Lecture

21
Quality Control

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar
Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program 
IIT Kanpur,  India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Statistical Process Control
 Design of Experiments
 Acceptance Sampling
Introduction
• Quality has become one of the most important consumer
decision factors in the selection among competing products and
services.
• The Quality of a product can be decided by looking forward
towards the following factors related to the product:
1. Performance (will the product‐do the intended job?)
2. Reliability (how often does the product fail?)
3. Durability (how long does the product last?)
4. Serviceability (how easy is it to repair the product?)
5. Aesthetics (what does the product look like?)
6. Features (what does the product do?)
7. Perceived Quality (what is the reputation of the company or
its product?)
8. Conformance to Standards (is the product made exactly as
the designer intended?)
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
In this method we will focus on three major areas:‐

1. Statistical Process Control

2. Design of Experiments

3. Acceptance Sampling
Statistical process control
• Statistical process control (SPC) is a powerful collection of
problem‐solving tools useful in achieving process stability and
improving capability through the reduction of variability.
• The seven major tools of SPC are
1. Histogram or stem‐and‐leaf plot
2. Check sheet
3. Pareto chart
4. Cause‐and‐effect diagram
5. Defect concentration diagram
6. Scatter diagram
7. Control chart
 Statistical process control
Chance And Assignable Causes Of Quality Variation
• In any production process, a certain amount of inherent or
natural‐variability will always exist.

• This natural variability is the cumulative effect of many small,

essentially unavoidable causes.

• Other type of variability may occasionally present in the

output of a process.
Statistical process control

Control Charts

• A control chart is one of the primary techniques of statistical

process control.

• These type of charts plots the averages of measurements of a

quality characteristic in samples taken from the process versus
time (or the sample number).

• Control Chart is a very useful ‘process monitoring technique’.

• Whenever unusual sources of variability are present, sample

averages will plot outside the control limits.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Basic Principles

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Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Basic Principles
• The control chart is a graphical display of a quality characteristic
that has been measured or computed from a sample versus the
sample number or time.
• The chart contains a centre line that represents the average
value of the quality characteristic corresponding to the in‐
control state.
• Two other horizontal lines, called the upper control limit (UCL)
and the lower control limit (LCL), are also shown on the chart.
• These control limits are chosen so that if the process is in
control, nearly all of the sample points will fall between them.
• As long as the points plot within the control limits, the process
is assumed to be in control, and no action is necessary.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
• We may give a general model for a control chart.
• Let w be a sample statistic that measures some quality
characteristic of interest, and suppose that the mean of w is µw
and the standard deviation of w is σw. Then the centre line, the
upper control limit, and the lower control limit become

• where L is the “distance” of the control limits from the centre

line, expressed in standard deviation units.
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart

• The control chart is a device for describing in a precise manner

exactly what is meant by statistical control; as such, it may be used
in a variety of ways.
• In many applications, it is used for on‐line process monitoring or
surveillance.
• The most important use of a control chart is to improve the process.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart

A lot, 2017
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
• A very important part of the corrective action process associated with
control chart usage is the out‐of‐control‐action plan (OCAP).

• An OCAP is a flowchart or text‐based description of the sequence of

activities that must take place following the occurrence of an
activating event.

Control charts are widely used for the following reasons:

1. Control charts are a proven technique for improving productivity

2. Control charts are effective in defect prevention
3. Control charts prevent unnecessary process adjustment
4. Control charts provide diagnostic information
5. Control charts provide information about process capability
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Sample Size and Sampling Frequency

• In designing a control chart, we must specify both the sample

size and the frequency of sampling.
• We can evaluate the decisions regarding sample size and
sampling frequency is through the average run length (ARL) of
the control chart.
• If the process observations are uncorrelated, then for any
Shewhart control chart, the ARL can be calculated easily from

• where p is the probability that any point exceeds the control

limits.
• This equation can be used to evaluate the performance of the
control chart.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Sample Size and Sampling Frequency

• It is also occasionally convenient to express the performance

of the control chart in terms of its average time to signal (ATS).
• If samples are taken at fixed intervals of time that are h hours
apart, then
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Phase I and Phase II of Control Chart Application
• Standard control chart usage involves phase I and phase II
applications, with two different and distinct objectives.

• In phase I, a set of process data is gathered and analysed all at once

in a retrospective analysis,
• constructing trial control limits to determine if the process has
been in control over the period of time during which the data
were collected, and
• to see if reliable control limits can be established to monitor
future production.
• Control charts in phase I primarily assist operating personnel in
bringing the process into a state of statistical control.
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Phase I and Phase II of Control Chart Application

• Phase II begins after we have a “clean” set of process data gathered

under stable conditions and representative of in‐control process
performance. In phase II, we use the control chart to monitor the
process by comparing the sample statistic for each successive
sample as it is drawn from the process to the control limits.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Applications of Statistical Process Control and Quality
Improvement Tools in Transactional and Service Businesses

• Flowcharts, operation process charts, and value stream

mapping are particularly useful in developing process
definition and process understanding.
• A flowchart is simply a chronological sequence of process steps
or work flow. Sometimes flowcharting is called process
mapping.
• Flowcharts or process maps must be constructed in sufficient
detail to identify value‐added versus non‐value‐added work
activity in the process
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart

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Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Statistical Process Control
Control chart for variables are used to monitor characteristics
that can be measured, e.g. length, weight, diameter, time, etc.

Control charts for attributes are used to monitor characteristics

that have discrete values and can be counted, e.g. % defective,
number of defects in a mobile phone, number of broken eggs in
a box, etc.
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Variables
Xbar and R charts

• X (UCLx) =  Xbar + A2*R
• X (LCLx) =  Xbar ‐ A2*R
Where A2 can be found from a standard table.

• R (UCLR) = D4*R
• R (LCLR) =  D3*R 
Where D4 and D3 can be found from a standard table.
Control Charts for Variables
Xbar and R charts

• To interpret the data we first look at the R chart.

• The R chart represents the variety in the data and if the

variety is to great than there is no need to look at the X
control chart.

• The chart is out of control if one or a combination of the

following four examples occur:
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Xbar and R charts

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Control Charts for Attributes
p‐charts:

• for quality characteristics that are discrete and involve

yes/no or good/bad decisions

• Percent of leaking caulking tubes in a box of 48

• Percent of broken eggs in a carton

c‐charts:
• for discrete defects when there can be more than one
defect per unit

• Number of flaws or stains in a carpet sample cut from a

production run
• Number of complaints per customer at a hotel
Control Charts for Attributes

Attributes Control Charts:

• counts [c‐chart]
• when sample size are not constant and/or are unknown, use counts
charts [c‐charts]

# of defects
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Attributes

Attributes Control Charts:

• proportion [p‐charts]

UCL  p  z σ p 
LCL  p  z σ p 

p(1-p)
σp=
n
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
• A nonconforming item is a unit of product that does not satisfy
one or more of the specifications for that product.
• Each specific point at which a specification is not satisfied results
in a defect or nonconformity.
• Consequently, a nonconforming item will contain at least one
nonconformity.
• As an example, suppose we are manufacturing personal
computers. Each unit could have one or more very minor flaws
in the cabinet finish, and since these flaws do not seriously
affect the unit’s functional operation, it could be classified as
conforming.
• It is possible to develop control charts for either the total
number of nonconformities in a unit or the average number of
nonconformities per unit.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Further Analysis of Nonconformities

• Defect or nonconformity data are always more informative than

fraction nonconforming, because there will usually be several
different types of nonconformities.
• By analysing the nonconformities by type, we can often gain
considerable insight into their cause.
• This can be of considerable assistance in developing the out‐of‐
control‐action plans (OCAPs) that must accompany control
charts.
• Another useful technique for further analysis of nonconformities 
is the cause‐and effect diagram.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
The u Chart

• The second approach involves setting up a control chart based

on the average number of nonconformities per inspection
unit.
• If we find x total nonconformities in a sample of n inspection
units, then the average number of nonconformities per
inspection unit is

‫ݔ‬
‫ݑ‬ൌ
݊

Note the x is a Poisson random variable.

Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
The u Chart

• Consequently, the parameters of the control chart for the

average number of nonconformities per unit are as follows

• Where  u̅  represents  the  observed  average  number  of 

nonconformities per unit in a preliminary set of data.
• This  per‐unit  chart  often  is  called  the  control  chart  for 
nonconformities, or u chart.
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Choice Between Attributes and Variables Control Charts
• Attributes control charts have the advantage that several quality
characteristics can be considered jointly and the unit classified
as nonconforming if it fails to meet the specification on any one
characteristic.
• On the other hand, if the several quality characteristics are
treated as variables, then each one must be measured, and
either a separate and R chart must be maintained on each or
some multivariate control technique that considers all the
characteristics must simultaneously be employed.
• There is an obvious simplicity associated with the attributes
chart in this case.
• Furthermore, expensive and time‐consuming measurements
may sometimes be avoided by attributes inspection.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Choice Between Attributes and Variables Control Charts
• Variables control charts, in contrast, provide much more useful
information about process performance than do attributes control
charts.
• Specific information about the process mean and variability is
obtained directly. In addition, when points plot out of control on
variables control charts, usually much more information is
provided relative to the potential cause of that out‐of‐control
signal.
• For a process capability study, variables control charts are almost
always preferable to attributes control charts.
• The exceptions to this are studies relative to nonconformities
produced by machines or operators in which there are a very
limited number of sources of nonconformities, or studies directly
concerned with process yields and fallouts.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Guidelines for Implementing Control Charts

1. Determining which process characteristics to control

2. Determining where the charts should be implemented in the
process
3. Choosing the proper type of control charts
4. Taking actions to improve processes as the result of SPC/control
chart analysis
5. Selecting data‐collection systems and computer software
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Design of Experiments

• It is extremely helpful in discovering the key variables

influencing the quality characteristics of interests in the
process.

• It is an approach to systematically varying the controllable input

factors in the process the effect these factors have on the
output product parameters.

• The major type of designed experiment is the factorial design.

• In the factorial design, factors are varied together in such a way

that all possible combinations of factor levels are tested.
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and 
Improvement
Acceptance Sampling

• Acceptance Sampling is connected with inspection and testing 
of product.

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Task for students
Thanks