CHAPTER III

1. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL TELECOM TRANSMISSION &

APPLICATIONS
Transmission is the process of transporting information between end points of a system or a network.
The end-to-end communication distance is often very long and there are many electrical
systems on the line. These systems, network elements such as exchanges, are connected to the
other elements with connections provided by the transmission systems.
The main elements of a communication system are shown in Figure 5.1. The transducers, such as a
microphone or a TV camera that we need to convert an original signal to an electrical form are
omitted; unwanted disturbances such as electromagnetic interference and noise are included. Note
that bidirectional communication requires another system for simultaneous transmission in the
opposite direction.

Figure 5.2: Transmission system

1.1. Transmitter:
The transmitter processes the input signal and produces a transmitted signal suitable to the
characteristics of a transmission channel. The signal processing for transmission often involves
encoding and modulation. In the case of optical transmission, the conversion from an electrical signal
format to an optical one is carried out in the transmitter.

1.2. Transmission Channel:

The transmission channel is an electrical medium that bridges the distance from the source to the
destination. It may be a pair of wires, a coaxial cable, a radio path, or an optical fibre. Every channel
introduces some amount of transmission loss or attenuation and, therefore, the transmitted power
progressively decreases with increasing distance. The signal is also distorted in the transmission
channel because of different attenuation at different frequencies.

1.3. Receiver:
The receiver operates on an output signal from the channel in preparation for delivery to the
transducer at the destination. Receiver operations include filtering to take away out-of-band noise,

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amplification to compensate for transmission loss, equalizing to compensate for distortion and
demodulation and decoding to reverse the signal processing performed at the transmitter.

1.4. Noise, Distortion, and Interference:

Various unwanted factors impact the transmission of a signal. Attenuation is undesirable because it
reduces signal strength at the receiver. Even more serious problems are distortion, interference, and
noise, the last of which appears as alterations of the signal shape. To decrease the influence of noise,
the receiver always includes a filter that passes through only the frequency band of message
frequencies and disables the propagation of out-of-band noise.

1.5. Transmission Medias:

Transmission systems may use copper cable, optical cable, or radio channels to interconnect far-end
and near-end equipment. These channels and their characteristics are introduced next.

1.5.1. Copper (wired) Links:

Copper cable is the oldest and most common transmission media. Its main disadvantages are high
attenuation and sensibility to electrical interference. Attenuation in copper cable increases with
frequency approximately according to the following formula:
A (dB) = k√ 𝑓 dB

Where, A (dB) is attenuation in decibels, f is the frequency, and k is a constant specific for each cable.
This formula gives us approximate attenuation at other frequencies if the attenuation at one frequency
is known. Different types of copper links are shown in figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Copper cable as a transmission medium.

Twisted Pair
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires that are typically 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick or about
1 mm thick if insulation is included. These two wires are twisted together to reduce external electrical

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interference and interference from one pair to another in the same cable. Twisted pairs are used in the
telecommunications networks in subscriber lines, in 2-Mbps digital transmissions with distances up
to 2 km between repeaters, in DSLs up to several megabits per second, and in short-haul data
transmissions up to 100 Mbps in LANs.
Open-Wire Lines
The oldest and simplest form of a two-wire line uses bare conductors suspended at pole tops. The
wires must not touch each other, otherwise short circuit occurs in the line and communication will be
interrupted. New open-wire lines are rarely installed today but they are still in use in rural areas as
subscriber lines or analog carrier systems with a small number of speech channels.
Coaxial Cable
In a coaxial cable, stiff copper wire makes up the core, which is surrounded by insulating material.
The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor. The outer conductor is covered in protective
plastic sheath. The construction of the coaxial cable gives a good combination of high bandwidth and
excellent noise immunity. Coaxial cables are used in LANs (original 10-Mbps Ethernet), in antenna
systems for broadcast radio and TV, and in high capacity analog and digital transmission systems in
telecommunications networks and even in older generation submarine systems.

1.5.2. Microwave Transmission:

The most important advantage of radio transmission over cable transmission is that it does not require
any physical medium. Radio systems are quick to install and because no digging of cable into the
ground is required, the investment costs are much lower.
One important factor that restricts the use of radio transmissions is the shortage of frequency bands.
The most suitable frequencies are already occupied and there are many systems with a growing
demand for wider frequency bands. Examples of other systems using radio waves are public cellular
systems, professional mobile radio systems, cordless telephones, broadcast radio and TV, satellite
communications, and WLANs. The use of radio frequencies is regulated by the ITU-R at the global
level and, for example, by ETSI at the European level and the FCC in the United States. To implement
a radio system, permission from a national telecommunications authority is required.

1.5.3. Satellite Transmission:

In satellite communications a microwave repeater, which is called transponder, is located in a satellite.
An Earth station transmits to the satellite at one frequency band and the satellite regenerates and
transmits the signal back at another frequency band. The frequencies allocated by ITU for satellite
communications are in the frequency range of 1 to 30 GHz. Figure 5.3 illustrates point-to-point
transmission with the help of a geostationary or geosynchronous satellite using the 6/4-GHz satellite
band. The satellites used in the telecommunications network are usually located in a so-called
“geostationary” orbit so that they seem to be in the same location all the time from the point of view

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of the Earth station, as shown in Figure 5.3. The distance of this orbit is around 36,000 km from the
equator on the Earth’s surface and this introduces a long transmission delay that is approximately 250
ms from the transmitting Earth station to the receiving Earth station. The speaker has to wait for a
response for approximately 0.5 seconds and this disturbs an interactive communication.

Figure 5.3: Satellite transmission.

One major application for satellite communications has been broadcast satellite TV. A TV program
from a single satellite may be received in any part of a continent simultaneously making distribution
cost per customer low.

1.5.4. Fiber links:

Optical fiber is the most modern of the transmission media. It offers a wide bandwidth, low
attenuation, and extremely high immunity to external electrical interference. The fiber optic links are
used as the major media for long-distance transmission in all developed countries and high-capacity
coaxial cable systems are gradually being replaced by fibre systems.
An optical fiber has a central core (with a diameter around 8 or 60 μm) of very pure glass surrounded
by an outer layer of less dense glass. A light ray is refracted from the surface between these materials
back to the core and it propagates in the core from end to end. The principle of optical cable
transmission is presented in Figure 5.4. Compare the dimensions of optical fiber with the diameter of
a human hair that is approximately 100 μm.
The advantages of optical fibres include these:
• High transmission capacity: Optical fibers have a very large bandwidth and they are able to
carry very high data rates, up to 50 Gbps.
• Low cost: The cost of the fiber has decreased to the level of a twisted-pair cable; however, the
coating and shielding of the cable increase the cost by a factor of two or more.

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 Figure 5.4: Optical fibre

• Tolerance against external interference: Electromagnetic disturbances have no influence on

the light signal inside the fiber.
• Small size and low weight: Fiber material weighs little and the fiber diameter is only of the
order of a hundred micrometers instead of a millimetre or more for copper wire.
• Unlimited material resource: Quartz used in glass fibers is one of the most common materials
on Earth.
• Low attenuation: Attenuation in modern fibers is less than half a decibel per kilometre and it
is independent of the data rate.
One disadvantage of optical fibers is that they are more difficult to install than copper cables.
Installation and maintenance, for example, repair of a broken fiber, require special equipment and
well-trained personnel.

2. Transmission standards

As we have discussed in the first chapter, standards are useful for any system. A primary rate of 1.5
or 2 Mbps is usually too slow for transmission in trunk or even in local networks. This was noticed
in the early 1970s and the ITU-T, at that time CCITT, standardized the higher data rate systems for
transmission in the latter half of the 1970s. Here we will see some developed transmission standards.

2.1. PDH (Plesiochronous Transmission Hierarchy)

The first standardized digital higher-order transmission hierarchy is known as plesiochronous digital
hierarchy (PDH). The higher-order multiplexers of PDH are allowed to operate according to their
own independent clock frequencies. These standards are based on plesiochronous operation (“almost
the same data rate”), which allows a small frequency difference between tributary signals that are
multiplexed into a higher aggregate rate as it is shown in figure 5.5. For example, at 2,048 Kbps the
frequency tolerance was standardized at 50 ppm, and at 8,448 Kbps the allowed tolerance is 20 ppm.
This means that, for example, the data rate of a 2,048-Kbps system may deviate by 100 bps.

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 The PDH (European standard)
The basic principle of the European standard for higher-order multiplexers is that each multiplexer
stage takes four signals of a lower data rate and packs them together into a signal at a data rate that is
a little bit over four times as high, as shown in Figure. In addition to tributaries, aggregate frames
contain frame alignment information and justification information.
The tributary frequencies may differ slightly and their frequencies must be justified to the higher-
order frame. This process, called justification or stuffing, adds a number of justification bits to each
tributary in order to make the average tributary data rates exactly the same. In the demultiplexer these
justification bits are extracted and the original data rate for each tributary is
generated. Additional bits are needed in the frame for frame synchronization (frame alignment) and
justification, and therefore the next level has a slightly higher rate than four times the nominal
tributary rate. Justification bits are added to tributaries so make their data rates equal for framing. The
frame also contains some spare bits that can be used, for example, for management data transmission
for a network management system.
The standards for PDH ensure compatibility in multiplexing between systems from different
manufacturers. The management functions are not standardized and they differ from manufacturer to
manufacturer. Only the local interfaces and the multiplexing scheme are standardized
in PDH. The multiplexers are connected for transmission via standard interfaces at 2, 8, 34, or 140
Mbps to separate line terminal equipment or to a higher-order multiplexer as shown in Figure. The
line interfaces of the line terminals for copper cable, optical fiber, and radio transmission are
manufacturer specific, so the vendor has to be the same at both ends.

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2.2. SDH and SONET:
The PDH higher-order systems were standardized more than 30 years ago. By the end of the 1980s,
a lot of optical fiber cable had been installed and analog networks upgraded into digital networks.
Then researchers realized that new standards were required to meet future requirements. Problems
with the PDH standards include the following:
• Access to a tributary rate requires step-by-step de-multiplexing because of stuffing
(justification).
• Optical interfaces are not standardized but vendor specific.
• To use optical cables, a separate multiplexer for each level (e.g., multiplexing from 2 to 140
Mbps in European PDH requires 21 pieces of multiplexing equipment) and separate line
terminals are needed.
• American and European standards are not compatible.
• Network management features and interfaces are vendor dependent.
• High data rates (above 140 or 274 Mbps) are not standardized.
ANSI started to study a new transmission method in the middle of the 1970s to utilize optical
networks and modern digital technology more efficiently. This system is called the synchronous
optical network (SONET) and it is used in the United States.
ITU-T made its own worldwide standard, called SDH, by the end of the 1980s. SDH is actually an
international extension of SONET and it was based on SONET but adapted to European networks. A
subset of SDH recommendations from the ITU-T was selected as a standard for the European SDH
by ETSI. We might say that there are two different synchronous optical systems: SONET in the
United States and SDH in areas of Europe where European standards have been adapted. The
operating principles of SONET and European SDH are quite similar and they use the same data rate
at some levels; as shown in the table below.

The main advantages of SDH over PDH standards are as follows:

• The data rates for optical transmission are standardized (i.e., vendor independent).
• Different systems are included in standards, for example, terminal, add/drop, and cross-
connection systems.

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 • Access to the tributary data rates is efficient (no step-by-step multiplexing is required).
• The system is tolerant against synchronization and other system faults. Standardized
redundancy functions allow operators to switch from a faulty line to an operational line.
• In the future, network management is slated to become vendor independent, with sophisticated
management functions.
SDH is replacing PDH systems in the transport network. By transport network we mean the flexible
high-capacity transmission network that is used to carry all types of information. By flexible we mean
that telecommunications operators are able to easily modify the structure of the transport network
from the centralized management system. This makes the delivery times for leased lines shorter.
Leased lines are needed, for example, for LAN interconnections between the offices of a corporation.

ATM:
ATM defines the structure of cells, continuous transfer of cells, and cell switching. Isochronous
service is available by reserving certain fixed capacity of ATM cells from the network. ATM cells
are packed into an SDH frame, STM-1, or into a SONET frame and then the physical data rate may
reach 155 Mbps or higher. Significant advantages of cell-relay technology follow from the use of
fixed-size small packets or cells instead of packets with variable lengths. The consequences of this
principle are as follows:
• Delays in the network are much lower and more predictable. By ensuring that the cells from
a specific data stream occur at regular intervals in the cell stream, it is possible to provide
guaranteed bandwidth with low delay and jitter just as in circuit-switched networks.
• The fixed size of cells allows the switching function to be removed from software into
hardware with a dramatic increase in switching speed.
ATM thus provides the benefits of circuit- and packet-switched networks, hence allowing all types
of traffic to be integrated onto a single network. Many network operators use ATM technology in
their core network. In ATM networks the switches are usually configured to provide semi-permanent
data connections. By semi-permanent, we mean that these connections are not dialled up by users,
but controlled from the network management center by a network operator.

3. Transmission Equipment in the Network:

Many different systems are needed in the telecommunications network to transmit signals via various
different channels.

• Modems convert digital signal into an analog form.

• Multiplexers combine lower rate data signals into a higher rate aggregate signal.
• Digital cross-connect equipment switch data streams from one time slot to
another or from one port to another.

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 • Repeaters amplify and regenerate signals on the line.
• Optical line systems terminate optical fibers and convert a signal from
electrical to optical and vice versa.
• Microwave radio systems convert digital data into high frequency radio signals.

3.1. Modems:
A modem is a piece of equipment that includes a modulator and demodulator. Modems are used to
transmit digital signals over an analog channel. The microwave radio systems are sometimes also
called modems because they send digital information over a microwave radio link, and in order to do
this, they also carry out modulation and demodulation processes.

3.2. Voice-band Modems:

Voice-band modems are needed when an analog voice channel of the telephone network is used for
data transmission. The frequency band of the voice channel is 300 to 3,400 Hz and the baseband
digital information is transferred to this band through CW modulation. The CW modulation
methods used in voice-band modems are exactly the same as those used for radio transmission.
The only analog section in the connection through a modern telecommunications network is the
subscriber line of the local-access network. The fastest standardized voice-band modems can support
data rates up to 33.6 Kbps. The maximum user data rate is of the order of 30 Kbps even though the
transmission rate inside the PSTN is 64 or 56 Kbps (data rate of PCM coded voice channel). Half of
the end-to-end data capacity is wasted because of analog subscriber lines that perform A/D and D/A
conversions at both ends.

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New modems with essentially higher capacity will not be standardized because voice-band modems
are already quite close to the theoretical maximum capacity of the voice channel and many higher
data rate access technologies have become available. If an analog subscriber line is replaced by an
ISDN line, the full capacity of the allocated channel in the network can be utilized and end-to-end
data rate will then be 64 Kbps (B-channel) or 128 Kbps (two B-channels).

3.3. Terminal Multiplexers:

Terminal multiplexers (TMs) or multiplexers combine digital signals to make up a higher bit rate for
high-capacity transmission as shown in above figure. The digital multiplexing hierarchies in use are
PDH and SDH, which are replacing older generation PDH systems.

3.4. Add/Drop Multiplexers:

A transmission system in the network may be just a point-to-point system or it may be built as a chain
or as a ring system as shown in Figure. These configurations make efficient use of the high system
capacity feasible when only a small fraction of the total transmission capacity is needed on
each equipment site. The add/drop multiplexers are used in these configurations to take out (drop)
some channels from the high-rate data stream and add or insert other channels into it.
Add–drop multiplexers are needed for wide-area and metro-area networks in which one or
more channels need to be dropped or added while preserving the integrity of other channels.
Scheme (a) uses a six-port circulator. The WDM signal entering from port 1 exits from port 2 and
passes through a Bragg grating. The dropped channel appears at port 3 while the remaining channels
re-enter the circulator at port 5 and leave the device from port 6. The channel to be added enters from
port 4.

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3.5. Digital Cross-Connect Systems:
The digital cross-connect (DXC) systems are network nodes that can rearrange channels in data
streams. They make the network configuration of the transmission network flexible, because, with
the help of these nodes, a network operator is able to control actual transmission paths in the network
remotely from the network management centre. The basic functionality of DXC is the same as the
functionality of digital exchanges that establish speech or ISDN connections. However, DXC is
controlled by the network operator, not by a subscriber, and its configuration is not changed as
frequently.

Cross-connect systems are available that are able to switch high-order data rates, not just 64 Kbps as
ordinary exchanges do. DXC may also contain redundancy functions that automatically change
configurations so as to bypass a faulty transmission section.

SDH and SONET networks often use a ring topology like that shown in Figure. For higher reliability.
These standards specify redundancy functions and a node in a ring may switch traffic from a faulty
connection to the redundant path as shown in Figure.

3.6. Optical Line Systems:

Optical line systems contain two terminal repeaters at each end of the fiber. They convert an electrical
digital signal into an optical one and vice versa. These systems include, as most other transmission
systems do, supervisory functions such as fault and performance monitoring. In PDH multiplexers,
optical line systems are separate devices that are interconnected with standardized interfaces.

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In PDH multiplexers, optical line systems are separate devices that are interconnected with
standardized interfaces. optical systems transmit light energy pulses to the fiber; they do not use light
as a carrier the same way as in radio communications. In bidirectional systems two fibers, one for
each transmission direction, are needed as shown in Figure. wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM) uses an optical coupler to combine optical signals (WDM multiplexer) and optical filters
(WDM demultiplexer) to separate optical signals at the receiving end.

3.6.1. WDM:
Optical signals of different wavelength can propagate without interfering with each other. The scheme
of combining a number of wavelengths over a single fiber is called wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM).
Many single-mode fiber cables have been installed and technical solutions that increase fiber capacity
without installation of new cable have become very attractive as the demand for transmission capacity
increases. Particularly in long-distance systems, WDM has become popular and it can increase fiber
capacity by a factor from 10 to 100. This wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) uses an optical
coupler to combine optical signals (WDM multiplexer) and optical filters (WDM demultiplexer)
to separate optical signals at the receiving end as
shown in Figure.

WDM has the potential for exploiting the large bandwidth offered by optical fibers. For example,
hundreds of 10-Gb/s channels can be transmitted over the same fiber when channel spacing is reduced
to below 100 GHz.

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3.6.2. DWDM (DENSE WAVE LENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING):
Cooled distributed feedback (DFB) lasers are available in precisely selected wavelengths. The ITU
has defined a laser grid for point-to-point DWDM systems based on 100-GHz wavelength
spacing. There are 45 defined wavelengths in a range from 196.1 THz (1,528.77 µ m) to 191.7
THz (1,563.86 µ m) in the third window (“L” band in Figure 4.30), which is a compatible range for
the EDFAs discussed later. Each optical channel can be used for transmission of light pulses at 10
Gbps, or an even higher data rate at 100-GHz spacing, and, with the help of DWDM technology, a
pair of fibers can provide data capacity of several hundred gigabits per second.

Most DWDM systems support standard SONET/SDH optical interfaces. Often short-haul STM-16
(2.4 Gbps) at the 1310-nm wavelength is used as an input signal for DWDM systems but also other
interfaces, such as OC-192 for 10-Gb Ethernet, can be supported. The basic structure of a DWDM
system is shown in Figure 4.34. Only one transmission direction is shown in the figure. Transponders
in Figure 4.34 convert incoming optical signals into ITU-standard wavelengths.

DWDM technology has improved, and will continue to further improve, utilization of fiber bandwidth
close to the huge capacity of optical fibers that will be achieved in the future by coherent radio-like
optical technology.

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