1.

Introduction
1.1 Avocado origin and botany
The avocado (Persea americana) originated in south-central Mexico, sometime between 7,000
and 5,000 B.C. But it was several millennia before this wild variety was cultivated.
Archaeologists in Peru have found domesticated avocado seeds buried with Incan mummies
dating back to 750 B.C. and there is evidence that avocados were cultivated in Mexico as early
as 500 B.C.
General Botany:
Tree: The avocado is a dense polymorphic broad-leaved aromatic evergreen tree. It is fast
growing plant and reaching a height of 20 m with age whilst grafted trees are usually 8-10 m tall,
although usually less, and generally have a low branched trunk and an irregular.

Foliage: Avocado leaves are alternate, glossy, elliptic to obovate-oblong, 10–30 cm long, 4–10
cm wide, leathery, upper surface dark green, lower surface glaucous and sparsely hairy;
secondary veins prominent, reticulum coarsely areolate; petiole 2–7 cm long. They normally
remain on the tree for 2 to 3 years. The leaves of West Indian varieties are scentless, while
Guatemalan types are rarely anise-scented and have medicinal use. The leaves of Mexican types
have a pronounced anise scent when crushed. The leaves are high in oils and slow to compost
and may collect in mounds beneath trees.

Flowers: Although the trees produce an abundance of flowers, usually less than 0.1% of the
flowers set fruit and most of these fruits abscise within 6 weeks from full bloom Avocado
flowers are inconspicuous and appear in terminal panicles of 200 – 300 small yellow-green
blooms. The flowers are either receptive to pollen in the morning or shed pollen in the following
afternoon (type A), or are receptive to pollen in the afternoon, and shed pollen in the following
morning (type B). flowers on an entire tree are in different stages, and self-pollination does occur
occasionally, but the young fruits fall from the tree prematurely, alluding to a possible post-
zygotic self-incompatible mechanism.
Fruits: Fruits are 7-20 cm long and 7-10 cm in diameter weighs between 100 and 1000 grams,
and has a large central seed, 5–6.4 centimeters long . It is considered by many to be a drupe, but
is botanically classified as a berry. Sometimes they are 5–7 cm long at end of season or on some
naturalized plants.

1.2 growth and production

1.2.1 Tree spacing

Tree spacing depends on whether you opt for high, medium or low-density plantings.
 High-density plantings (more than about 500 trees/ha, e.g. 6m by 3m) give earlier returns,
but cost more to set up. Because these plantings crowd together much sooner, you need to
start pruning trees earlier. In warmer areas high-density plantings will be more difficult to
manage and may be impractical because tree growth is faster.
  Low-density plantings (200 trees or less/ha, e.g. 10m by 5m) provide lower early returns
per unit area but are easier to manage. However at low-density, trees are generally
allowed to grow larger which will:
 increase picking costs
 reduce picker safety
 produce less fruit and of lower quality.
As a compromise, you can choose medium-density spacings (e.g. 9m by 6m).

1.2.2 Planting times

In areas where frosts occur, we recommend planting during September-October. In warmer
areas, April-May is best to avoid very hot weather whilst plants get established.

1.2.3 Fertilising
Correct nutrition is critical but fertiliser treatments should be based on the results of regular soil
and leaf analysis. In less fertile soils, soil analysis results may suggest adding lime, dolomite,
phosphorus and selected trace elements before planting. If you need to apply fertiliser or manure
before planting, do so 6 months before so it’s broken down and taken up by the soil before
planting. These fertilisers pose less risk to tree roots. You should never use nitrogen, potassium
or animal manures on or just before planting. Fertilising soon after planting can burn the tender
feeder roots of the young tree. Nitrogen encourages tree growth and canopy health.

1.2.4 Pruning
Without canopy management, yield and fruit quality will deteriorate and trees will become more
physically difficult to spray and harvest. The type of canopy management practice will depend
on tree density and the growth habit of the variety. The aim of canopy management is to:
 keep trees to a practical size
 allow sunlight into the canopy to encourage flowering and fruitset
 rejuvenate the branches to keep them productive.

1.2.5 Irrigation
Maintain an adequate water supply to the trees throughout the year, not only for meeting
moisture requirements, but also for effective uptake of nutrients. It’s essential for avocado trees
to have well-aerated soil; they cannot tolerate heavy or waterlogged soil.
Too much water causes:
 reduced tree vigour as a result of reduced soil aeration
 increased incidence and severity of Phytophthora root rot
 increased risk of nutrient imbalances
1.3 importanceof avocado fruit
1. Avocados are nutrient rich
Avocados are a great source of vitamins C, E, K, and B-6, as well as riboflavin, niacin, ,
pantothenic acid, and They also provide lutein, and fatty acids.
Although most of the calories in an avocado come from fat, don’t shy away! Avocados are full of
healthy, beneficial fats that help to keep you full and satiated.
Fat is essential for every single cell in the body. Eating healthy fats supports skin health,
enhances the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, and may even help
boost the immune system.

2. Healthy for the heart

Avocados contain 25 milligrams per ounce of a natural plant sterol called beta-sitosterol. Regular
consumption of beta-sitosterol and other plant sterols has been seen to help.

3. Great for vision

Avocados contain lutein and zeaxanthin, two phytochemicals that are especially concentrated in
the tissues in the eyes where they provide protection to help minimize damage, including from
ultraviolet light.

5. Cancer
Adequate intake of folate from food has shown promise in protecting against colon, stomach,
pancreatic, and cervical.
Avocados may even have a role to play in cancer treatment, with some research finding that
phytochemicals extracted from avocado can selectively of precancerous and cancerous cells and
cause the death of cancer cells, while encouraging the proliferation of immune system cells
called lymphocytes.
These phytochemicals have also been shown to decrease chromosomal damage caused by
cyclophosphamide, a drug.

7. Lower risk of depression

Foods containing high levels of folate may help to decrease the risk of because folate helps to
prevent the build-up of homocysteine, a substance that can impair circulation and delivery of
nutrients to the brain.
Excess homocysteine can also of, dopamine, and norepinephrine, which regulate mood, sleep,
and appetite.

8. Improved digestion
Despite its creamy texture, an avocado is actually high in fiber with approximately 6-7 grams per
half fruit.
Eating foods with natural fiber can help prevent, maintain a healthy digestive tract, and lower the
risk of

9. Natural detoxification
Adequate fiber promotes regular bowel movements, which are crucial for the daily excretion of
toxins through the bile and stool.
Recent studies have shown that dietary fiber may also play a role in regulating the immune
system and

10. Osteoporosis treatment

Substances called saponins, found in avocados, soy and some other plant foods, are associated
with in knee osteoarthritis, with further research planned to determine the long-term effects of
isolated extracts.

11. Antimicrobial action

Avocados contain substances that have, particularly against Escherichia coli.

12. Protection from chronic disease

According to the high fiber intakes are associated with significantly lower risks of developing, ,
diabetes, obesity, and certain gastrointestinal diseases. Increased fiber intake has also been
shown to lower and levels, improve sensitivity, and enhance weight loss for obese individuals.

2 Ecological requirement
2.1.1 climate
Frost-free areas are preferred, but mature trees will tolerate temperatures as low as -4°C for short
periods without damage unless flower buds, flowers or fruit are present. Trees can also tolerate
temperatures as high as 40°C for short periods, however fruit damage and losses can be
expected. Growers in hot areas use overhead sprinklers (assuming good quality water is
available) for evaporative cooling to preserve the crop during heat waves.
For avocado trees to produce flowers, a period of about 4 weeks of relatively cool temperatures
needs to occur in autumn/winter. Flowering in Hass in coastal areas north of about Yeppoon will
generally not be satisfactory. For fruitset to occur, periods of 3 days in a row are needed at
flowering time during which the temperature does not drop below 10°C.

2.1.2 Soil
Soil is the most important criteria when selecting an orchard site. Avocados are very sensitive to
poorly-drained conditions and are also susceptible to Phytophthora root rot which thrives in
poorly-drained soils. In high rainfall areas avocados require at least 1.5m of well-drained soil. In
areas of lower rainfall at least 1m of well-drained soil is recommended
It is also strongly recommended that tree rows are mounded prior to planting. Ensure that the
mounds are well designed so they don’t cause water to dam up but allow it to drain away quickly
but without causing soil erosion.

2.1.3 Slope
Slopes of up to 15% are suitable if the orchard is already set up to minimise erosion. Avoid
steeper slopes because they are a major erosion risk and make it difficult to operate machinery
safely.

2.1.4 Aspect
Avoid windy sites to minimise abrasion of fruit and limb breakage. Plant on slopes that face
away from the direction of the main prevailing winds and in warm areas avoid westerly slopes as
they can be very hot and result in sunburnt fruit. You may need to plant windbreaks to protect
your trees.

2.2 Biotic factor

2.2.1 disease
2.2.1.1 Phytophthora root rot
Avocado trees are very susceptible to root rot, which is caused by the soil-borne fungus
Phytophthora cinnamomi. Controlling this disease is the highest priority for avocado growers in
Queensland. It is ever-present and requires constant attention. Without root rot management the
tree will lack an adequate root system and can’t perform.
Effective root rot control comes from an integrated approach that includes:
 disease free nursery trees
 using more tolerant rootstocks
 good drainage which includes the use of tree mounds
 mulching and good soil health
 appropriate soil moisture management
 chemical treatment
 good nutritional practices including sufficient calcium
 suitable soil pH.

2.2.1.2 Anthracnose
Anthracnose is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and presents as a fruit rot
that remains latent until the fruit ripens. Fruit infected with anthracnose can rarely be identified
at packing and is usually only discovered at the point of preparation by the consumer.
Just like other varieties, Hass is vulnerable to anthracnose but difficult to detect until it is cut
because its thick dark skin masks the symptoms.
Management includes regular orchard sprays (every 2-4 weeks depending on weather conditions)
from shortly after fruitset until harvest using a registered protectant fungicide such as copper
oxychloride.

2.2.1.3 Cercospora leaf spot

The fungi Cercospora beticola, C. capsici, C. nasturtii, C. canescensand C. coffeicola.

Cause Cercospora spot in avocado is caused by the fungus Pseudocercospora purpurea.

Small, brown flecks develop with a reddish border, expanding to circular spots about
4 mm wide with an ashy-grey centre. This tissue becomes thin and brittle, and often
drops out, leaving a ragged hole.

Symptoms In capsicums small, round water-soaked lesions develop on leaves, petioles and stems.
The lesions enlarge and have light brown centres with dark brown-red margins

Specific controls are not usually required for capsicum.

Plant only high-quality seed. Do not plant seed potentially infected with Cercospora.
Control
Destroy infected crops promptly after the final harvest and before replanting to minimise
options
disease spread to subsequent crops.

2.2.1.4 Stem end rot

The fungi Dothiorella dominicana, Phomopsisspp., Botryodiplodia theobromaeand

Cause Lasiodiplodia theobromaecause stem end rot in mango and avocado.

Symptoms A dark rot develops from the stem end as fruit ripen after harvest. A dark brown to black
rot begins at the stem end as a dark brown ring and the rot proceeds towards the other
end. The rot produces dark streaking of the water-conducting tissues (this symptom
 distinguishes stem end rot from anthracnose).

Post-harvest control
Avoid harvesting immature fruit. Use appropriate registered chemicals for post-harvest
treatment to help to control the disease. Fruit from orchards with a history of stem end
rot losses should be rejected for long-term storage.

Control The severity of stem end rot can be assessed as follows:

options
 Harvest 100 mature fruit at random from throughout the orchard.
 Leave them untreated and store at 25°C until they are fully ripe.
 Ideally, less than one-tenth and certainly no more than one-third of the fruit
should develop symptoms of stem end rot by the time they are fully ripe.

2.2.2 insects
2.2.3weeds

3 Harvesting and post Hrvest handling

3.1 Fruit maturity determination

The moment of harvest is the beginning of the postharvest life of the avocado fruit, but before
that a decision has to be made about the readiness, or maturity, of the fruit for harvest. Because
of the special nature of the avocado fruit, we are used to calling "maturation" - the processes
occurring up to harvest and "ripening" - the syndrome of events taking place in the fruit after
harvest, of which softening is the most obvious one. The great natural variability of avocado fruit
is a serious problem which was addressed in several presentations at this congress.
The question when to start harvesting avocado fruit is a commercial one. The desire to come to
the markets with fruit as early as possible has generated much research to determine the right
maturity for harvest for the different varieties. Oil content is regarded as a most important factor
in the taste of avocado fruit. To date, maturity determination for commercial purposes employs
destructive methods which are based on either oil content or dry matter, which are highly
correlated. The ideal situation would be to determine fruit maturity nondestructively, on the tree,
before harvest.
In the early 1980s we developed, together with Karl Norris from Beltsville, Maryland, a
nondestructive method for oil content determination using near infrared (NIR) technology with a
one-of-a-kind set-up which he had in his laboratory. This method was not published. An attempt
by a company in the USA to produce a commercial portable instrument based on the same NIR
technology, failed. Two presentations at this meeting which described new nondestructive
approaches to determine ripening state (and maybe even maturity), join attempts using other
methods which were discussed and then published following a workshop held in 1993 (Brown
and Sarig, 1994).

3.2 Haresvting
3.2.1 Harvest ing process
Avoid picking fruit when wet or fully turgid as this increases the risk of postharvest rots,
sensitivity to mechanical abrasion and lenticel damage. The Hass variety can be ‘snap’ picked
(plucked from the tree) but should be ‘snip’ picked (cut from the tree with a pair of special
secateurs) if there has been recent wet weather or if it’s the start of the harvest season. Varieties
other than Hass should also be ‘snip’ picked.
Avoid picking fruit during hot weather as this will shorten the shelf life of the fruit unless the
field heat can be removed within a few hours of harvest using forced air-cooling.
It is important to handle fruit carefully at all times and to minimise all fruit drops - this will avoid
skin damage, bruising and rot development. Adopt practices such as:
 lowering picking bags into bins before gently releasing fruit
 minimising walking time for pickers to reach a bin
 taking care during transportation of bins to the packhouse.
It is important to keep harvested fruit cool and shaded. This can be done by covering bins with a
cover or green branches, or by placing bins in the shade.
3.3 Storage conditions and post harvest loss
Temperature is no doubt the single most influential factor in fruit storage.  All biological
processes are controlled by temperature and thus fruit quality and ripening are strongly affected
by storage temperature.  However, it should be remembered that we cannot “cure” bad quality
fruit with Postharvest treatments.  The issue is to slow down the natural deterioration by
lowering the temperature of the fruit as much as possible without damaging it.  Avocado, being
of subtropical origin, should not be cooled to even close to its freezing point, as it suffers chilling
injury at temperatures much above the freezing point.  All this makes the art of maintaining the
quality of avocado fruit, during and after cold storage a difficult task.  To demonstrate this in
quite a simple way, we present data which were generated last year during cold storage of
‘Ettinger’ fruit, harvested at the end of October – which is about mid-season for harvesting this
variety in Israel.  Fruits were stored at 2, 5, and 22°C, those from 2 and 5°C were transferred
after 3 weeks to 20°C for ripening.  Fruit samples were taken weekly for determination of
firmness using a Chatillon pressure tester.  We know from experience that we can feel manually
any change in firmness, only when less than 40 N is needed to penetrate the fruit; and the fruit is
ready to eat when less than 15 N is needed for penetration.  As shown in Figure 1, at 5°C the
fruit became softer already after 2 weeks of storage, while the fruit stored at 2°C remained firm
for 6 weeks.  However, after 3 weeks at 2°C we started to observe chilling-injury symptoms,
while none developed at 5°C.  From the same fruits on which firmness was determined, peel
discs were prepared (10 mm in diameter and ~2 mm thick).  Then their ACC-oxidase activity
was assayed by measuring ethylene production after incubation with or without the addition of a
saturating concentration of ACC.  The avocado peel has a surplus of ACC-oxidase activity on the
day of harvest (Fig. 2), which decreases during storage.  At a chilling-inducing temperature of
2°C, the removal of fruit to shelf-life conditions (20°C), for ripening, significantly enhanced
ACC-oxidase activity after 3 and 6 weeks at storage whereas at 5°C this activity was hardly
noticeable.  Similar patterns were found in our studies with fruit of the ‘Fuerte’ and ‘Reed’
varieties.  It appears that, as in apples (Lelievre et al., 1995) enhanced ACC-oxidase activity in
avocado is related to chilling injury development.
Chilling symptoms in avocado may appear in different ways: surface or internal browning,
surface pitting, failure to ripen, increased susceptibility to microorganism attack, and pulp spots
are found in South Africa (but generally not in other places) as well as chlorotic appearance of
the peel, as is found with cold- stored Israeli 'Ettinger'. Most of the pretreatments mentioned
above are supposed to maintain quality by enabling fruit storage at low temperatures which
would otherwise - without the pretreatment - cause chilling injury.