NETW701

Wireless Communications
Dr. Wassim Alexan
Winter 2018

Lecture 3
 NETW705

Mobile Communication
Networks
Dr. Wassim Alexan
Winter 2018

Lecture 3

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 Survey

◆ https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/PDY3FTH

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 Diffraction

Fig. 1. Radio wave diffraction.

◆ Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth,
beyond the horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions

◆ Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as the receiver moves deeper
into the obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction field still exists and often has
sufficient strength to produce a useful signal

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 Diffraction

Fig. 1. Radio wave diffraction.

◆ Even though there will be a shadow zone immediately behind the obstacle, the signal
will diffract around the obstacle and start to fill the void

◆ Diffraction is more pronounced when the obstacle becomes sharper and more like a
knife edge

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 Diffraction

Fig. 1. Radio wave diffraction.

◆ For a radio signal, the definition of a knife edge depends upon the frequency, and
hence the wavelength of the signal

◆ For low frequency signals, a mountain ridge may provide a sufficiently sharp edge

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 Diffraction

Fig. 1. Radio wave diffraction.

◆ A more rounded hill will not produce such a marked effect

◆ Low frequency signals diffract more markedly than higher frequency ones, thus
signals on the long wave band are able to provide coverage even in hilly or
mountainous terrain where signals at VHF and higher would not

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 Diffraction

Fig. 2. Radio wave diffraction, as explained by Huygen.

◆ Huygen’s principle states that all points on a wavefront can be considered as point
sources for the production of secondary wavelets

◆ These wavelets combine to produce a new wavefront in the direction of propagation

◆ Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed

region

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry

Fig. 3. Knife–edge diffraction geometry. An infinite knife–edge obstruction blocking the LOS path.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ It is clear that the wave propagating from the Tx to the Rx via the top of the screen
travels a longer distance than if a LOS wave existed

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry

Fig. 3. Knife–edge diffraction geometry. An infinite knife–edge obstruction blocking the LOS path.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ Assume h << d1, d2 and h >> λ, then the difference between the direct path and the
diffracted path, called the excess path length △, is obtained as

h 2 d1 + d2
△= d12 +h +2
d22 2
+ h - d1 - d2 ≈   (1)
2 d1 d2

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 Derivation of the Excess Path Difference △
△= d12 + h2 + d22 + h2 - d1 - d2

h 2 h 2
= d1 1 +   + d2 1 +   - d1 - d2
d1 d2
1 h 2 1 h 2
≈ d1  1 +    + d2  1 +    - d1 - d2
2 d1 2 d2
1 h2 1 h2 ( 2)
≈ d1 + d1 2 + d2 + d2 2 - d1 - d2
2 d1 2 d2
1 h2 1 h2
≈ +
2 d1 2 d2
1 1 1
≈ h2  + 
2 d1 d2
h 2 d1 + d2
≈  
2 d1 d2
where 1+x ≈1+ x
2 for x << 1

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry
◆ The excess path difference is approximated by

h 2 d1 + d2
△≈   (3)
2 d1 d2
◆ The phase difference is then given by

2π 2 π h 2 d1 + d2
ϕ= △≈   (4)
λ λ 2 d1 d2

◆ The time delay between the arrival of the two components is given by

△ ϕ
τd = = ( 5)
c 2 π fc

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry

Fig. 3. Knife–edge diffraction geometry. An infinite knife–edge obstruction blocking the LOS path.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ tan β = h / d1

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry

Fig. 3. Knife–edge diffraction geometry. An infinite knife–edge obstruction blocking the LOS path.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ tan γ = h / d2

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry

Fig. 3. Knife–edge diffraction geometry. An infinite knife–edge obstruction blocking the LOS path.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ α= β+γ

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry
◆ Now, we have

tan β = h / d1, tan γ = h / d2 and α = β + γ (6)

◆ Note that when tan x ≈ x, then

h h d + d2
α= + =h 1  ( 7)
d1 d2 d1 d2

◆ The phase difference is usually normalized using the dimensionless Fresnel–

Kirchhoff parameter ν, given by

2 d1 + d2 2 d1 d2
ν=h   =α   ( 8)
λ d1 d2 λ d1 + d2

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 Fresnel Zone Geometry
◆ This allows us to express the phase difference as

2π 2 π h 2 d1 + d2 π
ϕ= △≈   = ν2 (9)
λ λ 2 d1 d2 2

◆ ν2 = 2, 6, 10, ... → ϕ = π, 3 π, 5 π, ... corresponds to destructive interference

between the direct and the diffracted paths

◆ ν2 = 4, 8, 12, ... → ϕ = 2 π, 4 π, 6 π, ... corresponds to constructive interference

between the direct and the diffracted paths

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 Fresnel Zones

Fig. 4. Concentric circles which define the boundaries of successive Fresnel zones.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path difference around an

obstruction is explained by Fresnel zones

◆ Fresnel zones are successive regions where secondary waves have a path length from
the Tx to the Rx which is n λ / 2 greater than the LOS path

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 Fresnel Zones

Fig. 4. Concentric circles which define the boundaries of successive Fresnel zones.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ Fig. 4 shows a transparent plane located between a Tx and a Rx

◆ The concentric circles on the plane represent secondary waves which propagate to
the Rx such that the total path length increases by λ/2 for successive circles

◆ These circles are called Fresnel zones

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 Fresnel Zones

Fig. 4. Concentric circles which define the boundaries of successive Fresnel zones.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ Each Fresnel zone is defined by the phase shift which ultimately occurs when a
transmitted sine wave deflects off an object within that region and continues to the Rx

◆ Fresnel zones are important to take into account because a sine wave following one of
these paths may arrive at the Rx out of sync (due to phase shift) with the LOS sine
wave

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 Fresnel Zones

Fig. 4. Concentric circles which define the boundaries of successive Fresnel zones.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ The radius of the nth Fresnel zone is given as

d1 d2
rn = nλ  (10)
d1 + d2

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 Fresnel Zones: A Note on Geometry

Fig. 5. Equivalent knife–edge geometry where the smallest height (in this case hr) is subtracted from all other heights.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ In practical diffraction problems, it is useful to to reduce all heights by a constant, so

that the geometry is simplified without changing the values of the angles

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 Fresnel Zones for Different Knife–Edge Diffraction
Scenarios

Fig. 6. α and ν are positive, since h is positive.

(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

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 Fresnel Zones for Different Knife–Edge Diffraction
Scenarios

Fig. 7. α and ν are equal to zero, since h is zero.

(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

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 Fresnel Zones for Different Knife–Edge Diffraction
Scenarios

Fig. 8. α and ν are negative, since h is negative.

(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

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 Diffraction Loss
◆ In mobile communication systems, diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of
secondary waves such that only a portion of the energy is diffracted around the
obstacle

◆ The obstruction causes a blockage of energy from some of the Fresnel zones, thus
allowing only some of the transmitted energy to reach the Rx

◆ If an obstruction does not block the volume contained within the first Fresnel zone,
then the diffraction loss will be minimal and diffraction effects may be neglected

◆ A rule of thumb used for the design of LOS microwave links is that as long 55% of the
first Fresnel zone is kept clear, then further Fresnel zone clearance does not
significantly change the diffraction loss

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 Knife–Edge Diffraction Model
◆ The field strength at the Rx located in the shadowed region is a vector sum of the
fields due to all of the secondary Huygen’s sources in the plane above the knife–edge

◆ The E–field strength, Ed, of a knife–edge diffracted wave is given by

Ed 1+ j ∞ 1 2
= F (ν) = exp - j π t  ⅆt (11)
E0 2 ν 2

where E0 is the free–space field strength in absence of ground reflection and knife–
edge diffraction. F (ν) is called the complex Fresnel integral

◆ The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife–edge, as compared to the free
space E–field is given in dB by

Gd = 20 log F (ν) (12)

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 Diffraction Gain

Fig. 9. Variation of the knife–edge diffraction gain [dB] with the Fresnel diffraction parameter ν.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ In practice, graphical or numerical solutions are relied upon to compute the

diffraction gain

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 Diffraction Gain Approximation [dB]
◆ An approximate solution for the diffraction gain can also be obtained using the
following piece–wise defined function

Gd = 0 → ν ≤ - 1 (13)

Gd = 20 log(0.5 - 0.62 ν) → - 1 ≤ ν ≤ 0 (14)

Gd = 20 log0.4 - 0.1184 - (0.38 - 0.1 ν)2  → 1 ≤ ν ≤ 2.4 (15)

0.225
Gd = 20 log  → ν > 2.4 (16)
ν

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 Multiple Knife–Edge Diffraction

Fig. 10. Replacing multiple obstacles with a single virtual one, so that the usual knife–edge diffraction model can still be used.
(Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd edition)

◆ In practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist of
more than one obstruction

◆ One solution, proposed in [1], suggests replacing the series of obstacles with a single
equivalent obstacle, so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife–edge
diffraction models

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 Exercise 1
Compute the diffraction loss for the three cases shown in Fig. 6, 7 and 8. Assume
λ = 1 / 3 m, d1 = 1 km, d2 = 1 km and (a) h = 25 m, (b) h = 0, (c) h = - 25 m. Compare
your answers using values from Fig. 9, as well as the approximate solution given by
equations (13)–(16). For each of these cases, identify the Fresnel zone within which the
tip of the obstruction lies.

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 Exercise 1 Solution
◆ Given: λ = 1 / 3 m, d1 = 1 km and d2 = 1 km

◆ a) h = 25 m

The Fresnel diffraction coefficient is obtained as

2 d1 + d2 2 (1000 + 1000)
ν=h   = 25 = 2.74
λ d1 d2 (1 / 3) × 1000 × 1000

From Fig. 9, the diffraction loss is obtained as ≈ 22 dB, while using the numerical
approximation gives

0.225 0.225
Gd = 20 log  = 20 log  = - 21.7 dB
ν 2.74

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 Exercise 1 Solution
The path length difference between the direct and the diffracted rays is

h 2 d1 + d2 252 (1000 + 1000)

△≈   = = 0.625 m
2 d1 d2 2 1000 × 1000

To find the Fresnel zone in which the tip of the obstruction lies, we need to compute n
which satisfies the relation △ = n λ / 2. For λ = 1 / 3 m and △ = 0.625 m, we get

2△ 2 × 0.625
n= = = 3.75
λ 1/3

This tells us that the tip of the obstruction completely blocks the first 3 Fresnel zones

Note that Fig. 9 and equations (13)–(16) give diffraction gain values, which are posi-
tive. If we are using them to calculate diffraction loss values, then these values would
have a negative sign, but it is common to give statements as “a diffraction loss of 22
dB”.

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 Exercise 1 Solution
◆ b) h = 0 m

Thus, the Fresnel diffraction parameter ν = 0

From Fig. 9, the diffraction loss is obtained as 6 dB

Using the numerical approximation also gives

Gd = 20 log(0.5 - 0.62 ν) = 20 log(0.5 - 0.62 × 0) = - 6 dB

For this case, since h = 0, we have △ = 0, and the tip of the obstruction lies in the mid-
dle of the first Fresnel zone

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 Exercise 1 Solution
◆ c) h = - 25 m

The Fresnel diffraction coefficient is obtained as

2 d1 + d2 2 (1000 + 1000)
ν=h   = - 25 = - 2.74
λ d1 d2 (1 / 3) × 1000 × 1000

From Fig. 9, the diffraction loss is obtained as ≈ 1 dB, while using the numerical
approximation gives 0 dB (see equation (13))

Since the absolute value of the height h is the same as part (a) of this exercise, the
excess path length △ and hence n will also be the same

Note that although the tip of the obstruction completely blocks the first three Fresnel
zones, the diffraction losses are negligible, since the obstruction is below the LOS (h is
negative)
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 References
◆ [1] K. Bullington, “Radio propagation at frequencies above 30 Megacycles, ”
Proceedings of the IEEE, 35, pp. 1122–1136, 1947.

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