circumcision ceremony

more than three times a week during the year 2016 while 11.1% had attended the ceremony once.

This implies that largest single majority of the pupils had attended these ceremonies more than

once a week thereby affecting the level of school attendance. This means that most pupils miss

both co-curricular and curricular activities. For example missing three times in a week means a

learner has missed a lot of classroom activities like class work which includes homework.

This was confirmed by head teacher who revealed that

It is common for pupils here to attend school half day in that you see them in the morning
and after break time they are nowhere to be seen. Others absent themselves for a number
of days due to circumcision in the area. I have tried to sensitize both pupils and parents
but no positive change has been recorded (Head Teacher).
This implies that children are more likely not to attend school while doing child labour in their

homes and communities and/or also attending circumcision practices that are considered by

many as a great event of the community hence rendering some children to miss attending school

to attend such ceremonies as circumcision.

4. 2.2: To find out the influence of Early marriage on pupils’ school attendance in Naweyo

Sub-County.

The study‟s second objective was to find out the influence of early marriage as a cultural practice

on pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County and respondents were subjected to

interviews and questionnaires. The first question was if teachers had registered cases of early

marriages.

53
 No
22 (33%)

Yes
44 (67%)

Source: Field data

Figure 4.4: Cases of early marriage registered in the school

Figure 4.4 reveals that 67% of the teachers confirmed that they have received cases of early

marriages whereas 33% said they have not registered cases of early marriages. This implies that

most schools have registered cases of early marriages which affect pupils‟ school attendance.

This further indicates that early marriages are widely spread in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja

District.

One of the respondents confirmed this when she reported that,

Child marriages are common among the fourteen year old girls and above, as some
parents force their children to get married yet others get married because they have
already conceived (Head Teacher).
This implies that early marriages are supported by parents in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja

District especially among children above 14 years of age. Early marriages among children are

sometimes fostered by parents, peers and others get married because they get pregnant an

indication that these children start love affairs as early as fourteen years of age.

54
This was re-echoed by a cultural leader who, when asked about the reasons for early marriage,

explained that;

Those children who delay in schools get spoilt by producing few children and moving
away from their ancestral homes. I married my first wife, a mother to twelve children, at
the age of fourteen children must marry when parents are still alive in order to enjoy
dowry. My wife was given to me by her parents because my father had dowry but has
never divorced compared to educated girls. I have so far given out four daughters who
are producing for me grand children apart from one who died while giving birth and left
six children.(Cultural Leader).
This implies that most parents highly support early marriages and this affects pupils‟ school

attendance.

Table 4.12: Children told to get married in the previous year

Response category Frequency Percent

Yes 119 38.9

No 187 61.1
Total 306 100.0
Source: Filed data

Table 4.12 reveals that the number of pupils who were told to get marriedwas38.9% and those

that said nobody had told them to get married in the last one year was 61.1%. Looking at the

38.9% of pupils who confess to have been told to get married in the last year is abig percentage

considering the fact that they are primary school children who deserve all the protection from

every community members to ensure that they continue with school attendance in order to have a

brighter future. Findings indicated that telling children to get married further causes a bit of fear

and loss of confidence amongst children in their parents. This is more so if the guardian or parent

is the one who is telling this child to get married. The cultural leader also revealed that,

55
 In my area, parents always tell children to marry with a reason that they are
academically weak; once a parent identifies such a weakness, he or she will not support
the child with uniform and other scholastic requirements until he or she gives up for
marriage (Cultural Leader).
This implies that parents are happy when their children get married.

Who told you to get married

45
39.2
40
35
28.8
30
25
20 15.7 16.3 who told you to get
15 married
10
5
0
parents guardian or friend or community
other adult peer member
relatives

Source: Field data

Figure 4.5: Categories of people that told children to get married

Figure 4.5 reveals that 39.2% of pupils said that it is manily their friends or peers thathad told

them to get married. This was followed by parents at 28.8% and the least group which was

15.7% of respondents said that guardians and adult relatives had told them to get married. This

implies that friends, peers , guardians and adult relatives majorly influence children into

marriage without considering their education and the legal age for marriage in uganda which is

eighteen years hence, leading to poor school attendance. This further indicates that different

categories of people influence these children to get married. Morever these are the people who

56
stay closer to these children who would be in position to guide them not to get married at early

age.

This was supplemented by the local leader when asked the reasons for early marriage as

children get married due to many reasons like some get married after circumcision
because they are free to marry, others are forced by their parents because they want
dowry yet others are conviced by peers to get boy friends and girl friends which results
into pregnancy leading to child marriage. (Local Leader).

This implies that local leaders don‟t play their role by implementing the law against early
maarriage.This further indicats that parents do what they feel is good for their children as far as
marriage is concerned.
The local leader furhter noted that;

I tried to sensitise the community members especially on the issue of early

marriages.They give lame excuses that the girl(s) was too weak and big to study in a
primary school and even if she continues ,there is no money to support her to secondary
schools. Since i have not been successful in educating mine who also get married early
but at their own,I have always been insulted as a reference .(LocalLeader)

This indicates that thire leaders have inferiority complex and therefore don‟t have a strong voice
to sensitise the parents.

Table 4.13: Awareness about other children who got married in the community

Response category Frequency Percent

Yes 268 87.6

No 38 12.4
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.13 reveals that 87.6% of pupils said that they knew some pupils who got married

whereas the least 12.4% said that they don‟t know of any other children in their community who

got married. This implies that most pupils know each other and this further means that child

marriage is common amongst school going pupils in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja District.

57
 16+
(13%)
011-015
(11%)
01-005
(53%)
06-010
(23%)

Source: Field data

Figure 4.6: Number of children in the community known to have got married

Figure 4.6 reveals that 52.9% of respondents know of 1-5 children in their community who got

married and 11.4% of pupils say that they know 11-15 of children who have gotten married in

this community and this implies that according to respondents, there is evidence that pupils get

married at early age hence affecting their school attendance.

Table 4.14: Reactions of local leaders on the issue of early marriages (Teachers)

Response category Frequency Percent

They take victims to courts of law 22 33.3

They don‟t mind 15 22.7
Report to authorities 24 36.4
Follow up the ones who have dropped out 5 7.6
Total 66 100.0

Source: Field data

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Table 4.14 reveals that 36.4% of teachers report victims to police and 7.6% said that authorities

follow up the ones who have dropped out of school. From the findings, however, 22.7% is a big

percentage not to mind about children‟s early marriages in the community as child marriages are

a great obstacle to pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja District.

Most local leaders asserted that,

Once the biological parents consent the marriage of their children, there is no need of
legal interventions (Local Leaders)

This implies that parents have a big share of influence in determining the age of their children‟s

marriage. Early marriage seems to influence less on pupils‟ school attendance amongst most

pupils in Naweyo Sub-County.

4.2.3 To find out the influence of Child Labour and Pupils’ School Attendance

The study sought to find out how child labour as one of the selected cultural practices influence

pupils‟ school attendance and respondents of both teachers and pupils were involved in the study

and results are presented.

Table 4.16: Type of work done by pupils with their parents at home

Response category Frequency Percent

Agriculture 245 80.1
Petty business 32 10.5
Skilled employment 15 4.9
Cleaning of utensils 5 1.6
Digging and farming 9 2.9
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data

59
Table 4.16 reveals that pupils were asked of the work they do with their parents at home and

80.1% of the pupils said that they are involved in agriculture whereas 1.6% of pupils said that

they help their parents in cleaning of utensils, and this may affect pupils‟ school attendance. This

means that majority of the pupils are involved in agriculture with their parents which is a great

hindrance to pupils‟ school attendance. This was confirmed by qualitative data whereby it was

discovered that;

Children spend much time working during the week days. Some children are forced by
parents, yet others work to get money to buy scholastic materials and other home needs.
If you go to Doho rice scheme now, you will think that today is a weekend or public
holiday(Head teacher).
This implies that children are largely involved in child labour which they have to carry out

voluntarily or involuntarily in order to meet scholastic material needs and other economic family

needs. This further means that child labour is largely societal instigated and this affects pupils‟

school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County.

Furthermore, the study findings reveal that pupils exhibit irregular school attendance because of

their involvement in labour so as to supplement family income as one of the respondents

explained that;

Sometimes children have to be absent from school in order to work for paid labour that is
used to pay school fees and buy other scholastic materials that may be needed at schools.
Farmers prefer using children to adults because they are cheap and faithful to their
employers (Local Leader).
This implies that children are highly exposed to child labour as elders encourage them to work

by paying them money which can easily motivate learners to learn bad behavior under the

influence of money. This instills into learners making quick compulsory of the fruits of

education and working hence misleading pupils to put much effort in work than concentrating in

class.

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Table 4.17: Nature of work children do with parents at home

Response category Frequency Percent

Chasing birds, slashing digging 178 58.2

Looking after animals 75 24.5

Cooking, washing plates and clothes fetching
50 16.3
water
Child rearing 3 1.0
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data
Table 4.17 reveals that pupils were asked of the specific work they do with their parents and

findings revealed that 58.2% said that they are involved in chasing birds, slashing and digging

their gardens whereas 1% said they are always involved in child rearing. From the largest single

majority, the major activity children engage in is chasing birds, slashing and digging. 58.2% is a

high number for pupils in primary schools to do that kind of work which eventually leads to

pupils‟ poor school attendance. One local leader noted that,

These children do all the work like digging, grazing animals, cooking among others with
their parents. At the beginning of the season like sawing and weeding of millet and other
crops need many people (much labour) and these children need to join parents like for at
least a week depending on how big the garden is. The same applies to harvesting of most
crops. For us who cannot afford to employ people use our children because they need
food (Local Leader).

This implies that children have to miss a good number of days without attending school as they

are forced to join other family members working. Considering a school going child, that period is

too long for a child to catch up with those who have fully been attending school. Besides, the

Head teacher re-echoed that;

Most pupils spend time digging especially in the swamp where they can earn some good
money. They also go to scare birds from rice fields until rice gets ready for a period of
one month; this is when a child can return back to school after missing attending for all
that period (Head Teacher).
61
This indicates that parents have no interest in education. This further implies that patents are not
responsible for their children who are left with the responsibility of looking for money.

Table 4.18: Number of times children do work with their parents in a term

Response category Frequency Percent

173 56.5
1-4 days a week

Almost all weeks days 78 25.5

Two weeks to a month 40 13.1
A full term and more 15 4.9
Total 306 100.0

Source: Field data

Table 4.18 reveals that 56.5% of respondents said that these activities take between 1-4 days as

4.9% of the respondents said that it takes a week. This shows that there is poor school attendance

amongst pupils like a child missing attending 1-4 days a week yet teachers are teaching every

day in order to accomplish the syllabus. This means that parents in Naweyo Sub-County

prioritize work to education which highly affects pupils‟ school attendance in the Sub-County.

Moreover the local leaders who would help also just watch and take it as normal. For example, a

local leader from Naweyo Village when asked whether children are involved in domestic work

by their parents answered that;

Yes, children have to work because they are the future husbands and wives and they will
soon be responsible for their families hence needed to learn to dig. Once a child learns
how to get money is enough because I see many graduates and government employees
like teachers very poor. I feel digging is more paying (Cultural Leader).

The above statement reveals that parents have instilled a negative statement towards education

into these children at a young stage making them think that rice growers have more money than

62
government workers. This further implies that parents look at the benefits of education in terms

of only earning more money as the cultural leader asserts;

Most parents have neglected their children especially on the side of education. Some
parents don’t take interest to know whether a child has attended school or not yet some
encourage their children to stay home and work leading to poor school attendance
(Cultural Leader).

This implies that most of these parents are illiterates and have no interest in the education of their
children.

Table 4.19: Pupils’ reason for doing work

Response category Frequency Percent

To supplement family income 160 52.3
To get money to buy scholastic materials 111 36.3
My parents force me 27 8.8
Friends convince me 8 2.6
Total 306 100.0

Source: Field data

Table 4.19 reveals the reason why they do work with their parents and 52.3% said that they do

those activities in order to supplement family income whereas the least 2.6% of pupils said that

friends convince them to do various activities for their parents at home. This implies that most

parents in this Sub-County rely on small scale farming where labour is provided by their

children. This also means that Child labour in this community is due to poverty of the parents

where children work for pay in order to buy scholastic materials.

For example when the head teacher was asked in which way does work hinder pupils‟ school

attendance? He answered that,

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 Some pupils miss for a number of days digging in the swamp or scaring away birds from
rice gardens .This takes a month or more meaning he or she will miss attending school
for a number of days . (Head teacher)

This implies that pupils do work even during school days. This further indicates that parents

don‟t have much interest in sending these children to school.

Results from qualitative data revealed that,

The majority of male parents in this area don’t want to work instead you get them very
early in the morning in the trading centres making noise and eating chapattis; a vice that
is becoming very common. The mother who is the bread winner advises the children to
miss school and work so as to get food at home (Local Leader).
This implies that most parents are poor due to lack of the spirit of hard work.

Table 4.20: Missing attending school by pupils in the previous year

Response category Frequency Percent

Yes 248 81.0

No 58 19.0
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data
Table 4.20 reveals that 81% of pupils missed attending school for some days in the previous one

year and 19% of these pupils reported not to have missed attending school. From the largest

single majority however, 81% of the children who say they missed attending school last year as a

result of child labour is a big number bearing in mind that they are still young. This indicates that

these pupils‟ health may not be good as they spend most of the time working resulting into poor

pupils‟ performance. In addition, this implies that these pupils don‟t concentrate much in class

due to body weakness where a child spent the previous day working.

One teacher noted that,

64
 These children work even during school days and during school hours as long as there is
work to do. This is at times in favour of parents (Teacher).

This means that pupils engage in child labour irrespective of whether its class time or not. This

means that during this time when they are attending to non school activities, they do miss a lot of

class work which may end up affecting their school achievement. One of the head teachers

reveled that,

In my school we rarely get a child who has fully attended the term throughout the year
due to child labour. When there is work which needs much labour like harvesting of
millet, rice among others children are usually told to miss attending school (Head
Teacher).

This implies that parents priotise work more than education which is a bad example to
their children

Table 4.21: Number of days children missed attending school in the previous term

Response category Frequency Percent

2-4 days 169 55.2
All/most of the week days 70 22.9
Two weeks-a month 55 18.0
A full term 12 3.9
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.21 reveals that 55.2% of pupils‟ respondents said they missed attending school for 2-4

days a term whereas the least 3.9% of pupils also said that they missed school for a full term.

This implies that most pupils were absent as result of child labour. Head teachers were asked of

the days of the week pupils are involved in domestic work and one of them said that,

They do work any day whether school days or weekends as long as they are told to work.
Some pupils work for money. This category can attend half day and escape from school
to go to the swamp to work because they need the money. Some children work with their
parents either for money or in their own gardens (Head teacher).
65
This means that the leadership of the District is weak as they just watch children working during
school days.

This was re-echoed by a local leader who said that

It is common to see school going children working either with their parents or alone
during school days (local leader)

Moreover one of the teacher agrees with the above views of a head teacher and local leader that;

We experience a lot of absenteeism due to child labour. Pupils do not only work over
weekends but also during week days (Teacher).

This means that teachers are aware of the impact of child labour on pupils‟ school attendance in
Naweyo Sub-county, Butaleja district.

Table 4.22: Reasons for missing attending school (pupils)

Response category Frequency Percent

Circumcision 158 51.6
Early marriage 22 7.1
Child labour 97 31.7
All three 8 2.6
Lack of scholastic material 21 6.9
Total 306 100.0
Source: Field data

Table 4.22 reveals that 51.6% of the respondents agreed that circumcision makes pupils absent

from school yet 31.7% are absent from school because of child labour whereas the least 6.9% of

pupils said that they missed attending school because of lack of scholastic materials. This implies

that the cultural practices which include circumcision and child labour strongly affect pupils‟

school attendance in Naweyo Sub- County, Butaleja District.

Due to interesting music experienced during the circumcision exercise, both non and
circumcision candidates get involved more so in dancing. The dancing exercise which
takes three days always hinders pupils from attending school because many youth are
66
 circumcising almost every day. Because some pupils are relatives to circumcision
candidates and others as well wishers leads to serious failure of pupils’ school
attendance (Cultural Leader).

This implies that children miss a lot during circumcision period as the time and period for
dancing is not controlled.
In addition,

Child labour has been due to lack of responsibility by parents as a result of polygamy.
Fathers have neglected their children because they are too many to support so children
have to work in order to acquire scholastic materials and fees for instance PLE
registration and development fees. In this way, many of our pupils that are constrained
engage in child labour and miss valuable school time (Head Teacher).
This implies that there is a lot of polygamy which has incapacitated fathers to play their role as
parents.

Table 4.23: Possibilities of children coming back to school after circumcision

Response category Frequency Percent

Yes 275 89.9

No 31 10.1

Total 306 100.0

Source: Field data

Table 4.23 reveals that 89.9% of pupils said that they come back after circumcision where as

10.1% of respondents said that they do not come back after circumcision. This implies that

though few, some pupils do not come back after circumcision which clearly indicates irregular

school attendance during even year. This further indicates that the majority of the people in

Naweyo Sub-County embrace traditional male circumcision. One head teacher noted that,

At times children come back to school but this really depends on the role played during
circumcision. For example, those who are circumcised have to stay at home until the
wound heals, which at times takes long whereas very few do not come back (Head
teacher).

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This means that the pupils return to school depends on the roles played during circumcision.

Therefore, the easier the role played during circumcision, the earlier they return to school and

this is accompanied by providing counseling as the cultural leader asserts;

The majority of the children circumcised go back to school after healing. A child can lose
interest, but after missing a term they usually go back especially when we counsel them
(Cultural Leader).
This implies that children are confident that they are free to go back after missing attending
school for so long.

Table 4.24:Teachers views on parents’ occupation

Response category Frequency Percent

Agriculture 44 66.7
Small scale business 22 33.3
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field data
Table 4.24 reveals that 66.7% of teachers said that parents survive on agriculture where as 33.3%

of respondents said that some parents survive on small scale business. This implies that most

parents survive on agriculture to sustain their families.

Table 4.25: Involvement of children in the domestic work by their parents

Response category Frequency Percent

Yes 60 90.9
No 6 9.1
Total 66 100.0

Source: Field data

Table 4.25 reveals that 90.9% of teachers said that pupils are involved in domestic work by their

parents. From the majority of the respondents, this implies that parents in this community have a

strong attachment to their culture that a child has to work for parents. This further indicates that a

child should be trained to work as part of his life. Moreover, work instills into a child the

68
thinking that working is better than schooling in the sense that you harvest within a short time

and get money compared to education which is long term. The head teacher shared lived

experience that;

Parents are aware of where their children work since they are the ones who instruct them
where to work the next day yet some of these are school days (Head Teacher).
This means that parents don‟t inspire their children to study and attend regularly hence affecting
pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub –County.

Table 4.26: Nature of domestic work children do

Response category Frequency Percent

Sweeping houses, digging 14 21.2
Fetching water 5 7.6
To help the family earn a living 10 15.2
Digging in wetlands and planting 22 33.3
Rearing or grazing animals 15 22.7
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field data
Table 4.26 revealed from 33.3% of respondents that digging in wetlands and planting of food

crops and cash crops in their communities and 15.2% of pupils said that they help the family to

earn a living and the least 7.3% said they help in fetching water .This implies that most pupils are

taken to the swamp to dig whether forced or voluntary.

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Table 4.27: Reasons for children’s involvement in work

Response category Frequency Percent

To get food and money for domestic use 27 40.9

To earn a living 24 36.4

To get scholastic materials and other basic needs 15 22.7
Total 66 100.0
Source: Field Data

Table 4.27 reveals that 40.9% of teachers said that children get involved in work to get food and

money for domestic use, while 36.4% said that pupils are involved in work to earn a living.

Others reported that they work to get scholastic materials and other basic needs. This implies that

children get involved in work largely in order to get food and money for domestic use. This

might further imply that most parents are living below the poverty line with evidence pointing to

the fact that they are not able to meet adequately the basic needs of life as the Head Teacher

explains;

Because of lack of interest in work and laziness among parents, pupils usually work to
get money for scholastic materials and domestic use like buying food, paraffin and soap
among others (Local Leader).
This implies that some children work for survival.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the discussion, conclusions, recommendations and areas for further

research. The first part illustrates discussion according to the objectives of the study which were;

the influence of circumcision, early marriage and child labour on pupils‟ school attendance in

Naweyo Sub-County, the second section is the conclusion drawn from the discussion, the third

one is recommendation drawn from the conclusions. The fourth section gives possible areas for

further research.

5.1 To find out the influence of Circumcision Practices on pupils’ School Attendance

The first objective was to find out the influence of circumcision practice on pupils‟ school

attendance in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja District. The results revealed that circumcision

ceremony is well established in the community; that when it starts most children participate and

this limits pupils‟ school attendance. These findings are in agreement with UCU News(2006)

which reported that during even years, which are years for circumcision, an official launch is

performed at Mutoto cultural site in Mbale District. Both school going children and dropouts join

the rest of the people who camp at Mutoto for a week or more to the day of the official launch.

This period is time for merry making which is characterized by a lot of dancing and boozing,

among other activities. Because of much entertainment experienced at the site, pupils tend to

dodge classes by joining their friends at Mutoto cultural site hence affecting pupils‟ school

attendance.

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Some teachers revealed that most children were involved in circumcision practice and their

involvement rendered them to abscond from school, largely affecting their attendance. This

finding was in agreement with the views of Namukwaya(2014) who asserted that the time of

bodily healing after circumcision is not predetermined as this depends on one‟s body.

Namukwaya discovered that as the healing process goes on, the pupils who have undergone

circumcision tend to miss a number of school activities that may include class work, tests and

home work. These findings are also in line with a baseline survey which was carried out in

Sironko District by UWESO(2010) whereby the local leaders agreed that the circumcision

exercise had disrupted normal school routine because many pupils were dropping out of school

to participate in the cultural circumcision rites.

The study also revealed that children participated in circumcision practice by dancing to the

traditional drums commonly known as „kadodi‟. In this dance children fully participate and this

renders pupils absent from school. This agrees with findings by Chang‟ach(2013) who provides

examples of Kenya pupils who tend to miss class; where a bigger fraction of male pupils do

not attend school during the months when circumcision ceremonies are going on in some

parts of Kenya.

Teachers also reported that children participate in the circumcision process by singing cultural

songs during the circumcision season. Some children share good moments and refuse to go back

to class until the end of the season or even refuse completely to go back to school since they are

now “men” who are free to marry. This agrees with findings by Chang‟ach (2013) who puts it

clear that children who come from cultural backgrounds and families where activities like

72
circumcision are done lack concentration in class because they spend time watching, cooking,

dancing among other activities. Mbugua(2012) asserts that once those children are

circumcised, they are expected to assume new social roles for instance marriage to turn into

husband and wife which later turns into father and mother.

The study also showed that both boys and girls fully participated by dancing and doing

ceremonial work like cooking which in turn affected their school attendance. This finding is

in disagreement with findings by Hari(2009) who says that circumcision practices are blamed

to be a cause of girl dropout since they are non educative and are often held during the school

term and result in girls missing a considerable amount of school time. For this study, the

researcher discovered that not only girls are affected by circumcision practice but both girls and

boys.

Furthermore, it was found out that circumcision ceremonies are carried out at any period of the

even years whether during school days or not. The time to circumcise the boy is determined by

parents and relatives yet most of them do not understand the value of education as mentioned by

head teachers. Since boys feel prestigious to be circumcised, they suspend learning for

circumcision. This is in agreement with Cook (2010) who sought to determine the root causes of

absenteeism in selected primary schools in Jamaica by investigating the influence of cultural,

educational, and community factors on student absenteeism from school. The findings by

Cook(2010) suggest that the factors for absenteeism do not find their genesis in the family only,

but also in the schools, the communities, and the students themselves.

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5.2 To find out the effect of Early Marriage on Pupils’ School Attendance

The study‟s second objective discovered that friends or peers, community members, parents and

guardians influence pupils to get married at an early age. It was confirmed by 38.9% learners that

somebody of the above category told him or her to get married. This agrees with findings by

(Mutegeki, 2015) who discovered that throughout the world, marriage is regarded as a moment

of celebration and a milestone in adult life. Sadly, the practice of early marriage gives no such

cause for celebration as many girls are losing out on their education in Uganda. Many young

girls are suffering due to early marriage. The imposition of a marriage partner upon a child

means a girl‟s childhood is cut short and their fundamental rights such as education are

compromised.

Teachers confirmed that they have received cases of early marriages. This implies that most

schools have registered cases of early marriages which affect pupils‟ school attendance. Teachers

further explained that early marriage is common among the fourteen year old and above where

other children are forced by their parents yet others marry because they have conceived. This

agrees with findings from (Unicef et al., 2014) which states that In many countries, laws have

been adopted to prevent marriage below 18 years of age, but they are often not well-enforced to

save school going children for instance (Onzima, 2010)noted that some boys and girls get

married at as low as 14 years with a consent of parents.

The 38.9% of pupils who confess to have been told to get married last year is a very big

percentage considering the fact that these are primary school children who deserve all the

protection from every community member to ensure that they continue with school attendance in

74
order to ensure a brighter future for them. This agrees with Berhane(2006) who illustrates that

early marriage is often as a result of strong traditions and social norms which tend to dictate that

young girls are married off in order to fulfill their pre-determined gender roles as wives and

mothers. The male pupils that have undergone the circumcision may have the perception that

they are now adults or „men‟ sets up into their mind and it is culturally communicated to

children exposing them to circumstances of marrying since the function „leads‟ children into

adulthood as this affects their school attendance.

The study discovered that both boys and girls are exposed to early marriage .The boys after

circumcision are free to marry much as they are still young. The girls are not spared whether

forced or voluntarily. This disagrees with a study carried out by UNFPA (2012) and

International Refugee Trust (2016) on early marriages which indicates that parents‟ preference

for boys to excel academically to girls and the cultural perception that makes them consider girls

as valuables for marriage affects pupils‟ school attendance across the gender lines. This

perception makes parents assign girls more roles and domestic chores with an intention of

grooming a girl into a wife, mother and also a responsible cultured female citizen. In Naweyo

Sub-County, both boys and girls are equally affected.

The study also discovered that cultural leaders support the issue of early marriage as they said

children should marry early because they need dowry and many grand children. To them

children who don‟t go further academically tend to stay closer to their ancestral homes compared

to their counter parts. This is in line with Mwesigwa (2015) who urges that early marriage is a

75
result of poverty where parents want to secure their financial security by marrying off their

daughters with an intention of getting bride price.

The local leaders‟ reaction towards early marriages in the community revealed that they take

victims to courts of law for redress. Other respondents revealed that they report to authorities any

cases of child marriage. However others say that authorities don‟t mind about cases of child

marriage and others say that authorities follow up the ones who have dropped out of school. A

big percentage say they do not mind about children‟s early marriages in the community as child

marriages are a great obstacle to the attendance of children in school. This agrees with

Onzima(2010)who notes that in many countries, laws have been adopted to prevent marriage

below 18 years of age, but they are often not well-enforced to save school going children.

This disagrees with findings by Chang‟ach, (2013)who explains that there is widespread

consensus that child marriage violates the rights of girls, limits their school attainment, learning,

and future earnings, and has negative impacts on their health and that of their children. Child

marriage clearly contributes to poor school attendance. And yet the practice remains highly

prevalent despite efforts by many developing countries to discourage and even outlaw the

practice, among others through reforms of family law (Field & Attila, 2008).

5.3. To find out the effect of Child labour on pupils’ school attendance

The third objective found out that there is a medium significant relationship between child labour

and pupils‟ school attendance. This implies therefore that in a situation where there are effective

76
means through which child labour can be managed then school attendance may be improved.

This finding concurs with Onzima(2010)who explains that children mainly boys absent from

school in order to work and supplement family income notably do casual work during harvest of

cereal thus such activities adversely affect pupils‟ school attendance where the school boys

harvest and carry the produce which makes them spend a substantial number of hours and days

off school.

The study further discovered that the main work children do with their parents at home included

agriculture, petty business and semi-skilled employment. Helping their parents in cleaning of

utensils, digging and farming were also pointed out as activities pupils engage in and this affects

pupils‟ school attendance. This agrees with (Unicef et al., 2014)which estimated that 150 million

children between 5-18 years are involved in both paid and unpaid forms of work and this

classification is based on the fact that some children are too young to work or are engaged in un

safe activities that are seen to potentially compromise their physical, emotional, social or

educational development.

The majority of the respondents mentioned that most children are involved in farming

particularly chasing birds, slashing and digging their gardens whereas others said they are

looking after animals. Children are occupied by household chores such as cooking, washing

plates, clothes, fetching water and child rearing. In addition some children are engaged in

household enterprise a like home-based cottages including making snacks (pancakes, cassava

and chips) or attending to retail shops. This agrees with findings by Namukwaya (2014) that the

population that is defined to be of working age is 14-64 years in Uganda. However UNICEF

77
(2016) presents a different perspective based on the various international agencies like

International Labour Organization which define working age population to be 15-64 years.

Findings from UBOS ((2013) and UNFPA (2012)highlight an increment in labour force which

results from young population entering the working age bracket and despite a rise in business

ventures the working age population is with low education whereby in the financial year

2009/2010 75% of the labour force had either primary level or no education at all.

The study discovered that boys work slightly more than girls especially in chasing birds from the

rice fields, grazing and slashing. This agrees with a study done by Onzima (2010) which

indicated that children mainly boys absent from school in order to work and supplement family

income notably do casual work during harvest of cereal thus such activities adversely affect

pupils‟ school attendance where the school boys harvest and carry the produce which makes

them spend a substantial number of hours and days off school which findings concur with those

from UBOS (2013), Ministry of Education and Sports (2011).

The study further discovered that the reasons why children help their parents on some of the

household activities is to supplement family income, to get money to buy scholastic materials as

others said are forced by their parents to do the activities they do at home and others said that

friends convince them to do various activities for their parents. One head teacher observed that

most parents don‟t value education so much instead think that rice growing and doing business is

far much better than keeping their children in school all the time. This agrees with(Levy,

2005)who discovered that children in full time child labour are left with no chance of schooling.

Those who combine work with schooling, due to fatigue and lack of enough time, may fail to

78
complete assignments given at school, experience poor concentration during class time, and may

even skip class or school altogether. All these definitely lead to poor academic performance,

class repetitions, and these coupled with chronic absenteeism may finally lead to the affected

children dropping out of school.

On the other hand, those who combine work with schooling, due to fatigue and lack of enough

time, at times fail to complete assignments given at school, experience poor concentration during

class time, and even skip class or school altogether. All these activities definitely lead to poor

academic performance, class repetitions, and these coupled with chronic absenteeism may finally

lead to the children involved to drop out of school. This agrees (Boozer et al. 2001) who notes

that child labour affects learners starting from their health up-to their class academics

performance.

This collaborates with Boozer et al. (2001) who explain that some children are subjected to work

activities, especially in the evenings after school that require long hours to finish. Such children

are deprived of time to attend to any assignments given at school and others, due to fatigue are

unable to attend school the following day. Chronic absenteeism not only leads to poor academic

performance but may also prompt the affected children to eventually drop out of primary school.

5.4 Conclusion

Based on findings and discussions, the following conclusions were drawn;

First, the study has found out that truly circumcision affects school attendance. This therefore

means that if more circumcision is done, learners‟ school attendance will reduce.

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Secondly, early marriages also have direct influence on pupils‟ school attendance and a decrease

in completion rates of primary education in Naweyo Sub-County. This will negatively impact on

the enrollment (attendance)of learners at secondary school level of education and other higher

institutions of learning especially for students coming from Naweyo Sub-County,

Thirdly, child labour affects pupils‟ school attendance in Naweyo Sub-County, Butaleja District.

Therefore, if the rate of child labour increases, then there will be an increase in learner

absenteeism, an indication that child labour has a negative effect on pupils‟ school attendance.

5.5 Recommendations

The study makes the following three recommendations;

Cultural leaders should revise the circumcision time to avoid interrupting learners‟ studies

because many learners leave school to attend to circumcision ceremonies. This can be done

through limiting circumcision to learners who have completed a given level of education, for

example circumcising only those who have completed S.4, and doing this during their long

vacation. Alternatively, circumcision may be done during holidays especially for the case of

those school going children who are not in candidate classes.

Secondly, the study recommends that the MoES and other relevant ministries and local

authorities should strengthen the law against child marriage to punish those who are involved in

marrying off school going girls. They should also set up a counseling centre for boys who

attempt to marry when young and take them back to school. These measures might help to

prevent some of the early marriages among primary school pupils thereby encouraging improved

80
pupils school attendance. The school administration should also guide and counsel the pupils‟ to

concentrate on their academics and not be taken up by peer or social influence of colleagues who

decide to engage in early marriages.

Lastly, local government leaders need to put in place measures of curbing child labour. One way

of doing this is by closely monitoring those who employ school going children. This is because

once these employers say no to the practice of child labour, then the school going children will

have no chance of seeking for employment from them. In addition, parents need to be sensitized

about the dangers of child labour and child absenteeism from school. This is because parents are

responsible for what their children do both at home and away from home.

5.6 Suggestions for further Research

The study proposes the following areas for further research;

First, an examination of how circumcision affects school attainment in terms of grades and

completion rates. This is because the study has found out that circumcision is not the major

factor affecting school attendance. Therefore, further research will have to find out the influence

of circumcision on school attainment.

Secondly, a study to follow up boys and girls who have gone in for early marriages needs to be

done. This study can look at parents‟ willingness to take their children to school and in addition

their willingness to meet the scholastic needs of those children.

Lastly, there is need for a more comprehensive study on the main labour offered by primary

school going children. A study could look at the effect of this work on their health and on the

81
contribution of child labour earnings towards the financing of pupils‟ education in particular and

family income in general.

82
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1452-8

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 APPENDIX I

PUPILS’ QUESTIONNAIRE

I am Kayendeke Perusi graduate student at School of Education, Makerere University. I am

doing a study on Influence of Selected Cultural Practices on Pupils‟ School Attendance in

Naweyo Sub County, Butaleja District. It is against this background that you have been selected

to participate in the research by completing this questionnaire. It would thus be grateful if you

assist by answering the questions as per the instructions. Your responses will be kept confidential

since the questionnaire is anonymous. Thank you for your cooperation.

TOPIC: CULTURAL PRACTICES AND PUPILS’ SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: The Influence of;

i) Circumcision

ii) Early Marriage

iii) Child Labour on Pupil’s School Attendance

SECTION A: PERSONAL DATA

Please Tick appropriately.

1. Sex of respondent (observe and tick appropriately)

1. Male

2. Female

2. How old are you?

1. 11 -12 years

2. 12 – 14 years

3. 14-16 years

4. 17+

89
3. In which class are you?

1. P.4

2. P.5

3. P.6

4. P.7

SECTION B: CIRCUMCISION

4. Were circumcision ceremonies carried out in your village last year?

1. Yes

2. No

5. Did any family member/ relative get circumcised in 2016?

1. Yes

2. No

6. Did you participate in circumcision ceremony?

1. Yes

2. No

7. If yes, how many times did you attend circumcision ceremonies?

1. Once

2. Twice

3. Thrice

4. More than three times

90
SECTION C: EARLY MARRIAGE

8. Did anyone tell you to get married last year?

1. Yes

2. No

9. Who told you to get married?

1. Parents (Mother/Father)

2. Guardian/other adult relatives

3. Friend/Peer

4. Community member (any concerned citizen)

10. Are there other children in your community that you know who got married?

1. Yes

2. No

11. If yes, how many?

1. 1 -5

2. 5 – 10

3. 10-15

4. 16+

SECTION D: CHILD LABOUR

12. What type of work do you do with your parents at home?

1. Agriculture

2. Petty business (food stall, retail shop, bodaboda ,eating place)

3. Skilled employment (tailor, builder, welder, plumber, mechanic, driver)

4. Any other specify………………………………………..

91
13. Which specific work do you do at home?

1. Chasing birds, slashing, digging

2. Looking after animals

3. Cooking, washing plates and clothes, fetching water

4. Child rearing

14. How often does this happen in a week?

1. 2 – 4 days

2. All/most of the week days

3. Two weeks-a month

4. A full term and more

15. What are the reasons that make you get involved in this work?

1. To supplement family income

2. To get money to buy scholastic materials

3. My parents force me

4. Friends convince me

SECTION E: PUPIL’S SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

16. Did you miss attending school last year?

1. Yes

2. No

17. How many days did you miss attending school last term?

1. 2 – 4 days

2. All/most of the week days

3. Two weeks-a month

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 4. A full term

18. What was the reason (s) for missing attending school?

1. Circumcision

2. Early Marriage

3. Child Labour

4. All the three

5. Others: ……….......................

19. Do children come back to school after?

a) Circumcision?

1. Yes

2. No

b) Marriage?

1. Yes

2. No

Thank you so much for your time and cooperation

93
 APPENDIX II

TEACHERS QUESTIONNAIRE

I am Kayendeke Perusi graduate student at School of Education, Makerere University. I am

doing a study on Influence of Selected Cultural Practices on Pupils‟ School Attendance in

Naweyo Sub County, Butaleja District. It is against this back ground that you have been selected

to participate in the research by completing this questionnaire. It would thus be helpful if you

assist by answering the questions as per the instructions. Your responses will be kept confidential

since the questionnaire is anonymous. Thank you for your cooperation.

TOPIC: CULTURAL PRACTICES AND PUPILS’ SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: The Influence of;

i) Circumcision

ii) Early Marriage

iii) Child Labour on Pupil’s School Attendance

SECTION: A PERSONAL DATA

Please tick appropriately.

1. Age (in years):

1. 20 -25 years

2. 26 – 30 years

3. 31-36 years

4. 37+

2. Position in the school:…………..........................................................................................

3. How long have you served as a teacher in this district? ......................................................

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 SECTION B: CIRCUMCISION

4. What cultural practice is performed in this area seasonally?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Are the children in your school involved in circumcision?

1. Yes

2. No

b) If yes how?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. In which period of the year is the activity carried out?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

SECTION C: EARLY MARRIAGE

7. Have you ever registered cases of early marriages in this school?

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

8. What does the school do after the children have been forced to marry?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. What is the reaction of the local leaders to the issue of early marriage?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

95
SECTION D: CHILD LABOUR

10. What type of work are the parents of this school do for surviving?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

11. Are the children involved in the domestic work by their parents?

1. Yes

2. No

12 b. If yes which activities?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

13. During which days of the week are the children involved in work?

1. Week days [school days]

2. weekends

14. Why do the children get involved in these activities?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

SECTION E: PUPIL’S SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

15. Do the pupils come back to school after Circumcision?

1. Yes

2. No

4.b If not why?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

96
16. How does circumcision hinder school attendance?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

17. Does work deny these children to attend school?

1. Yes

2. No

18. Do children come back to school after marriage ceremonies?

……………………………………………………………………………………….

19. How does work hinder children‟s school attendance?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you so much for your time and cooperation

97
 APPENDIX III

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HEAD TEACHERS

The researcher shall ask the head teachers the following questions. The interview is expected to

take between forty five (30)

Please help me clarify your responses by supplying the following facts about yourself.

1. Are the children in your school involved in circumcision? Please explain?

2. In which period is the activity carried out?

3. Have you ever registered cases of early marriages in this school? If yes how old were the

children?

4. What were the reasons for early marriage?

5. What does the school do after the children have been forced to marry?

6. What type of work are the parents of this school doing for surviving?

7. Are the children involved in the domestic work by their parents? If yes which activities?

Please elaborate

8. During which days of the week are the children involved?

9. In which way does work hinder children‟s attendance in school? Elaborate

10. Do the pupils come back to school after Circumcision? If not why? Elaborate

11. How does circumcision hinder school attendance? Please explain.

12. Do these children come back to school after marriage?

13. What is the reaction of the local leaders to the issue of early marriage?

Thank you so much for your time and cooperation

98
 APPENDIX IV

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR LOCAL AND CULTURAL LEADERS

The researcher shall ask the head teachers the following questions.

Please help me clarify your responses by supplying the following facts about yourself.

1. Are the children in your community involved in circumcision? Please explain?

2. Which period is circumcision conducted?

3. How does circumcision hinder pupils‟ school attendance?

4. Have you ever registered cases of early marriages in this community?

5. What is your contribution to end early marriage in your community?

6. How far are the children involved in the domestic work by their parents? Explain.

7. During which days of the week are the children involved?

8. Why do the children get involved in these activities? Please explain

9. In which way does work hinder children‟s attendance in school? Elaborate

10. How does circumcision affect pupils‟ school attendance? Please explain

11. Do these children go back to school after marriage? Please explain

Thank you so much for your time and cooperation.

99
 APPENDIX V

KREJCIE & MORGAN TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE NEEDED SIZE OF A

RANDOMLY CHOSEN SAMPLE FROM A GIVEN FINITE POPULATION

Population Sample Population Sample Population Sample

10 10 220 140 1200 291

15 14 230 144 1300 297
20 19 240 148 1400 302
25 24 250 152 1500 306
30 28 260 155 1600 310
35 32 270 159 1700 313
40 36 280 162 1800 317
45 40 290 165 1900 320
50 44 300 169 2000 322
55 48 320 175 2200 327
60 52 340 181 2400 331
65 56 360 186 2600 335
70 59 380 191 2800 338
75 63 400 196 3000 341
80 66 420 201 3500 346
85 70 440 205 4000 351
90 73 460 210 4500 354
95 76 480 214 5000 357
100 80 500 217 6000 361
110 86 550 226 7000 364
120 92 600 234 8000 367
130 97 650 242 9000 368
140 103 700 248 10 000 370
150 108 750 254 15 000 375
160 113 800 260 20 000 377
Population Sample Population Sample Population Sample

Source: Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970)

100
 APPENDIX VI

INTRODUCTION LETTER

101
 APPENDIX VII

RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Case Processing Summary

N %

Valid 306 100.0

Cases Excluded 0 .0

Total 306 100.0

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's N of Items

Alpha

.917 20

102
 APPENDIX VIII

TIME FRAME/ WORK PLAN

Sn. Activity Jan- April May- June- Aug-

No. April 2017 June July Sept

2017 2017 2017 2017

1. Research Proposal writing

Proposal submission for first review

2. Addressing comments and building on

literature Review

3. Proposal vetting

4. Data Collection

5. Data Entry and Analysis

6. Dissertation Writing

7. Addressing comments and Submission

103
 APPENDIX IX

BUDGET SCHEDULE

Sn. No. Activity Amount

1. Data Collection (including recruiting 3 Research Assistants and 1,800,000/=

allowances)

2. Stationery (Printing, Photocopying and Binding costs) 513,000/=

3. Transport and travel 620,000/=

4. Communication (Airtime, Internet services) 179,000/=

5. Data Compilation (cleaning and transcribing costs) 330,000/=

Total 3442,000/=

104