Continuity of a function at a point

• A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at an

interior point 𝑥 = 𝑎 of its domain if
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
(limit value= function value at the point ‘a’)
• If a function 𝑓 is not continuous at a point a, we
say that 𝑓 is discontinuous at a and a is a point of
discontinuity of 𝑓. Note that a need not be in the
domain of 𝑓.
Continuity of a function at end
points of domain
• A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous from right
at an end point 𝑥 = 𝑎 of its domain if
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎+
( right limit at ‘a’= function value at the point ‘a’)
• A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous from left
at an end point 𝑥 = 𝑏 of its domain if
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑏
𝑥→𝑏−
( left limit at ‘b’= function value at the point ‘b’)
Example-1
• F(x) is continuous at x=0
• F(x) is not continuous at
x=1
• F(x) is not continuous at
x=2
• F(x) is continuous at x=3
• F(x) is not continuous at
x=4
• F(x) is continuous at all
other points in its domain.
Continuity of a function 𝑓(𝑥) on
an interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
• Let 𝑓: 𝑎, 𝑏 → ℝ be a function. 𝑓 𝑥 is said to be
continuous on its domain 𝑎, 𝑏 if
• 1. 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at each point of the interval
𝑎, 𝑏 . i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
• 2. 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous from right at the left end
point 𝑥 = 𝑎.
• 3. 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous from left at the right end
point 𝑥 = 𝑏.
• In Example-1 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on its domain[-1,3]
except at the point 𝑥 = 1.
• The reason is that 𝑓 is not defined at 𝑥 = 1. Hence
it is not continuous.

• In Example-2, g 𝑥 is continuous on its domain [-

1,3] except at the point 𝑥 = 3.
• Here 𝑥 = 3 is right end point of the domain.
• Also lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 ≠ 1.5 = 𝑔(3)
𝑥→3−
• That is limit value is not equal to function value
• Hence 𝑔(𝑥) is not continuous at x=3 from left.
• In example-3, ℎ(𝑥) is continuous at all points in
its domain [-1,3]
• In example-4 𝑘(𝑥) is continuous at all points in
its domain [-1,3] except 𝑥 = 1
• The reason is given below
• lim 𝑘(𝑥) = 1.5
𝑥→1−
• lim 𝑘(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→1+
• Thus at 𝑥 = 1 for the function 𝑘(𝑥) limit does
not exists. Hence 𝑘(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1
Problem for practice
Continuity Test: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if and only if it meets the
following three conditions.
(i) 𝑓(𝑐) exists. (𝑐 lies in the domain of 𝑓).

(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. (𝑓 has a limit as 𝑥 → 𝑐).

𝑥→𝑐

(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑐 . (the limit equals the function value).

𝑥→𝑐
If a function 𝑓 is not continuous at a point 𝑐, we say that 𝑓 is discontinuous
at 𝑐 and 𝑐 is a point of discontinuity of 𝑓.
There are two types of discontinuities : - (i) Removable discontinuity
(ii) Non – removable discontinuity

(i) Removable discontinuity : If lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙 ≠ 𝑓 𝑐 , (i.e., lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, but
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
not equal to 𝑓(𝑐)) then the discontinuity can be removed by properly redefining the

𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑥≠𝑐
function as a new function 𝑔 𝑥 = ቊ
𝑙, 𝑥 = 𝑐
 𝑥 2 −1
For example, consider the function 𝑓 𝑥 = . The function is not continuous at
𝑥−1

𝑥 = 1. But lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2. Here, the discontinuity of the function at 𝑥 = 1 can be

𝑥→1

𝑥 2 −1
removed by redefining the function as 𝑔 𝑥 = ቐ𝑓 𝑥 = = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≠ 1 . The new
𝑥−1
2, 𝑥 = 1
function 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous for all values of 𝑥.
Note: Here, we can say that 𝑓(𝑥) has a continuous extension to 𝑥 = 2.
Now let’s see the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥). We can observe that in the

graph of 𝑓(𝑥) there is a hole on the line at 𝑥 = 1, which makes the graph
discontinuous, whereas in the second graph that gap is filled so that
it became continuous. (Please see next page.)
(ii) Non – Removable discontinuity : This type of discontinuity can not be removed as
the name indicates. This includes -

(a) Jump discontinuity : lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 and both the limits are finite, then
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
there will be a jump discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
For example, consider the greatest integer function 𝑦 = 𝑥 or int 𝑥. This function
is continuous at every non integer point. Please see the graph given below. Let 𝑥 =

1. We can see that lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 1. In general, for any integer 𝑛,
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

lim 𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑛 − 1 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑛. There will be a jump in the graph at these

𝑥→𝑛− 𝑥→𝑛
points.
(b) Infinite discontinuity or essential discontinuity : If the left or right side limits at 𝑥 = 𝑐
are infinite or do not exist, then there is an infinite discontinuity or essential
discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
1
For example, consider the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . This function has an infinite discontinuity

at 𝑥 = 0. Here, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞. Please see the graph

𝑥→0 𝑥→0
given below.
 1
Similarly, the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 has an infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0.

Here, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞. Please see the graph given below.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
(c) Oscillating discontinuity : If the function oscillates too much to have a limit as 𝑥 →
𝑐, then it has an oscillating discontinuity there.
2𝜋
For example, the function 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 , has an oscillating discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥

From the graph we can see that as 𝑥 approaches 0, 𝑦 - value oscillates between −1
and 1.
 PROBLEMS
Discuss the continuity of the function on the given interval. Identify and
classify the points of discontinuity.
𝑥 2 − 1, −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
2𝑥, 0 < 𝑥 < 1
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 1 . on [−1,3]
−2𝑥 + 4, 1 < 𝑥 < 2
0, 2 < 𝑥 < 3

Solution : The function is graphed below.

Here we have four intervals - −1,0 , 0,1 , 1,2 , 2,3 . Each interval function has
different values. Let us take the end points of each interval. They are −1,0,1,2 and 3.
(i) At 𝑥 = −1

lim + 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 = 𝑓(−1)

𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

Since the function is not defined for 𝑥 < −1 , only lim 𝑓(𝑥) will be there.
𝑥→−1+

lim 𝑓(𝑥) will not exist. 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = −1.

𝑥→−1−

(ii) At 𝑥 = 0

lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 2 − 1 = −1 ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 2𝑥 = 0

𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
Since both limits are finite and not equal, at 𝑥 = 0, the function has a jump
discontinuity.
(iii) At 𝑥 = 1

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 2𝑥 = 2 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim − 2𝑥 + 4 = 2 ≠ 𝑓 1 = 1

𝑥→1− 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
Since both limits are finite and equal, at 𝑥 = 1, the function has a removable
discontinuity.
(iv) At 𝑥 = 2

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim −2𝑥 + 4 = 0 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 0 = 0.

𝑥→2− 𝑥→1 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
Here 𝑓(2) is not defined. Since both limits are finite and equal, at 𝑥 = 2, the function
has a removable discontinuity.
(v) At 𝑥 = 3
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 0 = 0
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3
The function is not defined at 𝑥 = 3. Since the function is not defined for 𝑥 ≥ 3, only

lim 𝑓(𝑥) will be there. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) will not exist. 𝑓(𝑥) has a removable discontinuity at
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3
𝑥 = 3, since left limit exists.
 2
, 𝑥 < −1
𝑥+1
1 − 𝑥, −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
2
2. 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 2, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 on (−∞, 3]
2 − 𝑥, 1 < 𝑥 < 2
1, 𝑥 = 2
2𝑥 − 4, 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 3
(Hint : Intervals are −∞, −1 , −1,0 , 0,1 , 1,2 , (2,3]. Please check the continuity at
the end points −1,0,1,2 and 3.

𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 6, 𝑥 ≤ 1
3. 𝑓 𝑥 = ൞2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥, 1 < 𝑥 < 2 on −∞, ∞
9𝑥 + 14, 𝑥 > 2
AT WHAT POINTS ARE THE FOLLOWING FUNCTIONS CONTINUOUS
1
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥−2 − 3𝑥

1 1−3𝑥 𝑥−2 1−3𝑥 2 +6𝑥

Solution : 𝑦 = − 3𝑥 = = . The function will become
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥−2

discontinuous only when 𝑥 − 2 = 0, i.e., the function is continuous for all values of 𝑥
except 2.
𝑥+1
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2−4𝑥+3

𝑥+1 𝑥+1
Solution : 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3 = . The function will become discontinuous only
𝑥−1 𝑥−3

when 𝑥 − 1 = 0 or 𝑥 − 3 = 0. i.e., the function is continuous for all values of 𝑥

except 1,3.
3. 𝑦 = |𝑥|
Solution : The function 𝑦 = |𝑥| is continuous for all values of 𝑥.
4. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Solution : Here both |𝑥 − 1| and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 are continuous functions for all values of
𝑥. Sum two continuous functions is also continuous. The function is continuous
everywhere.
𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
5. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +1

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝜋
Solution : 𝑥 2 + 1 > 0, ∀𝑥. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0, when 𝑥 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 , 𝑛 is an
𝜋
integer. The function is continuous for all the values of 𝑥, except for 𝑥 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 , 𝑛

is an integer.
6. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
−3
Solution : The function is continuous if 2𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0. i.e., ∀𝑥 ≥ .
2
1Τ
7. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 3

Solution : The function is continuous for all values of 𝑥.

 1 𝑥2
8. 𝑦 = − 2
𝑥 +1

1
9. 𝑦 = +4
𝑥+2 2

𝑥+3
10. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2−3𝑥−10

11. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑥

1+𝑥 4
12. 𝑦 = 1+sin2 𝑥
4
13. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1
1Τ
14. 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 5
 Continuous Extension to a Point

We can redefine functions with removable discontinuities to obtain

continuous functions

Example

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
is defined and continuous for all 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎 . As 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒙 = 𝟏, it makes sense to define a new
𝒙→𝟎
function
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝑭 𝒙 =ቐ 𝒙 ; 𝒙≠𝟎
𝟏 ; 𝒙=𝟎
Continuous extension

If lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 exists, but 𝑓 𝑐 is not defined,

𝑥→𝑐
we define a new function

𝑓 𝑥 ; 𝑥≠𝑐
𝐹 𝑥 =ቊ
𝐿 ; 𝑥=𝑐

which is continuous at 𝑐. It is called the

continuous extension of 𝑓 𝑥 to 𝑐.
Problems
𝒙𝟐 +𝒙−𝟔
1. Show that 𝒇 𝒙 = has a continuous extension to 𝒙 = 𝟐, and
𝒙𝟐 −𝟒
find that extension.
 𝒙𝟐 +𝒙−𝟐
2. Find a continuous function of 𝒇 𝒙 = to 𝒙 = −𝟐.
𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒙+𝟐

Solution:
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 𝑥−1 𝑥+2 𝑥−1
Here lim = lim = lim = 3
𝑥→−2 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2 𝑥→−2 𝑥+2 𝑥+1 𝜘→−2 𝑥+1

Redefine
𝑥−1
; 𝑥 ≠ −2
𝐹 𝑥 = ൝𝑥+1
3 ; 𝑥 = −2
 Intermediate Value Theorem
for
Continuous Functions

Intermediate Value Property

A function is said to have the Intermediate Value
Property if whenever it takes on two values, it also takes on all
the values in between.

Intermediate Value Theorem:

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 that is continuous on a closed
interval 𝑎, 𝑏 takes on every value between 𝑓 𝑎 and 𝑓 𝑏 .
In other words, if 𝑦0 is any value between 𝑓 𝑎 and 𝑓 𝑏 ,
then 𝑦0 = 𝑓 𝑐 for some 𝑐 in 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Geometrically, the IVT says that any horizontal line
𝑦 = 𝑦0 crossing the y-axis between the numbers 𝑓 𝑎
and 𝑓 𝑏 will cross the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 at least once
over the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Problems
1. Use IVT, show that the equation 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝟎
has a root on the given interval −𝟏, 𝟐 .
Solution:
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5 = 0. We want to show that
there is a number 𝑪 such that −𝟏 < 𝑪 < 𝟐 and 𝒇 𝑪 = 𝟎.

Compute 𝑓 −1 = 8 ; 𝑓 2 = −19. So, we have,

−19 = 𝑓 2 < 0 < 𝑓 −1 = 8.
Therefore, 0 is between −19 and 8 and since 𝑓 𝑥 is a
polynomial it is continuous everywhere and so in
particular it is continuous on the interval −1,2 .

So, by the IVT, there must be a number

−1 < 𝐶 < 2 so that 𝑓 𝐶 = 0. This implies the
equation 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5 = 0 has a root
between −1 and 2.
2. Use the IVT to show that the given equation 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎
has at least one solution in the interval −𝟐, 𝟒 .

Solution:
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 25 − 8𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 = 0.
To show that there is a number 𝑪 in −𝟐, 𝟒 𝐬𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝒇 𝑪 = 𝟎.
Here observe that the function is a polynomial and so is
continuous everywhere and in particular is continuous on the
interval −2, 4 .
Next, we need to prove 0 is between the function values
as the end points of the interval. So, 𝑓 −2 = 1 ; 𝑓 4 = −167.
Therefore, we have, 𝑓 4 = −167 < 0 < 1 = 𝑓 −2 .
Hence, by the IVT, there must be a number 𝑐 such that −2 <
𝑐 < 4 and 𝑓 𝐶 = 0.
Practice Problems with Solutions