4.

RESEARCH DESIGNS
AND
WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 NATURE OF RESEARCH
1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
2. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
3. EXPLANATORY (CAUSAL) RESEARCH
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive research involves describing
a problem, context or a situation. This is
a feature of exploratory research as
well, however descriptive type
questions are generally more structure,
and more reliant on prior ideas and
methods.
This type of study could be suited to
either qualitative or quantitative
methods;
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 Exploratory research involves gathering
information and developing ideas about a
relatively under researched problem or context
 The value of exploratory research could be
that it clears the ground for other kinds of
research, or that it throws up interesting
differences and comparisons between more
well studied topics, and those that are less well
studied.
 The prime purpose is to develop
understanding in an area that is little
understood.
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH…Cont’d
 Since ‘exploratory research’ implies
there is less of a basis from which to
conduct research, and that a given
area is not well understood, it is more
appropriate to carry out this kind of
research using qualitative methods.
 Though one might develop
hypotheses, this kind of research would
not involve testing particular
hypotheses.
 EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
 Explanatory research can be thought
as being concerned with causes.
 The focus here is on seeking and
providing or evaluating an explanation
between two or more phenomena.
 Explanatory research typically seeks to
identify and explain a causal
relationship that is substantively
important or meaningful.
EXPLANATORY RESEARCH…Cont’d
 In this kind of research, people typically
develop hypotheses to be tested (in
light of the existing literature) and then
see whether the data they have
collected can be called on to support
or refute those hypotheses.
 This type of approach is more likely to
employ quantitative methods, typically
a survey, but one could also seek
explanatory type research using case
study or observational data
 RESEARCH DESIGNS
 A research design provides a framework for the
collection and analysis of data.
 A choice of research design reflects decisions
about the priority being given to a range of
dimensions of the research process.
 These include the importance attached to:
 Expressing causal connections between variables;
 Generalizing to a larger groups of individuals than
those actually forming part of the investigation;
 Understanding behavior and the meaning of that
behavior in its specific social context;
 Having a temporal (i.e., over time) appreciation of
social phenomena and their interconnections
 RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN;
2. CROSS SECTIONAL OR SOCIAL
SURVEY DESIGN;
3. LONGITUDINAL DESIGN;
4. CASE STUDY DESIGN; AND
5. COMPARATIVE DESIGN
 RESEARCH METHOD
 A research method is simply a
technique for collecting data.
 It can involve a specific instrument,
such as a self completion questionnaire
or a structured interview schedule, or
participant observation whereby the
researcher listen to and watches others.
 Experimentations
 Research Design Continuum
Research Design

Analytical Research Experimental Research

Descriptive Research Pre-designs

Reviews
Quasi-designs
Philosophical Case Study Survey

Historical True-designs
Cross-Sectional
Meta-Analyses
Longitudinal
Statistical-
Correlational designs
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Experimental research is frequently held up
as a touchstone because it engenders
considerable confidence in the robustness
and trustworthiness of causal findings. In
other words, true experiments tend to be
very strong in terms of internal validity.
Classic Experimental Design
The laboratory experiment
Quasi experiments
 CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
 Cross-sectional design entails the collection of data on
more than one case (usually quite a lot more than
one) and at a single point in time in order to collect a
body of quantitative or quantifiable data in
connection with two or more variables (usually many
more than two), which are then examined to detect
patterns of association.
 Research Methods associated with cross-sectional research:
1. Questionnaires
2. Structured Interviewing
3. Structured Observation
4. Content Analysis
5. Official Statistics, and
6. Diaries
 LONGITUDINAL DESIGN

• A longitudinal study is one that involves

the repeated observation or
examination of a set of subjects over
time with respect to one or more study
variables.
 CASE STUDY
The basic case study entails the detailed
and intensive analysis of a single case.
Case study is concerned with the
complexity and particular nature of the
case in question.
A case can be:
A single organization
 A single location
 A person
 A single event
 COMPARATIVE DESIGN
Comparative design entails the study using more or
less identical methods of two or more contrasting
cases. It embodies the logic of comparison in that it
implies that we can understand social phenomenon
better when they are compared in relation to two or
more meaningfully contrasting cases or situation.

The comparative design may be realised in the

context of quantitative or qualitative research.
 Basic Concepts of Sampling
The Sampling Process
 Naming Your Population
 Determining Sample Size
 Employing An Appropriate Sampling Strategy
 Random Samples
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
 Non-random Samples
Purposive sampling
Snowball Sampling
 ‘Convenience’ Sampling
 Population/s
Is the total membership of a defined
class of people/objects.
Defn of population includes: age, class,
gender, marital status, race, …..
The Need To Sample
 We do rarely speak to everyone we wish
to speak about, so we sample,
Working towards credibility: 2 steps
 Validity’ or ‘authenticity
 Transferability/ generalizability
 Determining Sample Size
‘How many people do I need in my
sample?’
Depends on the nature of your research
& the form of your data.
To get the best size consider :
Your Goals (Transferability
/Generalizability);
The Parameters Of your Population (How
Large It Might Be)
The Type Of Data You Plan To Collect.
 Traditional Statistical Tools
 Qant. Research generates statistics via the
use of large-scale survey research such as
Questionnaires or Structured Interviews.
 Descriptive Statistics:
A) Measure Central Tendency; include:
Mode: most common value/s noted for a variable.
Median: the mid-point of a range. To find it arrange the values
in ascending (or descending) order and find the middle value.
Mean: The mathematical average.
B) Measure Dispersion
Range: the highest minus the lowest value.
Variance: is the ‘average squared deviation from the mean’.
Standard Deviation: the square root of the variance.
 Sampling
Target
Pop.
(N)

Sample (n)
• Effective Sampling produces a n which is representative of N
• Note: n is only ever representative of the N it was drawn from,
i.e. not necessarily the general population.
 Sampling

Statistics

The dependent variable can be

generalised from n to N
 Sampling Methods
• Random- All members of N have an equal
chance of selection
e.g.

• Stage- Randomly select a group, then take

sample School
e.g. Class

• Cluster- Select a natural group to sample from

e.g. local community
 Sampling Methods
• Stratified- identify strata and sample accordingly
i.e. Global Pop. Sample (n=100)
= 51% = 51
= 49% = 49
• Systematic- e.g. every fourth person but starting
at a random point

• Opportunity- sample a convenient group

 Sampling…Cont’d
Discussion point: Define each term and
formulate for a random variable (Xi). Assume
normal distribution function.
1. Mean
2. Mode
3. Range
4. Variance
5. Standard Deviation
 Sampling…Cont’d
• Descriptive Statistics
include
n
– The Mean- measure of
central tendency xi 1
i
– The Range- difference x
between n
largest/smallest
observations in a set of
data
– Standard Deviation
measures the amount of
data dispersion around n

 x 
2
mean i  X
– Distribution of Data σ  i1

shape n 1
• Normal or bell
shaped or
• Skewed
Class Work: Determine the Mean, Mode, Range,
Variance and Standard Deviations of each sample.
Sample Observation (xi)
1 11.90 11.92 12.09 11.91 12.01
2 12.03 12.03 11.92 11.97 12.07
3 11.92 12.02 11.93 12.01 12.07
4 11.96 12.06 12.00 11.91 11.98
5 11.95 12.10 12.03 12.07 12.00
6 11.99 11.98 11.94 12.06 12.06
7 12.00 12.04 11.92 12.00 12.07
8 12.02 12.06 11.94 12.07 12.00
9 12.01 12.06 11.94 11.91 11.94
10 11.92 12.05 11.92 12.09 12.07
 Scatter Diagram
 A Scatter Diagram is a graph of the value of one
variable vs. another variable
 Example: To study the relation of two variable such
as the speed of the lathe and dimension of a part,
or concentration and specific gravity, we use
scatter diagram.
The two variables common are:
a) A quality characteristics and a factory affecting it,
b) Two related quality- characteristics, or
c) Two factors relating to a single quality characteristics.

• In order to grasp the relation between these, it is

important, first, to make a scatter diagram and
grasp the overall relation.
 Scatter Diagram…Con’d

Productivity

X Absenteeism
How to Read Scatter Diagrams
 Scatter Diagram…Con’d
 To study the relation of x and y, it is important to first draw a
scatter diagram; however, in order to understand the strength
of the relation in quantitative terms, it is useful to calculate the
correlation coefficient according to the following definitions:
Scatter Diagram…Con’d
 Scatter Diagram…Con’d
 The value of r ranges between [ -1, +1], and
 r denotes the strength of the association as illustrated by
the following diagram.
Scatter Diagram…Con’d
 Reading Assignment
1. Variables
2. Sampling and Sampling techniques
3. Statistical analysis and validations
4. Hypothesis testing
5. Descriptive statistics
 Central limit theorem
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Measure of variance or desperation
 Confidence level and interval
 Anova and Covariance
 Regression models and analysis
 Testing significance
 Chi- square
 P-Value
–etc
WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
 A Research Proposal is a plan showing
the step by step description of how a
proposed research will be undertaken.
 It reflects the researcher’s
understanding of the problem and
ability to conduct the research.
 WHY A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
It gives an opportunity to think through
your project carefully, and clarify and
define what you want to research.
Provides you with an outline and to
guide you through the research process.
Lets your supervisor and
department/faculty know what you
would like to research and how you plan
to go about it.
Helps the department to choose an
appropriate supervisor.
 AIM OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Your Research Proposal needs to
persuade the members of the
“Graduate Council Committee” that
your research will be most valuable and
fascinating
You should have a clear idea in your
mind that your research is really going
to be effective
You should develop the exact strategies
for writing your research proposal.
AIM OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL …Cont’d
 In the research proposal, you need to
mention the expected outcomes of
your work, possible difficulties and time
limits.
 This will persuade the “Graduate
Council Committee” that you have
thought over the whole research
thoroughly.
 You need to be aware:
What you want to achieve?
What can bother you?
How you can overcome it?
 A GOOD RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 Your RP should be detailed.
 You need to mention the methods
you are going to use for achieving the
results.
You need to say why these methods
are suitable for that aim.
You need to give reasonable
arguments that will support your every
point of view.
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL PROCESS
1. Choosing a Topic
2. Narrowing and focusing your Topic (title)
3. Formulating your Research Objectives or
Questions
4. Outlining the key literature in the topic area /
study
5. Describing the research methodology including the
research designs and methods
6. Proposing an approach to Data Analysis
7. Developing a Project Schedule (Time Plan) and a
Budget / Resources you will need
8. Developing a bibliography
 FORMAT OF YOUR RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. TITLE
2. INTRODUCTION / BACKGROUND
3. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
6. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
7. LIMITATIONS AND CONSTRAINTS
8. REFERENCES
9. PLANNING (GANTT CHART)
 1. TITLE
This normally includes the following:

1. Title: Proposal for Research and

Research title
2. Department and Supervisor(s) if
applicable
3. Your name, Course
 Title (Cover page)
 Check for required format
 Usually it is page/ place of signatures
 Place of mentioning collaboration
 Should look professional and neat
 Should be clear and unambiguous
 Should be adequately descriptive
 Use words that reflect focal point of
your research
 Remove un necessary words
 Examples of Titles
 Red Haired Musician and their preference of musical style.
 musical style preference of red haired musicians
 The nutritive value of coffee pulp for sheep in Sebeka
 Comparative productivity of maize planted in row and
broadcasted in Oromia Regional State
 The role of women in house hold economy of rural Ethiopia
 Development of solar energy operated cooking machine
 Productivity, performance improvement, Quality, Efficiency/
effectiveness, Energy/ Mining, Gender, Software, Data Base
Mgmt, Argorthems , HIV/AIDS, Environment, Biodiversity,
Community Health, Natural resource management etc.
 Examples of Title
“Study on environmental and health policy factors
influencing the attainment of health for all in rural
Oromia”

“The Systematic Development of Competitive, Cost

Effective and Efficient Local Initiative to create a
Learning Center for Low Income Rural Community
Education in Nekemte Town of Oromia Region”
“The Systematic Development of
Competitive, Cost Effective and Efficient
Local Initiative to Create a Learning
Center for Low Income Rural
Community Education in Nekemte Town
of Oromia Region”
“The Systematic Development of Local
Initiative to Create a Learning Center
for Community Education in Nekemte
Town of Oromia Region”
“ The Systematic Development of A
Local Initiative to Create a Learning
Center for Community Education in
Nekemte Town of Oromia Region”

“A Local Learning Center for Community

Education”
 To pick up a good research topic
 Do some preliminary reading on the topic in
which you are interested.
 Read a few academic articles that define and
discuss the major issues.
 Try to understand the key concepts and theories.
 Take note of distinctive and unique words used
to describe the topic.
 Try to place your research question in the context of
either a current “hot” area, or an older area that
remains viable.

 Provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop.

 Provide the contemporary context in which your

proposed research question occupies the central
stage.

 Finally, identify “key players” and refer to the most

relevant and representative publications.

 Try to paint your research question in broad brushes

and at the same time bring out its significance
 Place of Topic Identification
 News media ( Mass-media)
 Textbooks (Literature)
 Personal Home/Work/ School-based
Issues
 Electronic medias and web sites
 Government policies and annual reports
 Sub-sector review reports
 Public opinions/ public agendas
 Research and development publications
 Process of Title Identification
Ask questions, ask question and ask questions

 What is the problem?

 Why should it be studied?

 What information is available?

 Literature and other information?

 What additional information is needed?

Criteria for Selecting Research Topic
 Relevance
 Avoidance of duplication
 Urgency of data needed (timelines)
 Political acceptability of the study
 Feasibility of the study
 Applicability of results
 Ethical acceptability
2. INTRODUCTION / BACKGROUND
 Context of your Study
 State why you chose your topic/area
 What prompted your interest in the
topic/area
 Problem Statement
Research Questions (if applicable)
 Hypotheses (if applicable)
 Research Objectives
 Statement of the problem
 The statement of the problem is the focal point of
the research.

 It is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of

elaboration).

 It might deals with

 something wrong.
 Something that needs close attention
 existing methods that no longer seem to be working.
 Objective(s)
 Objective is the most important part of research
project proposal,

 Objectives should be specific and realistic in terms of

time, resources and capacity and include:

 General objective: a short statement on the ultimate goal of

the research

 Specific objectives: the precise objectives of the proposed

research that the methodology will address.
• The General objectives provide a short
statement of the development goal being pursued
by the research.

• The Specific objectives are operational in nature

and may indicate specific types of knowledge to
be produced.

• These are the objective against which the

success of the project will be judged.
 3. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
 Why is your research work important?
 What are the implications of doing it?
 How does it link to other knowledge (or
research)? This should show how this
project is significant to our body of
knowledge
 Why is it important to our understanding
of the world?
 4. LITERATURE REVIEW
 The purpose of the LR is to situate your
research in the context of what is already
known about a topic, it needs to show how
your work will benefit the whole. It should
provide the theoretical basis for your work,
show what has been done in the area by
others, and see the stage for your work.
 It is also in this section where you present
the gap in the knowledge that need to be
plugged and by doing so doing, situate
your work.
 LITERATURE REVIEW…Cont’d
 It shares with the reader the results of other
studies that are closely related to the study
being reported
 It provides a framework for establishing the
importance of your study, as well as a
benchmark for comparing the results of your
study with other findings
 Used to demonstrate that you are aware of
the debates and issues raised in relevant
bodies of literature
 References to key articles and texts should be
made to show that you appreciate their
relevance to your research area
 5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 In this section, identify the methodology
that underpins your research and give a
rationale for your approach
Show how you have used your LR to
construct your own research
methodology
To state which strategies he/she will
follow during the research (i.e., the
actions and their sequence)
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…Cont’d
 Determination of Research Design
(Exploratory, Descriptive or Causal)
 Qualitative or Quantitative Approach
 Primary or Secondary Data
 Data Collection Methods
 Questionnaire Design
 Questionnaire Administration
 Estimates of Reliability, Validity and
the norms of the instruments used
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…Cont’d
 Statistical Techniques including
software to be used
 Data Analysis (Descriptive, Univariate,
Bivariate or Multivariate)
 Statistical Tests to be employed
 Methods to prove your hypotheses (if
applicable)
 Design
Specify
 Type of design and design layout to be used.

 Description of all the variables being

examined.

 Description of how the variables are to be

combined.

 Description of the points of measurement

and manipulation in the design.
 Apparatus/ Instruments
Include
 Description of the apparatus or instruments
to be used.
 Variables to be measured by instruments.
 Reliability and validity of instruments.

 Why the instruments or apparatus are used.

 Reference indicating where apparatus or

instruments can be obtained.
 Procedure
The following information should be
included in the procedure section:

 Detailed step-by-step description of

how the study will be executed.

 Description of analytical procedures to

be used
 Data Analysis

State the method of statistical data

analysis
 6. EXPECTED RESULTS
 You should have some idea of expected
outcomes based on the research
conducted in the past

 It should join the data analysis and

possible outcomes to the theory and
questions that you have raised

 You can also summarizes the

significance of the work
 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Discuss the ways in which your study will
protect confidentiality, anonymity, and
the physical and mental well being of
participants

 Any other codes of conduct (e.g.,

relevant governmental / other established
codes) also need to be mentioned.
 LIMITATIONS

Identifies potential weaknesses of

the study
 PROJECT PLAN / SCHEDULE
 It is important that you include a
project plan or schedule to guide you
and keep you on track

 For instance, you will need to estimate

the time needed for different tasks for
your thesis and assign tasks for each
month / week
 FINANCIAL RESOURCES
 Outline the resources you need
and propose a budget (Optional)
 Budget
• Identify those people who will actually
participate in the conduct of the project and who
will be supported by the funding. The descriptions
should clarify in the mind of the potential funding
agency that these people are ideally suited to
conduct the project.
• instead of having all full-time staff on the project,
consider having a number of daily laborer,
contractual and part-time staff.
• Make sure you notify people whom identified in
your personnel section and receive their approval
before you send in your proposal.
 REFERENCES
 You should include a short list of
references of key articles and texts
included in the document
 References

Bibliography
 Exercise
 Do a map of your research proposal
 Establish relationships
Use arrows