NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

REPORT
1 38
INSTRUMENTATION FOR
MEASUREMENT OF MOISTURE
LITERATURE REVIEW AND
RECOMMENDED RESEARCH

HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES -NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
 HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD 1973

Officers
WILLIAM L. GARRISON, Chairman
JAY W. BROWN, First Vice Chairman
MILTON PIKARSKY, Second Vice Chairman
W. N. CAREY, JR., Executive Director

Executive Committee
HENRIK E. STAFSETH, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway Officials (ex officio)
RALPH R. BARTELSMEYER, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio)
FRANK C. HERRINGER, Urban Mass Transportation Administrator, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio)
ERNST WEBER, Chairman, Division of Engineering, National Research Council (ex officio)
CHARLES E. SHUMATE, Executive Director-Chief Engineer, Colorado Department of Highways (ex officio, Past Chairman 1971)
ALAN M. VOORHEES, President, Alan M. Voorhees and Associates (ex officio, Past Chairman 1972)
HENDRIK W. BODE, Professor of Systems Engineering, Harvard University
JAY W. BROWN, Director of Road Operations, Florida Department of Transportation
W. J. BURMEISTER, Executive Director, Wisconsin Asphalt Pavement Association
DOUGLAS B. FUGATE, Commissioner, Virginia Department of Highways
WILLIAM L. GARRISON, Professor of Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh
ROGER H. GILMAN, Director of Planning and Development, The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
NEIL V. HAKALA, President, Esso Research and Engineering Company
ROBERT N. HUNTER, Chief Engineer, Missouri State Highway Commission
GEORGE KRAMBLES, Operating Manager, Chicago Transit Authority
SCHEFFER LANG, Office of the President, Association of American Railroads
SAUNDERS MAC LANE, Department of Mathematics, The University of Chicago
HAROLD L. MICHAEL, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University
GRANT MICKLE, President, Highway Users Federation for Safety and Mobility
JOHN T. MIDDLETON, Consultant
JAMES A. MOE, Director, California Department of Public Works
ELLIOTT W. MONTROLL, Professor of Physics, University of Rochester
MILTON PIKARSKY, Commissioner of Public Works, Chicago
DAVID H. STEVENS, Chairman, Maine Department of Transportation
R. STOKES, General Manager, San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District
ROBERT N. YOUNG, Executive Director, Regional Planning Council, Baltimore, Maryland

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

Advisory Committee
WILLIAM L. GARRISON, University of Pittsburgh (Chairman)
JAY W. BROWN, Florida Department of Transportation
MILTON PIKARSKY, City of Chicago
HENRIK E. STAFSETH, American Association of State Highway Officials
RALPH R. BARTELSMEYER, U.S. Department of Transportation
ERNST WEBER, National Research Council
CHARLES E. SHUMATE, Colorado Dpartment of Highways
ALAN M. VOORHEES, Alan M. Voorhees and Associates
W. N. CAREY, JR., Highway Research Board

General Field of Soils and Geology

Area of Instrumentation and Testing
Advisory Panel E 21-1
GEORGE W. McALPIN, New York Department of Transportation (Chairman)
PAGE FISHER, Geotechnical Engineering
JACK L. MICKLE, Iowa State University
JAMES P. SALE, U.S. Waterways Experiment Station
THOMAS H. THORNBURN, University of Illinois
ELDON J. YODER, Purdue University
RICHARD A. McCOMB, Federal Highway Administration
JOHN W. GUINNEE, Highway Research Board

Program Staff
K. W. HENDERSON, JR., Program Director
LOUIS M. MACGREGOR, Administrative Engineer HARRY A. SMITH, Projects Engineer
JOHN E. BURKE, Projects Engineer DAVID K. WITHEFORD, Projects Engineer
GEORGE E. FRANGOS, Projects Engineer HERBERT P. ORLAND, Editor
ROBERT J. REILLY, Projects Engineer ROSEMARY M. MALONEY, Editor
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
REPORT 138
INSTRUMENTATION FOR
MEASUREMENT OF MOISTURE
LITERATURE REVIEW AND
RECOMMENDED RESEARCH
L. F. BALLARD
RESEARCH TRIANGLE INSTITUTE
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK
NORTH CAROLINA

RESEARCH SPONSORED BY THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION

OF STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS IN COOPERATION
WITH THE FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

AREAS OF INTEREST
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
SOILS, GEOLOGY, AND FOUNDATIONS

HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD

DIVISION OF ENGINEERING NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES -NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING 1973
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM NCHRP Report 138

Systematic, well-designed research provides the most ef- Project 21-1 FY '70
fective approach to the solution of many problems facing ISBN 0-309-02023-9
highway administrators and engineers. Often, highway L. C. Catalog Card No. 72-9486
problems are of local interest and can best be studied by
highway departments individually or in cooperation with Price $4.00
their state universities and others. However, the accelerat-
ing growth of highway transportation develops increasingly This report is one of a series of reports issued from a continuing
research program conducted under a three-way agreement entered
complex problems of wide interest to highway authorities. into in June 1962 by and among the National Academy of Sciences-
These problems are best studied through a coordinated National Research Council, the American Association of State High-
program of cooperative research. way Officials, and the Federal Highway Administration. Individual
fiscal agreements are executed annually by the Academy-Research
In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators Council, the Federal Highway Administration, and participating
-state highway departments, members of the American Association
of the American Association of State Highway Officials of State Highway Officials.
initiated in 1962 an objective national highway research The study reported herein was undertaken under the aegis of the
program employing modern scientific techniques. This National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council. The
program is supported on a continuing basis by funds from National Cooperative Highway Research Program, under which
this study was made, is conducted by the Highway Research Board
participating member states of the Association and it re- with the express approval of the Governing Board of the NRC.
ceives the full cooperation and support of the Federal Such approval indicated that the Board considered that the prob-
Highway Administration, United States Department of lems studied in this program are of national significance; that solu-
tion of the problems requires scientific or technical competence,
Transportation. and that the resources of NRC are particularly suitable to the con-
duct of these studies. The institutional responsibilities of the NRC
The Highway Research Board of the National Academy are discharged in the following manner: each specific problem, be-
of Sciences-National Research Council was requested by fore it is accepted for study in the Program, is approved as appro-
the Association to administer the research program because priate for the NRC by the Program advisory committee and the
Chairman of the Division of Engineering of the National Research
of the Board's recognized objectivity and understanding of Council.
modern research practices. The Board is uniquely suited The specific work to be performed in each problem area is defined
for this purpose as: it maintains an extensive committee by an advisory panel that then selects a research agency to do the
work, monitors the work, and reviews the final reports. Members
structure from which authorities on any highway transpor- of the advisory panels are appointed by the Chairman of the Divi-
tation subject may be drawn; it possesses avenues of com- sion of Engineering of the National Research Council. They are se-
munications and cooperation with federal, state, and local lected for their individual scholarly competence and judgment, with
due consideration for the balance and breadth of disciplines.
governmental agencies, universities, and industry; its rela- Responsibility for the definition of this research project and for the
tionship to its parent organization, the National Academy publication of this report rests with the advisory panel. However,
of Sciences, a private, nonprofit institution, is an insurance the opinions and conclusion expressed or implied are those of the
research agency that performed the research, and are not necessarily
of objectivity; it maintains a full-time research correlation those of the Highway Research Board, the National Research Coun-
staff of specialists in highway transportation matters to cil, the Federal Highway Administration, the American Association
bring the findings of research directly to those who are in of State Highway Officials, nor the individual states participating in
the Program.
a position to use them.
Although reports in this category are not submitted for approval to
The program is developed on the basis of research needs the Academy membership nor to the Council, each report is re-
identified by chief administrators of the highway depart- viewed and processed according to procedures established and
monitored by the Academy's Report Review Committee. Such
ments and by committees of AASHO. Each year, specific reviews are intended to determine, inter alia, whether the major
areas of research needs to be included in the program are questions and relevant points of view have been addressed, and
whether the reported findings, conclusions and recommendations
proposed to the Academy and the Board by the American arose from the available data and information. Distribution of the
Association of State Highway Officials. Research projects report is permitted only after satisfactory completion of this review
to fulfill these needs are defined by the Board, and qualified process.
research agencies are selected from those that have sub-
mitted proposals. Administration and surveillance of re- Published reports of the
search contracts are responsibilities of the Academy and NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
its Highway Research Board.
are available from:
The needs for highway research are many, and the
National Cooperative Highway Research Program can Highway Research Board
make significant contributions to the solution of highway National Academy of Sciences
transportation problems of mutual concern to many re- 2101 Constitution Avenue
sponsible groups. The program, however, is intended to Washington, D.C. 20418
complement rather than to substitute for or duplicate other
highway research programs. (See last pages for list of published titles and prices)
 This report is the result of a comprehensive review of literature on all known meth-
FOREVVO RD ods of moisture measurement likely to be applicable to highway problems. It con-
By Stall tains (1) a listing of highway moisture measurement problems, (2) a description
Highway Research Board of a number of applicable measurement principles, and (3) an evaluation model
for estimating the best moisture measuring instrument for specific operating condi-
tions. Soils and materials engineers will find information in the report useful during
selection of instruments for particular moisture measurement problems. In addition,
the study findings provide a sound basis for development of research programs
aimed at more satisfactory resolution of moisture measurement needs in the highway
field.

The majority of acceptance procedures for construction of highway embank-

ments, subgrades, and base courses require determination of moisture content of
the material being compacted. Moisture measurements also are associated with
the storage and use of plant-processed materials such as aggregates used in pave-
ments. Both the design and the performance of pavements are influenced by the
moisture content of the substructure components. Other problems for which infor-
mation on moisture content is of value to highway engineers are migration in em-
bankments, soils susceptible to volume change, buildup immediately beneath pave-
ments, groundwater fluctuations, research on performance of cemented pavement
components, frost action, and long-term performance studies. The objectives of
this study were to (1) review the state of knowledge with regard to suitability of
existing techniques for the measurement of moisture in highway components, (2)
identify techniques that may be applicable to highway moisture measurement prob-
lems but need further evaluation, and (3) identify problems for which the develop-
ment of new moisture measuring instrumentation is needed and make recommenda-
tions concerning techniques that could lead to the resolving of this need.
The Research Triangle Institute staff conducted an extensive literature review
within the highway field and in other disciplines to identify all known moisture
measurement techniques that might be applicable to highway problems. The
techniques were categorized by the physical, chemical, and electrical phenomena
on which they are based. Altogether, 35 performance characteristics were selected
and described for moisture measurement instruments. Where available from the
literature reviewed, information on the various performance characteristics for each
measurement technique is included in the report to provide a basis for the relative
evaluation of several techniques for the accomplishment of a particular moisture
measurement problem.
It appears that the ultimate need is for a very small, inexpensive device for
measuring moisture that may be remotely monitored and that will rapidly and
accurately indicate the amount and state of the water in the surrounding material.
Although no such instrument was identified during this study, several instruments
are available that are suitable for application to some of the current moisture mea-
surement problems and a procedure has been developed for their relative evalua-
tion.
 It was substantiated that data are inadequate for evaluating the performance
of many types of available instruments with regard to such characteristics as ac-
curacy. As a result, studies to collect appropriate data on performance character-
istics of instruments for measuring moisture in highway components are recom-
mended. In addition, research programs are recommended to modify existing and
to develop new sensors for some of the highway moisture measurement problems.
Some 12 research programs are recommended in the report.
To provide a basis for further research in this problem area, the NCHRP
advisory panel for the project reviewed the recommended research program sum-
marized in Table 15 and prepared the following analysis:
Recommended Programs 4, 5, 6, and 8 are concerned with the measurement
of moisture in pavement bases, subgrades, and earth materials. This is considered
the top priority problem in the highway moisture measurement field. On the basis
of the panel analysis, funds have been appropriated and NCHRP Projects 21-2 and
21-2(2). "Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement—Bases, Subgrades, and
Earth Materials (Sensor Development)," have been initiated for the design and
experimental verification of three sensors using the nuclear magnetic resonance,
microwave, and fringe capacitance principles.
Recommended Programs 7, 10, 11, and 12 are concerned with moisture mea-
surements in cemented materials such as portland cement and asphaltic concrete
pavements. This problem is of major technical and economic importance. Research
should be initiated as soon as funds can be made available.
Recommended Programs 1, 2, 3, and 9 are concerned with instrumentation to
measure moisture in plant-processed materials. It is recommended that equipment
manufacturers and materials suppliers be advised of the need for greater accuracy
in the measurement of moisture in materials in storage bins and batch plants.
The advisory panel also recognized the importance to pavement design and
performance of the interrelationship between moisture content, moisture state, and
the stress-strain characteristics of the sub-pavement system under traffic. Pore
pressure is a moisture state in need of further study because of its effect on stress-
strain relationships of granular and earth materials in a pavement structure. Con-
sequently, there is a need for exploratory research on instrumentation for in-situ
measurement of pore pressure within the sub-pavement system and this problem
should be considered within the scope of research on instrumentation for measure-
ment of moisture.
 CONTENTS

1 SUMMARY

PART I

2 CHAPTER ONE Introduction and Research Approach

3 CHAPTER TWO Findings

Moisture Measurement Problems
Currently Applicable Moisture Measurement Techniques
Comparative Evaluation

20 CHAPTER THREE Recommended Research

Evaluation of Promising Techniques
Moisture Measurement Problems Lacking Sufficient Instrumen-
tation
Suggested Modifications of Available Techniques

PART II

23 APPENDIX A Moisture Measurement Techniques

50 APPENDIX B Bibliography

59 APPENDIX C Remote Sensing

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research reported herein was performed in partial fulfill-

ment of NCHRP Project 21-1, "Instrumentation for Measure-
ment of Moisture," by Research Triangle Institute with
Dr. L. F. Ballard as principal investigator. Other members of
the Institute staff who contributed to the project were Dr. J. J.
Wortman, T. R. Royal, and D. R. Whitaker.
The consultation services of Dr. W. G. Mullen and Dr. Robin
P. Gardner, both of North Carolina State University, are also
gratefully acknowledged.
 INSTRUMENTATION FOR
MEASUREMENT OF MOISTURE
LITERATURE REVIEW AND
RECOMMENDED RESEARCH

SUMMARY The objective of this study was to evaluate the suitability of existing instrumenta-
tion and techniques and to stimulate development of modified or new procedures
to measure the amount and state of water in highway components, such as embank-
ments, subgrades, base courses, pavements, and structures. In accomplishing this
objective, the researchers conducted an extensive literature review. Those tech-
niques that appear to be immediately applicable to highway problems were evalu-
ated using a linear decision model for comparing instrument performance charac-
teristics with specific moisture measurement needs. A comprehensive list of
performance characteristics with which to make this comparison was compiled.
The description of moisture measurement instrumentation is divided into cate-
gories according to the chemical and physical processes involved in the principle
of measurement. Commercial instrumentation is available in most of these cate-
gories; however, as a rule, the instruments are not designed for use in highway
engineering applications. The most suitable techniques currently available for use
in highway problems are the gravimetric methods and nuclear scattering methods.
For nondestructive surface or near-surface measurements, the nuclear method
appears to be unexcelled. Where samples can be removed for analysis, gravimetric
methods are most suitable. Oven drying is most commonly used, and normally is
the standard method for correlating various highway component characteristics with
moisture content. For field use, chemical extraction techniques appear to be most
effective. Problems occur with all of these techniques; however, their performance
is such that they can be of significant value in certain applications.
Uncontrolled moisture in highway construction and maintenance is a serious
economic problem worthy of a sustained research effort to develop adequate
instrumentation. Instrumentation needs to be developed and evaluated for such
broad applications as unconsolidated materials in stockpiles, bins, and conveyors;
compacted materials in depth or in layers; and cemented materials in layers and
other shapes. Candidate methods for evaluation in these areas are nuclear, radio-
wave, microwave resistance, capacitance, hygrometric, tensiometric, thermal con-
ductivity, and rapid chemical and thermal extraction techniques.
Certain modifications may improve the over-all performance of nuclear meth-
ods, with concurrent additional costs. One of these is the additional measurement of
neutron-absorbing materials by means of the neutron gamma technique. Ignition
tests also may be helpful in interpreting some measurements in clay materials.
Hygrometric techniques using aluminum oxide films might benefit from im-
proved construction methods. Extreme care in fabrication and the use of thick
sputtered ifims should add to the quality of performance of these units.
Many of the measurement problems lacking sufficient instrumentation could be
handled through the development of remote-sensing techniques. One particularly
promising technique is that of implant telemetry. Moisture measurement principles
that are compatible with this type of remote sensing should receive future research
effort.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH APPROACH

Water in its various states, when insufficient or in excess in highway components such as embankments, subgrades,
the components of a highway system, adversely affects the base courses, and structures.
service behavior. Despite recognition of the importance of During the course of this study, a literature search was
the relationship between the presence of water and service conducted to determine the state of knowledge of moisture
behavior, the engineer has been hampered in his effort to measurement instrumentation as it relates to the needs of
provide predictable performance by the lack of instrumen- the highway engineer. The results of this survey were used
tation and techniques for adequate water or moisture mea- to assess the various specific needs for this instrumentation
surement. The economic significance of the problem in and to provide the basic data to evaluate the degree that the
highway construction and maintenance is evidenced by the instrumentation satisfies these needs.
large financial investment aimed at removal of excess water Definitions of performance were compiled to form the
that causes loss of supporting capacity of subgrade soils basis of comparing a measurement need with instrument
and aggregate bases, embankment instability, and deteriora- capability. A linear decision model was used to apply indi-
tion of pavements. vidual weights to each performance requirement and sum
Techniques currently in use in the highway field to mea- the results to estimate the most desirable method for a
sure moisture content in situ generally are insufficient to particular need. This model was used to evaluate instru-
meet the researchers' needs because of their high cost, time mentation for measuring moisture in base-course compac-
requirements, disturbance of the site, long-term instability, tion control, the study of long-term soil-culvert interaction,
or a combination of these factors. Instrumentation is spe- and the study of moisture in concrete during drying. These
cifically needed for remote readout of local sensing, for areas were chosen as being representative of a larger group
of moisture measurement problems that are being studied
remote sensing of subsurface conditions, for high-precision
by using one or more available techniques.
measurements, and for long-term continuous monitoring.
The results of the literature search and the evaluation
Devices that can be installed permanently and portable
procedure indicated several additional areas of research
devices for sampling at random locations are needed to
that should receive attention. Seven programs were briefly
provide data to allow for the development of new designs defined in the area of evaluation of instrumentation for
and the use of new materials. measurement of moisture in soil and mineral materials and
The ultimate objective of research on this problem is to mixtures; two were defined for development of new instru-
evaluate the suitability of existing instrumentation and tech- mentation for significant problems lacking sufficient instru-
niques and to stimulate development of modified or new mentation; and three were defined in the modification and
procedures to measure the amount and state of water in application of nuclear methods.
 3

CHAPTER TWO

ILI

MOISTURE MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS Moisture in Coarse Aggregates in Chutes and Bins

Moisture measurement problems are related to the storage The requirements for coarse aggregate moisture measure-
and use of construction materials, particularly aggregates ment are essentially the same as those for fine aggregate,
for use in concrete, and stockpiled, blended, or graded ag- except that the amount of moisture to be measured by
gregate base materials. Moisture monitoring may be re- weight of aggregate held or processed is decreased as the
quired for knowledge of moisture content at time of use size of the aggregate is increased. For extremely large
(Walker et al., 1970), or for maintenance of a specified aggregates, the measurement of moisture may be unneces-
level of moisture as a condition of use. The latter condition sary; for blended coarse aggregates and aggregates ap-
is particularly true for aggregate and soil materials used proaching fine aggregate in size, surface moisture held by
directly in layer construction in highway embankments and aggregates may be appreciable. Generally, absorbed or
other controlled fills. In most cases, knowledge of moisture nonsurface water held by aggregates is a constant for any
aggregate supply, and does not require constant monitor-
content at time of use is sufficient for concrete aggregates.
ing because most field aggregates are found in a saturated-
Moisture measurement problems also are related to post-
plus moisture condition. One area where this condition of
construction needs of short and long duration. Moisture
saturation is questionable is that of highly vesicular or
problems for which information may be valuable include:
otherwise porous aggregates recently processed or stored
moisture migration in embankments; loss of moisture in under cover. In this less-than-fully-saturated condition,
volume-change-susceptible soils, particularly those envel- knowledge of the degree of saturation would be important
oped in moisture-control membranes; buildup of moisture in concrete control, because a moisture adjustment would
immediately below pavements in locations with remote be required to allow for full saturation of accessible pores
water tables; seasonal fluctuations in ground water tables, and vesicles.
including intermittent springs; and change in moisture con-
ditions due to adjacent construction activity or to inad- Moisture in Concrete
vertent changes from unanticipated maintenance practices.
Specific instrument requirements are discussed in the Moisture measurement in concrete depends on whether
concrete is fresh (plastic) or hardened. In fresh concrete,
following.
water content affects such properties as workability, blend-
ing, segregation, and potential strength gain. In most in-
Moisture in Fine Aggregates
stances these properties are determined and controlled by
Chutes and Bins means other than moisture measurement in fresh concrete.
These means include moisture measurement in aggregates
Mixing materials for highway construction, particularly before weighing, appropriate adjustments of batch weights,
concrete, would benefit from the use of a reliable, accurate including mixing water, consistency tests such as the slump
instrument as a control element. The instrument will be test, and visual inspection.. For most concreting operations,
exposed to hundreds of tons per hour. It must be placed measurement of moisture content in fresh concrete does
in the chute, and will be exposed to a highly abrasive not seem very important. However, with newer techniques
environment. It should be small enough so that it does not (such as continuous feed mixing, and other types of volu-
interfere with aggregate flow such as to form a dead pocket metric batching and "tube" mixing), immediate sensing of
or aggregate buildup that would shield the probe or ele- mixture moisture for feedbacks to automatic adjustment of
ment from the active flow. It should have a short-time input quantities could become extremely useful. Moisture
response on the order of seconds. The instrument size or sensing also could be useful for no-slump mixes where
the power requirements are not critical so long as the normal consistency measurements will not indicate the
technique meets the noninterference criterion in the flow quantity of lubricating water. In this sense, water control
or bin. would be substituted for consistency control.
Moisture measurements of fresh concrete, then, probably
Field Stockpiles and Storage Bins would be made on unconsolidated mixtures, and perhaps
techniques similar to those for aggregates in motion or
This application requires a portable instrument that can be process could be applicable.
used by an engineer or a technician in the field. Accuracy Moisture measurement in hardened concrete is another
may be sacrificed for portability in this case. This instru- matter entirely; here sensing would be desirable for a
ment need not make readings in situ, although it would be variety of reasons, including degree of hydration, degree
desirable. of saturation, periodic moisture fluctuations, moisture gra-
4

dients, and relation of moisture changes to deterioration or category of requirements, referred to as the research needs
durability. of moisture measurement in highway engineering. Two
Water exists in hardened concrete as (1) chemically areas that currently are receiving attention are D-line
fixed, as water of hydration in clinker constituents and cracking in concrete and ice formation in base and sub-
aggregates, (2) absorptively fixed in cement gel and ag- grade materials. A brief discussion of these and other
gregates, (3) capillary fixed in cement gel and aggregates, research needs follows.
and (4) free water. A single instrument is not likely to
provide information on all forms of water present. D-Line Cracking
For instance, changes in density, thermal conductivity,
heat capacity, and dielectric constant depend primarily on D-line cracking is a moisture-related defect that occurs at
total amount of water present. corners and along the joints between concrete sections; it
Electrical conductivity may depend on total amount of is evidenced by more or less parallel surface crack lines
water, but it is influenced primarily by free water. that advance from boundaries inward as deterioration
Resistance to frost action depends primarily on freezable progresses. The research needs here are to be able to
water content, or free water plus loosely fixed capillary measure the total amount of water in the locality of the
water. Other water present is important in that it affects crack formation. This water needs to be broken down into
the resistance to the stresses induced by freezing. that (1) absorbed in the concrete, and (2) retained in
Resistance to high temperatures depends on the amount hairline cracks and surface layers. These measurements
of water that will evaporate at elevated temperatures need to be made simultaneously with soundness measure-
generating internal stress and strain. ments to determine at what state in the history of the water
Generally desirable characteristics of the instrumentation variation the most serious cracking occurs. These measure-
for making the foregoing measurements are (1) non- ments are difficult to make without disturbing the natural
destructive, (2) telemetering, (3) continuous measuring conditions of the pavement.
for weeks or months, and (4) a large number of measuring
points (Mertin, 1965). Lens Formation

Moisture in Base Materials The random freezing cycle experienced during cold weather
results in extremely nonuniform distribution of the frozen
There is a general tendency in subgrade, subbase, and base water. This is related primarily to the difference in soil
materials to increase moisture. This increase may result moisture tension and low vapor pressure near the ice sur-
from surface water infiltration or transport from adjacent face. This low vapor pressure causes subterranean water to
areas. The result may be unsatisfactory pavement per- migrate upward. This migrated moisture freezes in layers
formance from swelling or decreased shear strength of or lenses because of the random variation of temperature.
supporting structures (LeFevre, Manke, 1968). Satisfac- On thawing, these layers and lenses provide an excess local
tory measurement of moisture could be correlated to over- concentration of liquid water, resulting in saturated soil
all pavement performance, resulting in possible revisions in and base layers that provide inadequate support to the
design methods and construction procedures. paving surface; severe failure is a probable consequence.
This instrument needs to be portable for field use. It
should be free from interference that may result from a Frost Heaving
variety of soil and aggregate types. This instrument needs
to be of the remote or in-situ type. Frost heaving occurs when there is sufficient lens formation
to actually raise or heave the pavement surface. Heaving
Moisture In Situ in Concrete Aggregates, can occur whether the freezing cycle is consistent or ran-
Embankments, Subgrades, and Cut Slopes dom; heaving of several feet has been observed in certain
This instrument also requires portability for field use. Ac- soils. Research is needed here to determine what moisture
curacy could be sacrificed for a remote sensor. The mini- content can be tolerated in each type of soil without
mum requirement is for an instrument for making in-situ significant degradation of the structure.
measurements using a very small probe.
Culvert Leakage or In filtration
Special Research-Related Needs
Culvert leakage or infiltration can be the beginning of
Much research is being conducted relating the physical major road failure. Discovery of such leakage at an early
characteristics of paving, grading, and structures in their stage would allow preventive maintenance, with consider-
variation and degradation with time. There is a distinct able savings in time and expense.
limitation to properly relating these physical characteristics
to trafficability without concurrent measurements of mois-
Subgrade Seepage
ture. These measurements, covering long periods of time,
need to differentiate between the form of the water— Surrounding geology may contribute a significant amount
whether it is bound or unbound, nonevaporable or evapora- of water to the subgrade material, necessitating continual
ble. The physical state, whether liquid or frozen, and the foundation repair. One problem with subgrade seepage in
nonhomogeneous distribution over relatively large volumes cut areas is that water flow may be seasonal, and not rec-
also need to be determined. Thus, there is a significant ognized as a potential defect during warm-weather con-
struction operations. Repair also may be made during Moisture Measurement Related to Highway Safety
warm weather when evidence of seepage has disappeared.
Surface Moisture on Pavement
Continuous monitoring of moisture variations would show
presence of water seasonably ajid point to the possible need The hazards of highway travel are amplified by moisture
for remedial drainage, in addition to pavement repairs. on the wearing surfaces.'this is particularly significant in
Sufficient distribution of moisture or water measurement the early stages of water film formation, before many
devices could localize such problems and, in many cases, drivers have altered their driving attitudes from those of
result in repairs with a minimum of effort, and possibly dry conditions. Moisture sensors need to be developed to
even before damage occurs. signal this condition and control visual warning systems.

Large Soil Masses Moisture on Reflective Signs

The concurrent measurement of moisture, temperature, Moisture on the surface of reflective sign material may
tress, and strain in large soil masses would be a significant render it ineffective. If more suitable material cannot be
research achievement. These measurements would charac- found, this problem could be eliminated by monitoring the
terize different grading formations, soil compositions, and collection of moisture and providing a means for removing
environmental conditions to which the soil mass is exposed, it as it occurs.
and provide information on the stability of slopes and
embankments. Moisture Bookkeeping Procedures

Moisture bookkeeping and estimation is an essential part

Prediction and Characterization of Earth Movements of construction requiring heavy earth-moving equipment.
More about the concept of moisture bookkeeping and
Water content in a large fill or embankment can be the
modeling related to strategic and tactical military planning
key to its stability. Audio recording of localized soil ac-
can be found in Thornthwaite (1957). Primary interest is
tivities can document the mechanics of earth movement.
in gain and loss of moisture in the upper 2 ft of soil that
Moisture information added to this documentation could
determine tractionability (Winner, 1964).
significantly improve the understanding of slides and facili-
tate the preventive action that is needed.
CURRENTLY APPLICABLE MOISTURE MEASUREM ENT
TECHNIQUES
Long-Term Moisture Changes in Highway
Structural Sections A wide variety of techniques have been developed for
measuring and controlling moisture in solids. in general,
The use of corings or access tubes to make long-term
the closer the control required and the lower the moisture
measurements in base material and other components of
level, the more difficult is the measurement problem.
structural sections is expensive, unreliable, and detrimen-
The rapidly responding instruments for continuous op-
tal. Remotely monitored sensors would be desirable in this
eration generally depend on electrical properties, such as
application.
resistance or capacitance, or on the absorption of neutrons,
electromagnetic radiation, or other wave-like interactions.
Soil Strength and Stability A calibration curve normally is required for relating the
The useful life of structures depends on the strength of instrument reading to moisture content. Most of this
their foundations, which, in the case of soil, may depend instrumentation reduces the operation time by factors of
on moisture content. A reliable method of measuring 10 or more, compared with conventional oven drying.
moisture would be helpful in analysis of in-situ soil Continuous-type instrumentation also is compatible with
strength. Stability of drilled shafts is of special interest in automatic control procedures and telemetering require-
Texas for dams and bridges (Ehlers et al., 1969). ments.
The following description of moisture measurement
methods is summarized from a more comprehensive analy-
Eflects of Water on Properties of Concrete sis in Appendix A. The methods are categorized by the
Strength, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, creep, etc., are physical, chemical, and electrical phenomena on which
directly related to water of hydration in cement gel. Rheo- they are based. This classification results in a minimum
logical properties also depend on absorptively held water of instances where a method falls into more than one
and, to a lesser extent, capillary water. category. From the standpoint of applications, there is a
need for secondary classifications of laboratory, field, re-
search, destructive, and nondestructive techniques.
Evaluation of Surface Coating
Hygrometric Techniques
The surface of bridge decks may gradually erode as a
function of freeze-thaw cycles. Certain mixtures, such as The general nature of the relationship between moisture
linseed oil and kerosene, appear to improve surface per- content in porous materials and the relative humidity
formance. It would be desirable to relate this apparent (RH) of the immediate atmosphere under equilibrium
improvement to specific moisture conditions. conditions is reasonably well known. Consequently, a
relatively large number of simple devices for indicating ent principle and permits an absolute determination of
and recording RH have been conceived. There are basic humidity. The element consists of a tubular wick made
disadvantages, however, in using these methods to measure from glass fibers and impregnated with a hygroscopic salt
RH in a small cavity inside a porous material and deriving (lithium chloride) insulated from a thin metal tube. Two
the moisture content of the solid. These include deteriorat- silver wires are bifilar wound around the wick and con-
ing effects of soil components on the sensing element and nected to an AC voltage source with some means for cur-
the need for special calibration for each material to be rent limiting. The salt absorbs humidity from the sur-
sampled. Hygrometric methods have application, however, rounding air and becomes electrically conductive. The
where RH in the material is related directly to other current passing through the lithium chloride generates
properties (e.g., the drying shrinkage of concrete). heat and tends to evaporate humidity from it. An equi-
librium is soon reached when the layer neither gains nor
Electrical Resistance Hygrometers loses water to the surrounding air. Equilibrium is reached
at that temperature of the salt solution at which the partial
Chemical Salts and A cids.—The electrical resistance of
pressure of water over a saturated solution just equals the
sensors is modulated by changes in the water content of
ambient water vapor pressure. The temperature is mea-
electrolytic processes. Most resistive humidity transducers
sured by a resistance thermometer, thermistor, or thermo-
consist essentially of a hygroscopic material that absorbs
couple, and should be in thermal contact with the lithium
water from the surrounding atmosphere. Generally, the chloride layer.
material contains a salt that disassociates in the presence
White Hydrocal.—Bouyoucos and Cook (1965) describe
of water. The concentration of these disassociated ions is
what they consider to be the best hygrometer available.
determined by the measurement of the electrical resistance
Stainless steel electrodes are cast in white hydrocal—a form
between the electrodes applied to the transducers. The
of plaster of paris cement that sets hard, is pure, has low
hygroscopic material is deposited on a substrate of ion-
solubility, and has no added salts.
impervious insulating surfaces, such as fibers, fabrics, or
ceramics. Typical examples of hygroscopic materials that
have been suggested are sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, Capacitance Hygrometers
lithium chloride, calcium chloride, zinc chloride, and solu-
tions of the tetrachlorides of tin, zirconium, hafnium, or Capacitive Transducers.—The high dielectric constant of
lead. (Dunmore, 1938; Bouyoucos, Cook, 1965; Klein, water (approx. 80) suggests the use of capacitive methods
Trescony, 1965; Wexler, Ruskin, 1965). for determining water content of gases and solids. The
Aluminum Oxide.—Both resistance and capacitance low concentration of water in air, even at saturation, causes
of aluminum oxide films have been correlated with relative a very small variation in capacitance. The dielectric con-
humidity. stant of gases under normal conditions changes from
The typical transducer is essentially a capacitor with a 1.000247 for dry air at 45°C; for saturation it is 1.000593.
porous dielectric film of aluminum oxide. One capacitor For such small capacitance changes very complex equip-
plate should be permeable to water vapor to permit ment for readout is required.
penetration into the aluminum oxide. One way to increase this capacitance change is to dis-
The porous oxide layer is formed by various means such place the air with a material that will pick up an increased
as (1) sputtering, (2) vapor deposition, and (3) anodiza- amount of water. A typical capacitive transducer is con-
tion. Anodization is more popular, and generally is an acid structed with a thin plastic film of acetal resin, which is a
electrolyte (17.5 volume percent H9SO4, current density crystalline form of highly polymerized formaldehyde. The
100 ma/cm2, 30 mm). capacitor plates are formed with evaporated gold elec-
Cutting, Jason, and Wood (1955) list advantages and trodes thin enough to be pervious to water vapor yet elec-
disadvantages of aluminum oxide sensors (see Appendix trically conductive.
A). Microwave Ref ractometer.—The microwave system is
Electrolysis.—Electrolysis systems consist of a gas mix- an arrangement to determine the resonant frequency of a
ture flowing continuously over a thin layer of partially cavity. The resonant frequency varies with the dielectric
hydrated phosphorous pentoxide (P,05 ) with the humidity constant of the material in the cavity.
in the gas absorbed by the P205 layer. A typical sensor is At an operating frequency of 1010 Hz, the difference in
constructed with two platinum wires wound helically inside resonance frequency may be 0.27 MHz for one cavity
an insulating tube and then coated with a layer of P205 . filled with dry air and another filled with air plus a water
A DC voltage is applied to the two noble wires, de- vapor pressure of 100 mb.
composing the water into gaseous H2 and 0 2 . At equi-
librium conditions the current flowing is proportional to Piezoelectric Sorption Hygrometer
moisture absorbed.
Disadvantages of the electrolysis system include the In this method the sensing element is a quartz crystal
requirement for constant mass flow, constant temperature coated with a hygroscopic material. The resonant fre-
(induces an error of 0.3 percent/degree), and interference quency of such a crystal depends on the crystal mass (King,
from gases that interact with P205 . 1964). The mass, and, hence, resonant frequency, change
Thermal System.—Although similar in appearance to the with the adsorption of moisture. A typical sensitivity factor
previous method, the thermal system operates on a differ- is about 1 Hz per A thickness of added material.
 7

infrared A bsorption and Transmission Hygrometers equilibrium before the measurement is made. This type of
measurement is most accurate at very low moisture content.
The existence of optical absorption bands and transmission It has the disadvantage of a long response time to reach
windows in the JR region provides a specific and accurate equilibrium.
means of measuring humidity. Wood (1959) designed an
optical instrument with a 12-in, absorption path and Capacitance Techniques
germanium narrow-band filters to compare the transmission
of 2.54 p. and 2.60 p.. A rotating disk that alternately The measurement of capacitance is one of the simplest,
passes each wavelength is installed in front of a lead most rapid, and least expensive methods for determining
sulfide detector. The ratio of the amplitudes at the two soil moisture. This is because the dielectric constant for
frequencies is a function of water vapor concentration. most soils is about 2.6, whereas the dielectric constant for
Wavelengths of 2.3, 1.87, 1.37, and 1.12 also have been free water between 15° and 35°C, within the frequency
used. range of 105 to 108 Hz, is about 80. Fundamentally the
method involves the measurement of the dielectric constant
of the material between two electrodes. Thus, variation in
Dimensionally Varying Element Hygrometers the dielectric constant of nonwater components is an in-
Engineers have long been aware of the variation in size herent source of error. Other inherent errors are variations
of certain materials as the humidity changes. The prac- in particle size, packing density, and ionized salts.
ticality of using this phenomenon in humidity measurement
is evidenced by its wide use in industry (Fraade, 1963). Nuclear Methods
Some of its desirable features are easy calibration, little
manual know-how required, and the easy recording of Neutron Scattering
results. It is characterized by poor accuracy and a host Since the pioneering work of Belcher, Cuykendall, and
of other difficulties, but it performs well where these Sack (1950), much work has been devoted to a better
deficiencies can be tolerated. understanding of the interaction between neutrons and
the soil-water-detector system. The technique depends on
Dew Point Hygrometers the ability of hydrogen in water to slow down fast neutrons.
The form of the hydrogen cannot be distinguished by this
Dew or frost point hygrometers depend on the measure- method. The measurement interferences existing in pres-
ment of temperature and are relatively simple and in- ently used commercial gauges consist of sensitivity to: (1)
expensive devices. The temperature at which dew or frost the total sample density, (2) sample composition (par-
appears on the surface of a cooled object denotes the ticularly the presence of thermal neutron absorbers, such
point at which the RH at the surface is 100 percent. This as chlorine and boron, and of other moderators, such as
temperature thus may be related to the partial pressure hydrogenous material), (3) surface roughness, and (4)
of water in the sample gas via the known saturation vapor sample homogeneity. These measurement interferences can
pressure of water or ice. be minimized by several methods. One such method con-
sists of the use of the new He3-filled proportional counters
Psychrometric Hygrometers to detect epithermal neutrons that are relatively insensitive
to the presence of thermal neutron absorbers. Another
Psychrometric instruments form another major grouping method consists of the use of a gamma-ray gauge for the
of hygrometers. All such instruments depend on the cool- measurement of density and the subsequent use of calibra-
ing of a wetted thermometer and the subsequent tempera- tion curves for various densities. Where each detector
ture difference between the "wet bulb" and the "dry bulb" has a different sensitivity to composition, use of a dual
of the temperature sensor. Data usually are reduced by the
gauge is another possible way to eliminate the effect of
use of the psychrometric formula or a set of tables based
variable amounts of thermal neutron absorbers.
on this formula. Comparative_evaluationstudies have led to the conclu-
Electrical Resistance Techniques sioTfiflnterferences 'lea&to errors in moisture_measure-
ment in soils (sometimes prohibitive errors), but the errors
The resistance of a material, its specific conductive ca-
pacity, and its dielectric losses vary with the amount of \
(Stewart, Taylor, 1957; Johnson, 1962; Wofford, 1964;
moisture it contains. An instrument for measuring one
Ballard, Gardner, 1965; Waters, 1965; Gardner, Roberts,
of these quantities thus can be calibrated in terms of 1967; Hughes, Anday, 1967, 1970). Over-all, the neutron
moisture content. method appears to be the best method for nondestructive
Resistivity measurements can be made by direct contact
measurement of moisture in a 3- to 4-in, surface layer.
of the electrodes with the material of concern. With this
principle, a calibration first must be obtained for the
specific material. The electrical resistance method devel- Gamma-Ray Interaction
oped by Bouyocous and Mick (1948) relies on the change
of resistivity of the soil with changes in moisture content. Gamma-ray interaction is applicable where it is desired to
Two electrodes covered with nylon, fiberglass fabric, or measure moisture within a ½-in, layer of soil (Smith,
plaster of paris are buried in the soil and allowed to reach Taylor, Smith, 1967). It is assumed that the specific
 gravity of soil remains constant as moisture gain or loss Dessi cant Weight Gain
changes the wet density. The wet density is determined by
gamma transmission techniques. The relative change in Dessicant weight gain can be used with other drying
moisture content can then be calculated from the change techniques (Geary, 1956). Inert gas or dry air is drawn
in wet density. over the samples and passed through a dessicant. The
weight gain of the dessicant is assumed to be water. A
Neutron-Gamma Technique dessicant may be chosen that passes volatiles other than
water where normal drying techniques result in ambiguity.
Babinets and Zvol'skii (1966) proposed a logarithmic
relation between moisture and the gamma radiation in-
Alcohol Burning
duced by neutron-activated atoms near the source of fast
neutrons.
One of the more rapid gravimetric techniques is alcohol
R=A+Bln(w H ) ( 1) burning. This consists of mixing alcohol with the sample
and igniting the mixture. Most of the water is removed
A and B are experimentally determined constants; WH
during the process (Geary, 1956; Bouyoucos, 1937). The
is the total hydrogen content. The mean deviation of their
same is reweighed after the water-removal process. After
experimental results from this model was 0.02 g cm-3.
three successive burnings the method correlates very closely
Gravimetric Techniques to oven-drying results, even at high moisture content.
(Antrim, 1970.)
The gravimetric method of determining moisture content
involves five steps: (1) collecting a soil sample, (2)
weighing it, (3) removing the moisture, (4) weighing the Alcohol Extraction
dry sample or the removed water, and (5) calculating the
moisture content. The gravimetric method is the most Alcohol extraction is one of the simplest of the liquid-
direct way of measuring soil moisture; therefore, it is re- extraction methods (Bouyoucos, 1931). The water con-
quired for calibrating equipment used in other moisture tent is determined by the density of the alcohol-water
measuring techniques. mixture after extraction from the sample. A hydrometer
can be used to measure the liquid density.
Oven Drying
Calcium Carbide (Hydride)
A practical and easily controlled technique for water re-
moval is oven drying. Heating raises the vapor pressure The calcium carbide method is used widely. The moisture
of the free water within the porous material. A reduced content usually is related to two measurements: (1) the
vapor pressure in the environment serves as a force to decrease in the weight of the sample carbide mixture after
move this vapor out of the solid. This reduced pressure evolution of acetylene, and (2) the rise in pressure inside
is obtained either by evacuation, or by dessication, or by an enclosure containing the mixture that determines the
the flowing of dry air over the samples. As the difference volume of gas produced. The latter is commonly known
between the vapor pressure in the porous material and as the speedy moisture method. Extensive comparative
that of the environment decreases, the drying rate also evaluations of this method with oven-drying, nuclear, and
decreases. At this time, a greater portion of the remaining alcohol-burning methods have been made (Antrim et al.,
moisture is tightly bound.
1970; L.B. Blystone, 1961). It is generally considered to
be relatively accurate, inexpensive, and rapid.
Freeze Drying

Freeze drying sometimes is referred to as lyophilization. Karl Fischer Reagent

This method offers no risk to decomposition of heat-
sensitive materials. Freezing also has the effect of loosening The Karl Fischer reagent is used widely with the titration
the structure of organic materials so that additional mois- method for measuring moisture in solids. It is prepared
ture that remains after freeze drying is removed by oven by reacting SO, with iodine dissolved in pyridine and
drying. A combination of the two methods would result methyl alcohol. A more stable reagent is obtained by sub-
in greater removal of moisture. stituting ethylene glycol for methyl alcohol. The titration
is conducted on the sample in methanol or other suitable
solvents.
Distillation
The sample is immersed in a liquid that is immiscible with I,nmersion (Pycnometer)
water. Liquids are typically benzene, toluene, and xylene.
The mixture is then raised to the boiling point of the The immersion method is based on classical procedures for
liquid, which is normally below that of water. The re- determining specific gravity. It is in fairly common use in
fluxing column then feeds a calibrated bulb, where the the measurement of loose materials such as sand and ag-
liquid and water separate. gregates (Geary, 1956; Kirkham, Higgins, 1955).
 9

Electromagnetic Radiation commonly used to describe tensiometer response. It is de-

fined as the common logarithm of the height of a water
Radiowaves column in centimeters equivalent to the soil moisture
RF energy is highly absorbed by moisture. The method is tension.
not very specific, because many polar compounds also
Thermal Conductivity
absorb this energy. Thus, the primary disadvantage of this
technique is that it requires a calibration curve for each The thermal conductivity method relies on the increase in
material on which it is to be used. The calibration slope thermal conductivity of porous materials with increasing
is very steep, however, and with adequate control of other moisture content. This principle can be applied through
variables a fraction of a percent precision and accuracy transmission in which a rise in temperature of the material
can be achieved. is measured at a distance from the heat source. It also
may be applied through dissipation, by measuring the
Microwaves temperature rise of the heating element. Although thermal
contact may present problems, salt or variable composition
The moisture content of nonmetallic porous solids is related of the sample material offer less interference than in any
to the absorption of microwave energy. For many mate- other technique.
rials a linear relationship exists between moisture density
and the logarithm of microwave attenuation (sometimes Penetrometer
expressed in decibels). Microwaves between 3- and 30-cm
wavelengths are most suitable from an economic stand- The basis for the penetrometer method is resistance to
point. However, there are certain improvements in speci- penetration or deformation. Some problems related to its
ficity below 3 cm, particularly with respect to soluble use are that penetration equipment must be calibrated for
salts. each type of soil, and gravelly or stony soils are unsuitable.
However, the method is very fast (Antrim et al., 1970).
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Sum mary
When a sample is placed in a fixed magnetic field and a Commercial suppliers of instrumentation for measurement
varying magnetic field, nuclear magnetic resonance results of moisture by one or more of the foregoing techniques
in an increased absorption of energy at specified fre- are given in Table 1. The inclusion of suppliers in the
quencies of the varying magnetic field. The varying nuclear table occurred as a result of their being mentioned in re-
magnetization is converted into a voltage by using either search reports or as a result of their response to a written
the single-coil absorption technique or the quadrature-coil request for information. Other manufacturers of similar
induction technique. The resonant frequency of the ab- equipment may not have been identified during the litera-
sorption or induction is characteristic of a particular ture survey or may have initiated production subsequent
nucleus. The highest signal-to-noise ratio for measuring
to report preparation.
water molecules is obtained by looking at the hydrogen
nuclei spectra. This technique also responds to materials
containing nonwater hydrogen. It is likewise responsive in COMPARATIVE EVALUATION
varying degrees as the water is bound or free. The large Following the identification of a moisture problem a sys-
size and the critical geometry of instrumentation dictates tematic approach is recommended for choosing the ap-
against its use in the field. propriate measurement method. This effort should in-
clude the following steps:
Infrared Reflection
Define the application in terms of the relative im-
A relatively new technique that is widely accepted in some portance of basic instrument performance characteristics.
industrial processes is based on the IR reflection that is Review the available data on potential methods.
proportional to the moisture content of the exposed solid. Conduct a preliminary evaluation to reduce candidate
A limitation is that the interaction is primarily a surface methods.
interaction. If moisture is not homogeneous, significant Conduct a laboratory evaluation of remaining
errors can occur: Reflection signals of 1.94 A and 1.80 methods.
are compared with the aid of a filter disk. A signal at 1.9 S. Conduct a field evaluation of methods that perform
and a reference at 1.7 IL also may be used. satisfactorily in the laboratory.
Tensiometry To be as inclusive as possible in accomplishing these
The name "tensiometer" was used by Richards and five steps, one should consider the following checklist of
Gardner (1936) as an unambiguous reference to the porous items: (1) material (or range of materials) whose moisture
cup and vaccum gauge combination for measuring capil- content is to be determined; (2) material properties that
lary tension or the security with which water is held are under investigation; (3) state of water related to mate-
in soil. More recently, permeable membranes have been rial properties; (3) measurement techniques that are re-
used. sponsive to a given state of water; and (4) cost minimiza-
The term "pF," introduced by Schofield (1935), is tion.
 10

Terms for Describing Instrument Performance

categories of: (1) physical characteristics of the instru-
The following terms are useful in describing the degree to ment that may be measured, (2) measured responses of the
which an instrument satisfies the requirement of its in- instrument to well-defined test procedures, (3) data quality
tended monitoring function. These may fall under the from field monitoring programs, or (4) functional capa-
bility. Definitions and discussion of these characteristics
follow.

Physical Characteristics
TABLE 1 Portability: Measure of the capability to be moved. Small
COMMERCIAL INSTRUMENTATION size and low weight are desirable. Durability and shape
also may enter into the assessment of portability.
MEASUREMENT Size: The dimensions of the complete instrument. Height,
PRINCIPLE MANUFACTURER width, and depth usually are adequate to describe size. The
Hygrometric American Standard basic instrument is assumed to include the sampling,
Aminco analysis, and detection systems, in one or more packages.
Beckman Instruments Data display and recording systems are considered acces-
Bell and Howell sories unless they are an integral part of the instrument
Consolidated Electrody- in a single cabinet.
namics Corp.
Foxboro Weight: Low weight is desirable, although its importance
Honeywell may vary from one user to another. It is a significant
Hygrodynamics measurable characteristic related to portability.
Manufacturers Engineering Space Requirement: The dimensions of height, width, and
Phys-Chemical Research
Corp. depth required for installation, operation, and maintenance
Reiss Engineering Co. of an instrument. It includes space needed by auxiliary
Yellows Springs Instrument items and equipment, and swinging space for cabinet access
Co. doors and panels.
Electrical Resistance: Auxiliary Equipment: Additional equipment required by
Sample resistivity Electronic Automation Sys- the instrument to perform its measurement and data dis-
tems play function.
Hartley Controls Corp.
Mount Hope Machine Co. Power Requirement: The type of power and the amount
Sever-Hall required for operation.
Sensor resistivity Delmhorst Instrument Co. Versatility: The capability of being used for more than
Soiltest one purpose; a laboratory instrument would be more de-
Capacitance Forte Engineering Corp. sirable if it also could be used for field measurements.
Foxboro Co. Hazards: Sources of irritation or harm to which the
James Hunter Machins Co. instrument operator or other personnel may be exposed
Moisture Register Co. while using or servicing the instrument. Typical hazards
Seedburo Equipment Co.
are chemical, electrical, nuclear, and acoustical in nature.
Nuclear Campbell Pacific Nuclear
Control Service Co. Measured Responses to Standard Test Procedures
Pitman Limited Miliworks
Seaman Nuclear Corp. Temperature Effect: The change in instrument output per
Texas Nuclear Corp. unit temperature change.
Troxler Electronic Labora- Interference: The positive or negative output caused by a
tories
Gravimetric: substance other than the one being measured (see Inter-
ference Equivalent).
Thermal extraction Bell and Howell Interference Equivalent: The indicated moisture content
Brabender
Central Scientific Co. that is attributable to a given concentration of an inter-
Ohaus Scale Corp. ferent. A low interference equivalent is desired for those
Chemical extraction Ashworth & Co. interferences that are likely to be found in the instrument
Beckman Instruments environment.
E. H. Sargent & Co. Specificity: The ratio of instrument response related to
Soiltest
moisture and the response related to interfering substances.
Radiation: Range: The minimum and maximum measurement limits.
Mechanical Soiltest
Electromagnetic The effective range may be limited by the points where no
Anacon
readable response can be obtained. A more useful, effec-
Boonton Polytechnic Co.
General Electric Co. tive range in analytical instrumentation is the range over
Moisture Register Co. which a single calibration curve gives sufficient calibration
Tensiometry NIC Instrument Co. precision. This specification is of primary importance in
Gravimetric with Colorimetric Technicon Control matching an instrument and a specific measurement prob-
lem.
 11

Set-up Time: The time required to prepare the instrument

for operation after it has been transported from one loca-
tion to another.
Warm-up Time: The time required for the instrument
drift rate to be within the maximum limit specified for the
instrument after having been shut down for at least 24
hours.
Response Time: The time required for the instrument
to reach a new equilibrium. The important components
of response time are defined in the following and are
further clarified by Figure 1.
Initial Response Time (Lag Time), t1: The time interval
from a step change in the moisture content of the sample
to the first corresponding change in the instrument output. t i+tr Time
This can be most reproducibly determined by extrapolating b t95
j
the slope at the 5 percent point, or using the 5 percent point
as the point of reference. Figure 1. Instrument response time.
Rise Time, tr: The interval between the initial response
time (t1) and the time to 95 percent response (t95 ), after
a step increase in moisture (reference points other than 5
percent and 95 percent are often used).
Accuracy: The degree of conformity of the measure-
Time to 95 percent Response, t95: The time interval ment to a primary standard reference. An estimate of the
from the step change in moisture to a reading of 95 percent
accuracy normally is made by summing the known sources
of the equilibrium response; t95 = t + t,.. There is no ad- of error, such as those determined by interference, drift,
ditional information in this term, but it is more convenient
precision, and reproducibility measurements.
to determine than t and has more practical significance.
Error: Difference between instrument reading and true
Fall Time, t1: The interval between the initial response reading when calibrating against a standard.
time, t,, and the time to 95 percent response after a step Tolerance: Permissible error or level of accuracy that is
decrease in moisture. This time is not necessarily equal to acceptable. Tolerance normally is specified as percent of
the rise time, but may be approximately the same. scale reading or as percent of scale range. For a particular
Speed of Measurement: The time required to set up the need, smaller tolerance may require more expensive instru-
instrument, calibrate, make the measurement, and perform
mentation.
any analysis necessary to present the instrument output in
Precision: The degree of exactness of the instrument;
standard units. the reproducibility that can be demonstrated by repeated
Time Monitoring Capability: Time delay between suc-
measurement of the same sample; the degree of agreement
cessive measurement. For times less than 5 mm, instru- between repeated measurement of the same sample ex-
ments commonly are termed "continuous"; for times
pressed as the average deviation of the single results from
greater than 5 mm, "intermittent."
the mean.
Sensitivity: Instrument output per unit input. The term
Calibration Precision: The variance of calibration data
is important in system design, but other terms describe
about the best fit calibration curve.
system performance better (minimum detectable change,
Zero Drift: The change in instrument output over a
minimum detectable sensitivity, decision limit, detection
stated time period. Data with which to estimate this drift
limit, precision). can be obtained through unadjusted, continuous operation,
Sample Weight: The effective weight of sample that
or they may be obtained by comparison of successive
cutitiibutes Lu the justi uiiieiit lespunse.
calibration data. Minimum zero drift is desirable, espe-
Sample Volume: The effective volume of sample that
cially when one is measuring very low moisture content.
contributes to the instrument response.
Span Drift: The change in instrument sensitivity over a
Physical State Sensitivity: Ability to distinguish between
stated period of time. This normally is determined to-
vapor, liquid, or solid form of water.
gether with zero drift.
Moisture Type Sensitivity: Ability to distinguish the
Linearity: The maximum deviation between an actual
proportion of free water to bound water in a sample.
instrument reading and the reading predicted by straight-
Radius of Influence: The distance at which additional
line calibration drawn over the extent of its range. A
sample contributes a negligible part of the total instrument
linear response results in easier calibration.
response (closely related to sample volume).
Reproducibility: The attainability of the same output
Remote Monitoring Capability: The ability of the in-
for a fixed input measured at intervals over a period of
strument to make remote or in-situ measurements.
time. Estimates of this reproducibility may be influenced
by the reproducibility of the calibration system.
Data Quality Determined by Field Monitoring Experience Calibration Reproducibility: The variance between cali-
Stability: A measure of the instrument drift. This term bration data obtained at different times during the instru-
generally is used for long-term performance. ment operational period.
 12

Minimum Detectable Sensitivity: The smallest amount of performance. Additional subjective judgment by the per-
input concentration that can be detected with a specified son performing the maintenance and repair is necessary in
degree of confidence. The statistical calculation of decision an evaluation.
limit or detection limit from calibration data provides an Reliability (Failure): The mean time between failures.
unambiguous measure of this sensitivity. Much of the The record of field operation can provide the necessary
same information is contained in the zero drift and pre- data. Conclusions must be statistically qualified by the
cision data. number of instruments being observed and the length of
Minimum Detectable Change: The smallest change in the observation period.
moisture content that can be detected at a given operating Maintenance Requirements: The frequency and severity
level. The equivalent information for this term is given of problems preventing proper operation of the instrument.
by zero and span drift, and are best represented by con- The best estimate of this performance is the percentage of
fidence limits on the calibation curve. The minimum available time spent in maintenance. Parts and operator
detectable change is estimated by the difference Ymax - Ymin time are considered under cost.
in Figure 2. Operational Period: The mean time over which the
Decision Limit: The lowest signal, ed in Figure 2, that instrument can be expected to operate without maintenance
can be distinguished from background with a specified recalibration or adjustment.
degree of statistical confidence (1 - ce). Lifetime: The expected total useful life of the instrument.
Detection Limit: The moisture content, y in Figure 2, Instrument Cost: The cost of buying the instrument
below which there is a specified probability, $, that the (capital cost), operating cost (operator time per sample,
sample may erroneously be taken as zero. consumable supplies), and maintenance cost (spare parts,
repair time). These three costs could be evaluated in-
Functional Capability dependently, depending on the economic needs of the user.
Generally, however, lowest total cost would be the basis for
Availability: Obtainability from a supplier. selection.
Practicability: Capability of being manufactured and Simplicity of Operation: Ease with which the instrument
applied to a specific problem. can be operated properly.
Fragility: The delicacy of the instrument and the need Operator Experience: Operator training time required.
for careful handling. Rugged iñsfrutheiitsáie preferred. Effect on Sample: The destructive or disturbing influ-
Durability: Ability to withstand normal use. This term ence of the measurement method on the sample.
is related to fragility under normal operating conditions. Applicable Materials: The composition, size, or shape
Serviceability: Ease with which an instrument can be of material most suited to an instrument's over-all
serviced and repaired. Long periods of repair indicate poor performance.
Calibration: The development of a graphical or nu-
merical relationship between instrument response and the
moisture content of a set of standards.
Transfer Function: The inverse of the calibration
equation.
Calibration Requirements: The time between calibra-
tions, the time required to perform individual calibrations,
the difficulty in using available standards, hysteresis effects,
and nonlinear response.
Hysteresis: Apparent hysteresis is synonymous with lag,
and disappears if measurements are conducted over a long
enough time. Permanent hysteresis is a characteristic of
the sensor. It is the difference in the response curve when
going from zero to maximum and from maximum to zero.
Remote Sensing: The capability of sensing the sample
condition at one position and relaying the signal response
to another.
Type 1—Phenomena that are remote by nature.
Type 2—Wireless transmission of information.
Type 3—Physical contact with the sensor element.
For more information on this subject see Appendix C.
ed
Instrument Evaluation Model

Signal, volts The following instrument evaluation model is developed to

Figure 2. Transfer function with confidence limits. ed and Yd provide an estimate of the best available instrument for
are the decision limit and the detection limit used by Hubaux specified operating conditions. This estimate is based on
and Vos (1970). the relative importance of several performance characteris-
 13

TABLE 2
COMPARISON MATRIX (EXAMPLE)

PERFORMANCE
REQUIREMENT METHOD 1 METHOD 2

Accuracy:
Baseline drift (% span) ±5%/day ±10%/day
Span drift ±2%/day ±3%/day
Interference (% span) Typically ±10% Typically± 10%
Portability:
Weight (lb) 76 30
Size (cuft) 15 10
Has carrying handles No handles required

tics and the probability as determined by experience that TABLE 3

one instrument is better than another for a particular DECISION MATRIX (EXAMPLE)
characteristic.
The value of a method for a measurement problem is PERFORMANCE SUM
given by REQUIREMENT METHOD 1 METHOD 2 HORIZONTAL

V,=WP j (2) Accuracy P11=0.67 P12=0.33 1.0

Portability P21= 0.25 P2 =0.75 1.0
in which P,, is the probability that method 1 is the best
method, as determined by the characteristic i. W j is a
weighting factor or the probability that the characteristic
i is the most important performance function. As an ex-
ample to aid in understanding larger matrices, consider the
Table 4 is the resultant value matrix determined by the
smaller problem of two methods—say, Method 1 and
product of the weight factor (wi) and the decision matrix.
Method 2—that are to be evaluated on the basis of two Assume that portability is considered more important than
performance requirements; namely, accuracy and por- accuracy, with w, = 0.60 for portability and w1 = 0.40 for
tability. accuracy.
A comparison matrix is first set up that contains as much Because V2 > V 11 Method 2 is the first choice. Here
available data and subjective judgment as is needed to begin again, because only two choices are available, the prob-
the evaluation. This is shown in Table 2. For a large ability of choosing Method 1 or Method 2 is 100 percent,
matrix, a large worksheet is required, unless each method so that
or characteristic is presented separately.
The comparison matrix is converted to the decision V1 +V2 =1.0 (4)
matrix of Table 3 on a statistical basis. It often may be A reasonable question is, "How sensitive is the final
necessary to rely heavily on engineering judgment. choice to weight factor variation?' It may be expected to
Because P11 is twice as large as P1 this is interpreted
2,
be sensitive to large variations of the weight factors, be-
to mean that Method 1 is twice as likely to be first choice, cause these factors describe the application, and one
if only accuracy is considered. Because only two choices method generally is not expected the best in all applica-
are assumed to be available: tions. It is not desirable, however, to reach a decision that
P11 +P12 =1.0 (3) may be reversed by small changes in the estimate of the

TABLE 4
VALUE MATRIX (EXAMPLE)

WEIGHT METHOD 1 METHOD 2

PERFORMANCE FACTOR,
REQUIREMENT W4 (%) Pi l W4P4, P(, WP
Accuracy 0.40 0.67 0.268 0.33 0.132
Portability 0.60 0.25 0.150 0.75 0.450
Total performance, V 0.418 0.582
 14

importance of one performance requirement. A procedure result is given in Tables 5 and 6. Table 6 is the ranking
known as sensitivity analysis adds to the confidence in the that results from the value analysis of Table 5. It shows
decision reached. In this analysis, shifts in relative ranking that Method 2 is the best choice if accuracy is rated at
are observed as each weight factor is varied over a reason- 60 percent or less and portability is rated at 40 percent or
able range. All other weight factors remain the same rela- more.
tive to each other, but normalization is maintained. This This agrees with the comparison matrix that shows that
is especially simple to do for the sample problem. This Method 2 is best with respect to portability and Method 1

TABLE 7
COMPARISON MATRIX OF METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT OF MOISTURE

ACCURACY
SAMPLE EFFECT ON (PRECISION, SPEED OF
METHOD AVAILABILITY PORTABILITY SIZE SAMPLE INTERFERENCE) MEASUREMENT
GRAVIMETRIC, General use Could be made As required Destructive As precise as the
OVEN DRY Many hours
portable, but nor- technique for ex-
mally is not tracting the
sample; volatile
materials interfere
GRAVIMETRIC, General use Portable design 0.5-2 lb Destructive Similar to oven
ALCOHOL Typically 5 mm
drying
BURNING
GRAVIMETRIC, General use Portable design 13-26 grams Destructive Similar to oven
CALCIUM Typically 1-5 mm
drying; operator
CARBIDE care and cleanli-
ness also affect
precision
NUCLEAR Units designed for Portable units 2-12 in., depend- Nondestructive Precision > 0.1% Typically 1-5 mm;
NEUTRON highway use in use ing on moisture (dry), depending 20 measurements
SCATTER content on counting time; in time of 1 gravi-
interferences are metric measure-
density, neutron ment
absorbers, and
hydrogenous ma-
terials
TENSIOMETRIC Primarily for agri- Small, but not Determined by Requires installa- Inadequate for Afew minutes
cultural use, oc- necessarily port- region of moisture tion in sample many applications with small cavity
casionally in high- able equilibrium and solid-state
way use pressure trans-
ducer; others are
much longer
CONDUCTI- In limited use in Small, but not Broadly defined Nondestructive Accuracy is poor
METRIC, Real-time response
R/D necessarily by electrode posi- for a variety of except where
ELECTRICAL portable tion, but exact materials; salts electrodes are
RESISTANCE size is unpre- interfere; 2 mea- covered with fiber-
dictable surements give glass or other ab-
precision of one sorbent material
gravimetric
THERMAL CON- In limited use Small but not Small Requires installa- Thermal contact, Limited by time to
DUCT1VITY in R/D necessarily tion in sample density, and pore install; non-equi-
portable size are influential librium conditions
can be used
HYGROMETRIC R/D units for con- Small but not Region of vapor Normally requires Poor for ionic or Limited by time to
RESISTANCE crete; primarily necessarily equilibrium installation in hygromaterials or install and time to
used in areas un- portable sample those containing reach equilibrium
related to high- volatile substances; with sample
way engineering hysteresis occurs

MICROWAVE Laboratory proto- None available, Depends on mois- Nondestructive Less accurate than Real-time mea-
type but size not a ture content and oven drying surement
major limitation frequency

Depending on sensor type.

 15

is best with respect to accuracy. Other ways to use sensi- quirements and for which reasonable estimates of the
tivity analysis have been described (Thompson, 1970). decision probabilities (P 5) can be determined either from
The first step in applying the evaluation model is to the data compiled in Appendix A or by engineering
construct the comparison matrix giving concise information judgment.
about candidate methods that appear to be applicable to The comparison matrix of Table 7 lists the candidate
one or more highway problems. Performance characteris- methods as column headings and the performance require-
tics are chosen that constitute important measurement re- ments as row headings. This table is used to consider four

TEMPERATURE REMOTE
MOISTURE
HAZARDS EFFECTS LIFE MONITORING
TYPE DURABILITY RELIABILITY STABILITY

No unstable corn- Thermal; electrical Depends on oven >10 years No

Free or partially Rugged Little chance
of failure ponents temperature
bound (-105° C)

Little chance No unstable corn- Thermal; chemical Very small >10 years No
Free or partially Rugged
bound of failure ponents

Rugged Little chance No unstable corn- Thermal; chemical Corrections ap- >10 years No
Surface water plied to calcula-
of failure ponents
tions

Primarily responds Adequate except Proven electronic Electronic system Nuclear; electrical Slight temperature >5 years Type 1
to hydrogen for extreme condi- system requires occasional dependence be-
tions recalibration tween 0-32° C
determined by
electronic system
and detector

Free Rugged Air entry causes Air entry changes Electrical Strong tempera- >6 months Type 3
failure calibration ture dependence

Free or partially Generally rugged; Good except in Contact is diffi- Electrical —3% resistance! 1 mo to 1 yr Type 2 or 3
bound electrical contact severe thermal or cult to keep con-
must be main- chemical environ- stant
tamed ment

Free or partially Generally rugged; Electrical system Thermal contact Electrical Very small >1 year Type 3
bound electrical contact is very simple must be main-
must be main- tamed
tamed
Evaporable water Generally rugged; Sensor failure de- Sensor aging oc- Electrical Most have a strong 1 mo to 2 yr Type 2 or 3
at ambient-tern- electrical contact pends on environ- curs; this is irn- negative tempera-
perature must be main- ment proved by po1y- ture coefficient
tamed styrene insulation
or moisture-perme-
able membranes
Free or partially Adequate except Proven electronic Electronic stability Electrical Sensitive to tern- >5 years Type 1
bound for extreme con- system required perature
ditions
 16

TABLE 5 basic measurement problems: (1) base-course compaction

VALUE MATRIX SENSITIVITY FOR A RANGE OF control, (2) long-term study of soil-culvert interaction,
WEIGHT FACTORS (EXAMPLE) inspection testing during and after construction, and
study of moisture in concrete during drying. Inspec-
WEIGHT tion of Table 7 reveals a heavy reliance on engineering
FACTOR METHOD 1 METHOD 2 judgment. This is attributed to lack of reliable data or to
Accuracy: conflicting data in the literature. In an evaluation of the
20% V1=0.333 V2=0.667 results of a field-test program comparing several instru-
40% 0.418 0.582 ments, the performance requirements included in the com-
60% 0.500 0.500 parison matrix would coincide with the test objectives for
Portability: each instrument.
20% 0.583 0.417 Moisture measurement methods for base-course com-
40% 0.500 0.500
60% 0.418 0.582 paction control are evaluated in Tables 8 to 10. The
decision probabilities of Table 8 are converted from the
comparison matrix on a best-judgment basis. For this
measurement problem, availability and accuracy were given
the greatest weight in Table 9. Portability, sample size,
and effect on samples were given medium weight. The
results given in Table 9 indicate almost equal value for the
gravimetric and nuclear methods, with a slight edge given
to the latter. In Table 10 the individual weight factors are
varied to determine the sensitivity of the evaluation. Per-
formance requirements that have the greatest effect on the
TABLE 6 rankings are sample size, reliability, stability, hazards, life-
RANKING SENSITIVITY FOR A RANGE OF WEIGHT time, and remote sensing. Except for extreme variations,
FACTORS (EXAMPLE) however, the results were consistent with the original
weighting.
WEIGHT FACTOR Moisture measurement related to the long-term study of
PERFORMANCE
soil culvert interaction is evaluated in Tables 11 and 12.
REQUIREMENT 20% 40% 60%
Note that the decision probabilities for certain performance
Accuracy: requirements such as effect on sample and remote sensing
1st choice 2 2 1 or 2 change with the type of problem being approached. These
2nd choice 1 1 1 or 2
two terms are given the highest weight for this problem,
Portability:
with the result that the highest ranking is obtained for
1st choice 1 1 or 2 2
2nd choice 2 1 or 2 the electrical conductivity and the thermal conductivity
1
methods.

TABLE 8
DECISION MATRIX-MOISTURE IN BASE COURSE COMPACTION CONTROL

MEASUREMENT METHOD

GRAy. GRAy. GRAy.

PERFORMANCE OVEN ALCOHOL CALCIUM TENSI- ELECTRIC THERMAL HYGROM- MICRO-
CHARACTERISTIC DRY BURN CARB. NUCLEAR OMETRY COND. COND. ETRY WAVE
Availability 0.189 0.189 0.189 0.189 0.019 0.094 0.019 0.094 0.019
Portability 0.069 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.138 0.138 0.138 0.103
Sample size 0.160 0.160 0.160 0.120 0.040 0.080 0.040 0.120 0.120
Effect on sample 0.018 0.018 0.018 0.164 0.145 0.164 0.145 0.145 0.182
Accuracy 0.176 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.059 0.088 0.059 0.059 0.118
Speed of measure 0.065 0.097 0.129 0.161 0.032 0.161 0.161 0.032 0.161
Moisture type 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.105 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.123
Durability 0.125 0.139 0.139 0.111 0.083 0.111 0.111 0.083 0.097
Reliability 0.167 0.167 0.167 0.100 0.100 0.067 0.083 0.067
Time stability 0.083
0.152 0.152 0.152 0.091 0.106 0.076 0.106 0.076 0.091
Hazards 0.082 0.082 0.082 0.033 0.164 0.148 0.148
Temp. stability 0.148 0.115
0.152 0.152 0.152 0.121 0.076 0.076 0.106 0.076 0.091
Lifetime 0.222 0.222 0.222 0.111 0.022 0.022 0.044
Remote sensing 0.022 0.111
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.222 0.111 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.222
TABLE 9
VALUE MATRIX-MOISTURE IN BASE COURSE COMPACTION CONTROL

MEASUREMENT METHOD

WEIGHT GRAY. GRAY. GRAy.

ALCOHOL CALCIUM TENSI- ELECTRIC THERMAL HYGROM- MICRO-
PERFORMANCE FACTOR, OVEN
BURN CARB. NUCLEAR OMETRY COND. COND. ETRY WAVE
CHARACTERISTIC wi DRY

0.200 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.004 0.019 0.004 0.019 0.004
Availability 0.010
Portability 0.100 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.014
0.100 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.012 0.004 0.008 0.004 0.012 0.012
Sample size 0.018
Effect on sample 0.100 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.016 0.015 0.016 0.015 0.015
0.150 0.026 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.009 0.013 0.009 0.009 0.018
Accuracy
0.050 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.002 0.008 0.008 0.002 0.008
Speed of measure
0.050 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.006
Moisture type 0.003
Durability 0.030 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.002
Reliability 0.050 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.004
Time stability 0.030 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.003
Hazards 0.020 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002
Temp. stability 0.050 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.005
Lifetime 0.050 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.006 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.006
Remote sensing 0.020 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004

Total performance
value 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.140 0.069 0.102 0.082 0.093 0.103

TABLE 11
DECISION MATRIX-MOISTURE IN LONG-TERM STUDY OF SOIL-CULVERT INTERACTION

MEASUREMENT METHOD

GRAy. GRAY. GRAy.

ALCOHOL CALCIUM TENSI- ELECTRIC THERMAL HYGROM- MICRO-
PERFORMANCE OVEN
BURN CARB. NUCLEAR OMETRY COND. COND. ETRY WAVE
CHARACTERISTIC DRY

Availability 0.189 0.189 0.189 0.189 0.019 0.094 0.019 0.094 0.019
Portability 0.069 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.138 0.138 0.138 0.103
Sample size 0.093 0.093 0.093 0.070 0.070 0.209 0.233 0.070 0.070
Effect on sample 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.100 0.100 0.225 0.200 0.200 0.100
Accuracy 0.176 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.059 0.088 0.059 0.059 0.118
Speed of measure 0.065 0.097 0.129 0.161 0.032 0.161 0.161 0.032 0.161
Moisture type 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.105 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.123
Durability 0.125 0.139 0.139 0.111 0.083 0.111 0.111 0.083 0.097
Reliability 0.167 0.167 0.167 0.100 0.100 0.067 0.083 0.067 0.083
Time stability 0.152 0.152 0.152 0.091 0.106 0.076 0.106 0.076 0.091
Hazards 0.082 0.082 0.082 0.033 0.164 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.115
Temp. stability 0.152 0.152 0.152 0.121 0.076 0.076 0.106 0.076 0.091
Lifetime 0.222 0.222 0.222 0.111 0.022 0.022 0.044 0.022 0.111
Remote sensing 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.160 0.040 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.080

TABLE 12
VALUE MATRIX-MOISTURE IN LONG-TERM STUDY OF SOIL-CULVERT INTERACTION

MEASUREMENT METHOD

WEIGHT GRAy. GRAY. GRAY.

PERFORMANCE FACTOR, OVEN ALCOHOL CALCIUM TENSI- ELECTRIC THERMAL HYGROM- MICRO-
CHARACTERISTIC Wi DRY BURN CARB. NUCLEAR OMETRY COND. COND. ETRY WAVE

Availability 0.050 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.001
Portability 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Sample size 0.100 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.007 0.007 0.021 0.023 0.007 0.007
Effect on sample 0.200 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.020 0.020 0.045 0.040 0.040 0.020
Accuracy 0.100 0.018 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.006 0.009 0.006 0.006 0.012
Speed of measure 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.002
Moisture type 0.030 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004
Durability 0.040 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004
Reliability 0.050 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.004
Time stability 0.050 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.005
Hazards 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Temp. stability 0.050 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.005
Lifetime 0.100 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.011 0.002 0.002 0.004 0.002 0.011
Remote sensing 0.200 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.032 0.008 0.048 0.048 0.048 0.016
Total performance
value 0.098 0.097 0.097 0.120 0.067 0.152 0.149 0.128 0.091
TABLE 10
SENSITIVITY OF THE VALUE MATRIX TO A CHANGE IN WEIGHT FACTORS-MOISTURE IN BASE
COURSE COMPACTION CONTROL

MEASUREMENTMETHOD

WEIGHT GRAY. GRAY. GRAy.

PERFORMANCE FACTOR, OVEN ALCOHOL CALCIUM TENS!- ELECTRIC THERMAL HYGROM- MICRO-
CHARACTERISTIC Wi DRY BURN CARB. NUCLEAR OMETRY COND. COND. ETRY WAVE
Availability (0.200)
0.000 0.123 0.124 0.126 0.127 0.081 0.104 0.097 0.093 0.124
0.100 0.130 0.131 0.133 0.133 0.075 0.103 0.089 0.093 0.113
0.300 0.143 0.144 0.145 0.146 0.062 0.101 0.074 0.093 0.092
Portability (0.100)
0.000 0.144 0.141 0.143 0.144 0.065 0.099 0.075 0.088 0.103
0.050 0.140 0.139 0.141 0.142 0.067 0.100 0.078 0.090 0.103
0.200 0.129 0.133 0.135 0.136 0.072 0.106 0.088 0.098 0.103
0.300 0.121 0.130 0.131 0.132 0.076 0.110 0.094 0.103 0.103
Sample size (0.100)
0.000 0,133 0.135 0.136 0.142 0.072 0.105 0.086 0.090 0.101
0.050 0.135 0.136 0.138 0.141 0.070 0.104 0.084 0.091 0.102
0.200 0.139 0.140 0.141 0.137 0.065 0.100 0.077 0.096 0.105
0.300 0.141 0.142 0.144 0.135 0.062 0.097 0.072 0.099 0.107
Effeôt on sample (0.100)
0.000 0.149 0.150 0.152 0.137 0.060 0.096 0.074 0.087 0.094
0.050 0.143 0.144 0.145 0.138 0.064 0.099 0.078 0.090 0.098
0.200 0.123 0,124 0.125 0.142 0.077 0.109 0.089 0.099 0.112
0.300 0.110 0.111 0.112 0.145 0.086 0.116 0.096 0.105 0.120
Accuracy (0.150)
0.000 0.129 0.135 0.137 0.138 0.070 0.105 0.086 0.099 0.100
0.050 0.131 0.136 0.138 0.139 0.070 0.104 0.084 0.097 0.101
0.200 0.138 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.068 0.102 0.080 0.091 0.104
0.300 0.143 0.139 0.140 0.141 0.067 0.100 0.078 0.087 0.105
Speed of measure (0.050)
0.000 0.140 0.139 0.139 0.138 0.070 0.099 0.077 0.096 0.100
0.100 0.132 0.135 0.138 0.141 0.067 0.106 0.086 0.090 0.106
0.200 0.125 0.131 0.137 0.143 0.063 0.112 0.094 0.083 0.112
0.300 0.117 0.127 0.136 0.145 0.059 0.118 0.103 0.077 0.118
Moisture type (0.050)
0.000 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.141 0.068 0.103 0.081 0.093 0.102
0.100 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.138 0.070 0.102 0.082 0.093 0.104
0.200 0.137 0.138 0.139 0.134 0.072 0.100 0.082 0.092 0.106
0.300 0.137 0.138 0.139 0.131 0.074 0.099 0.083 0.092 0.108
Durability (0.030)
0.000 0.136 0.137 0.139 0.140 0.068 0.102 0.081 0.093 0.103
0.100 0.135 0.137 0.139 0.138 0.070 0.103 0.084 0.092 0.102
0.200 0.134 0.137 0.139 0.135 0.071 0.104 0.087 0.091 0.102
0.300 0.133 0.138 0.139 0.132 0.073 0.105 0.090 0.090 0,101
Reliability (0.050)
0.000 0.135 0.136 0.137 0.142 0.067 0.104 0.081 0.094 0.104
0.100 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.138 0.070 0.101 0.082 0.092 0.102
0.200 0.141 0.142 0.143 0.133 0.074 0.097 0.082 0.089 0,100
0.300 0.144 0.145 0.146 0.129 0.077 0.093 0.082 0.086 0.098
Time stability (0.030)
0.000 0.136 0.137 0.138 0.141 0.067 0.103 0.081 0.093 0.103
0.100 0.137 0.138 0.140 0.136 0.071 0.101 0.083 0.092 0,102
0.200 0.139 0.140 0.141 0.131 0.075 0.098 0.086 0.090 0,101
0.300 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.126 0.079 0.095 0.088 0.088 0.099
Hazards (0.020)
0.000 0.137 0.138 0.140 0.142 0.067 0.102 0.080 0.092 0.103
0.100 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.131 0.076 0.106 0.087 0.097 0.104
0.200 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.120 0.086 0.111 0.094 0.103 0.105
0.300 0.121 0.121 0.123 0.109 0.096 0.115 0.100 0.109 0.106
Temp. stability (0.050)
0.000 0.135 0.136 0.138 0.141 0.068 0.104 0.080 0.094 0.103
0.100 0.137 0.138 0.139 0.139 0.069 0.101 0.083 0.092 0.102
0.200 0.139 0.139 0.141 0.137 0.070 0.098 0.085 0.090 0.101
0.300 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.135 0.070 0.095 0.088 0.088 0.100
Lifetime (0.050)
0.000 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.141 0.071 0.107 0.083 0.097 0.102
0.100 0.141 0.142 0.143 0.138 0.066 0.098 0.080 0.089
0.200 0.103
0.150 0.151 0.12 0.135 0.061 0.090 0.076 0.082 0.104
0.300 0.159 0.160 0.161 0.132 0.056 0.081 0.072 0.074
Remote sensing (0.020) 0.105
0.000 0.139 0.140 0.142 0.138 0.068 0.102 0.080
0.100 0.092 0.100
0.125 0.126 0.127 0.146 0.072 0.106 0.087 0.097
0.200 0.111 0.113
0.112 0.113 0.155 0.076 0.111 0.094 0.103 0.125
0.300 0.097 0.098 0.099 0.163 0.081 0.116 0.101 0.109 0.137
 19

The problem of inspection testing during and after con- relative humidity. Thermal conductivity and electrical con-
struction is weighted in about the same manner as base- ductivity also ranked well. The high ranking of microwave
course compaction control; therefore, no additional tables methods is related primarily to methods for observing
were prepared for this problem. laboratory-controlled samples.
Instrumentation for the study of moisture in concrete The evaluation model is seen to provide insight into the
during drying was evaluated in Tables 13 and 14. Highest relationship between instrument methods and measurement
weight was given to moisture type. Effect on sample and problems-a relationship based on performance require-
remote sensing were weighted heavily also. The highest ments. It suffers noticeably from lack of more specific
ranking for hygrometric methods results because the bound data. Much more satisfactory results should be achieved
or unbound condition of the moisture to be measured in in the evaluation of field tests that employ all the instru-
this case is considered to relate directly to the equilibrium ments under identical conditions.

TABLE 13
DECISION MATRIX-STUDY OF MOISTURE IN CONCRETE DURING DRYING

MEASUREMENT METIjOI)

GRAY. GRAY. GRAy.

PERFORMANCE OVEN ALCOHOL CALCIUM TENS!- ELECTRIC THERMAL HYGROM- MICRO-
CHARACTERISTIC DRY BURN CARB. NUCLEAR OMETRY COND. COND. ETRY WAVE

Availability 0.189 0.189 0.189 0.189 0.019 0.094 0.019 0.094 0.019
Portability 0.069 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.138 0.138 0.138 0.103
Sample size 0.093 0.093 0.093 0.070 0.070 0.209 0.233 0.070 0.070
Effect on sample 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.087 0.087 0.196 0.174 0.174 0.217
Accuracy 0.176 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.059 0.088 0.059 0.059 0.118
Speed of measure 0.065 0.097 0.129 0.161 0.032 0.161 0.161 0.032 0.161
Moisture type 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.073 0.061 0.061 0.061 0.366 0.085
Durability 0.125 0.139 0.139 0.111 0.083 0.111 0.111 0.083 0.097
Reliability 0.167 0.167 0.167 0.100 0.100 0.067 0.083 0.067 0.083
Time stability 0.152 0.152 0.152 0.091 0.106 0.076 0.106 0.076 0.091
Hazards 0.082 0.082 0.082 0.033 0.164 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.115
Temp. stability 0.152 0.152 0.152 0.121 0.076 0.076 0.106 0.076 0.091
Lifetime 0.222 0.222 0.222 0.111 0.022 0.022 0.044 0.022 0.111
Remote sensing 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.148 0.037 0.222 0.222 0.148 0.222

TABLE 14
VALUE MATRIX-STUDY OF MOISTURE IN CONCRETE DURING DRYING

MEASUREMENT METHOD

WEIGHT GRAY. GRAY. GRAY.

PERFORMANCE FACTOR, OVEN ALCOHOL CALCIUM TENSI- ELECtRiC IHERMAL HYGROM- MICRO-
CHARACTERISTIC Wi DRY BURN CARB. NUCLEAR OMETRY COND. COND. ETRY WAVE

Availability 0.050 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.001
Portability 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Sample size 0.100 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.007 0.007 0.021 0.023 0.007 0.007
Effect on sample 0.150 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.013 0.013 0.029 0.026 0.026 0.033
Accuracy 0.100 0.018 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.006 0.009 0.006 0.006 0.012
Speed of measure 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.002
Moisture type 0.200 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.015 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.073 0.017
Durability 0.050 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.004 0.005
Reliability 0.050 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.004
Time stability 0.050 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.005
Hazards 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Temp. stability 0.020 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Lifetime 0.050 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.006 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.006
Remote sensing 0.150 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.022 0.006 0.033 0.033 0.022 0.033
Total performance
value 0.098 0.096 0.096 0.107 0.065 0.129 0.126 0.156 0.127
CHAPTER THREE

RECOMMENDED RESEARCH

EVALUATION OF PROMISING TECHNIQUES Candidate Methods: Nuclear, radiowave, microwave,

capacitance, resistivity, hygrometric.
Most moisture measurement problems related to highway Reference Methods: Same as Program 1.
engineering would benefit significantly from a comparative
evaluation of available or potentially available instrumen-
Research Program 3
tation. The following research problems are identified as
having a relatively high priority, as having candidate mea- Title: Evaluation of Instrumentation for. Moisture Mea-
surement methods to be compared, and as being repre- surement in Unconsolidated Materials in Motion.
sentative of characteristic measurement problems. In addi- Candidate Methods: Nuclear, radiowave, microwave,
tion to candidate methods, the comparative evaluation also capacitance, infrared.
should include reference and supplementary methods; i.e., Reference Methods: Nuclear (density), oven dry, al-
methods that are unsatisfactory for routine application but cohol burning, calcium carbide.
that may be used to compare and clarify the performance
of more promising techniques. Research Program 4
Special emphasis should be given to the evaluation of
nuclear methods, radio frequency and microwave tech- Title: Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Mea-
niques, and fringe capacitance techniques. surement of Compacted Materials in Depth.
Nuclear methods are well established in the area of Candidate Methods: Nuclear, fringe capacitance, hygro-
compaction control. They are potentially applicable in metric, resistivity, thermal conductivity, tensiometric.
many other areas, especially when nuclear density or mass Reference Methods: Oven dry, calcium carbide, alcohol
measurements can be performed concurrently. burning.
Radio frequency and microwave methods are potentially
applicable to measurement problems characterized by low Research Program 5
moisture content, freedom from dielectric interferences, Title: Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Mea-
and availability of concurrent density or mass data. Instru- surement in Compacted Materials in Discrete Layers.
ments with multiple-frequency capability and temperature Candidate Methods: Nuclear, fringe capacitance, radio-
compensation should be most useful. wave, resistivity.
The fringe capacitance method should be considered for Reference Methods: Oven dry, alcohol burning, calcium
measurement of moisture in soil or other compactible carbide, penetrometer.
materials and for research problems requiring remote sens-
ing. The impedance-matching techniques described by Research Program 6
Thomas (1966) are considered to be a necessity for
optimum performance of this method. Title: Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Mea-
The specific areas for evaluation may be considered to surement in In-Situ Materials in Depth.
be the components of a larger program to evaluate instru- Candidate Methods: Nuclear, resistance, thermal con-
mentation for measurement of moisture in soil and mineral ductivity, tensiometric, hygrometric.
materials and mixtures. Reference Methods: Oven dry, alcohol burning, calcium
carbide, penetrometer.
Research Program 1
Research Program 7
Title: Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Mea-
Title: Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Mea-
surement in Unconsolidated Materials in Stockpiles.
surement in Cemented Materials in Layers and Other
Candidate Methods: Nuclear, fringe capacitance, re-
Shapes.
sistivity, electromagnetic radiation.
Candidate Methods: Nuclear, resistivity, thermal con-
Reference Methods: Oven dry, alcohol burning, calcium
ductivity, hygrometric, radiowave, microwave.
carbide.
Reference Methods: Oven drying.

Research Program 2 Program:

Title: Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Mea- Each of the foregoing research problems has essentially the
same basic research plan:
surement in Unconsolidated Materials in Storage and
Weigh Bins. 1. Literature search and review.
 21

Choose candidate methods. many different methods. There has been much interest
Optimize instrument design to match field-test con- recently concerning the nature of moisture movement and
ditions (except for commercially adapted systems). rate of moisture loss in the presence of temperature gra-
Develop operating procedures under laboratory con- dients (McDonald, 1970; Thompson, Dempsey, 1970).
ditions or through the use of a simulation model. Through the verification of theoretical models (including
Install instruments in field-test environment. the interrelation of moisture and temperature) projections
Data analysis—apply the evaluation model to test re- may be made into the more difficult problems that defy
sults to determine the most suitable method(s); relate the accurate measurement.
tests results to problem solutions.
D-Line Cracking
Reports.
The problem with D-line cracking is determining the
Costs and priorities are summarized in Table 15.
amount, type, and state of the water present, and resolving
minute inhomogeneities, without interfering with the nor-
MOISTURE MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS LACKING mal freeze-thaw process.
SUFFICIENT INSTRUMENTATION
Lens Formation and Frost Heaving
Insufficient instrumentation for a given measurement prob-
lem may be attributed to lack of prior awareness of the Spatial resolution is important here but not as much as in
problem, lack of effort to solve the problem, or techno- the foregoing problems.. It would be helpful to determine
logical difficulty of the problem. The following problems the state of water in a nondisturbing manner.
(as noted in Chapter Two) are hampered by the extreme
Subgrade Seepage
difficulty of performing the measurements necessary to
study the problem. A significant contribution to the solu- Sufficient distribution of remote moisture measurement
tion of these problems could result from the development devices could localize subgrade seepage and in many cases
of a small, rugged, remote sensor for measuring moisture result in repairs with a minimum of effort, and possibly
in highway materials. even before damage has actually occurred.

Instrumant for Measuring Moicturo in Concrete Culvert Infiltration and Leakage

A primary problem encountered in measuring moisture is One solution to culvert infiltration and leakage might be
the many ways in which water exists in concrete. This the installation of many small sensors characterized by low
problem may require the simultaneous measurement by maintenance and low cost.

TABLE 15
RESEARCH PROGRAM SUMMARY

TIME COST PRIORITY

PROGRAM NO. AND TITLE (MO.) ($) INDEX

1 Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement in Unconsolidated Mate- 18 82,000 22

rials in Stockpiles
2 Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement in Unconsolidated Mate-
rials in Storage and Weigh Bins 24 123,000 25
3 Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement in Unconsolidated Mate-
rials in Motion 24 164,000 26
4 Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement of Compacted Materials
in Depth 18 95,000 22
5 Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement in Compacted Materials
in Discrete Layers 18 91,000 27
6 Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement in In Situ Materials in
Depth 18 95,000 21
7 Evaluation of Instrumentation for Moisture Measurement in Cemented Materials in
Layers and Other Shapes 24 75,000 25
8 Development of Miniature Remote Sensors for Measuring Moisture in Highway
Materials 24 118,000 26
9 Improved Field Method for Continuously Measuring Moisture Content of Bulk
Aggregates 12 73,000 26
10 Improved Nuclear Method for Moisture Measurement in Highway Materials 12 62,000 27
11 Evaluation and Development of Radioactive Techniques for Evaluating Moisture,
Density, and Strength of Pavement Components 24 122,000 24
12 Evaluation and Adaptation of Radioactive Techniques for Measurement of Moisture
in Highway Materials (other than base courses under construction) 18 91,000 24
Total cost 1,191,000
 22

Gradation and Characterization of Earth Movements total absorbing power of some of the rare earths such as
Remote sensing is a necessary requirement, together with gadolinium in the earth's crust is much higher than that of
a large number of inexpensive sensors. The effective the more abundant or commonly considered elements, such
sample size must be extremely large. as iron, boron, and chlorine. This may account for the
occasional anomalies in nuclear measurements and also
Long-Term Moisture Changes in Highway the frequent coincidence of the compensating effects of
Structural Section hydrogenous material and absorbing elements in some
Small sensors that can be remotely monitored and that do clays. A modification that would indicate the presence of
not interfere with normal component behavior are required. abnormally high neutron absorbers would be to use the
neutron-gamma technique in conjunction with the neutron
scattering method. This should reduce some of the inter-
Research Program 8
ference errors due to absorbers. Ignition tests also should
Title: Development of Miniature Remote Sensors for be made occasionally in troublesome soils. These two
Measuring Moisture in Highway Materials. added measurements should contribute to understanding
and confidence in the nuclear method.
Program:
Literature search and review. Research Program 10
Design and develop miniature moisture sensors that
Title: Improved Nuclear Method for Moisture Measure-
operate on the basis of resistance, capacitance, and thermal
conductivity, and can be monitored remotely by physical ment in Highway Materials.
contact with the sensor or by electromagnetic signal Program:
transmission.
Conduct laboratory and field evaluation. Literature search and review.
Data analysis and reports. Develop and evaluate a nuclear method for measur-
ing moisture, using the combined principles of neutron
The problem of monitoring moisture content of bulk
scattering and the neutron-gamma reaction.
aggregates was identified by Walker et al. (1970) as having
Data analysis and reports.
a substantial priority. Water in aggregates must be in-
cluded in determining total water of concrete paste. Be-
cause the water/cement ratio is of primary importance to Research Program 11 (Walker et al., 1970)
the performance characteristics of concrete, the moisture Title: Evaluation and Development of Radioactive Tech-
content of the aggregate needs to be measured continuously niques for Evaluating Moisture, Density, and Strength of
to determine the amount of water to be added to the mix. Pavement Components.
Although there are suitable batch methods in use, there is
no method that can continuously and accurately measure
Research Program 12
the moisture content of aggregate as it exists in stockpiles
and bins. Title: Evaluation and Adaptation of Radioactive Tech-
niques for Measurement of Moisture in Highway Ma-
Research Program 9 terials (other than base courses under construction).
Title: Improved Field Method for Continuously Measur- The 12 research programs are summarized in Table 15.
ing Moisture Content of Bulk Aggregates. The priority index and costs were obtained in the manner
used by Walker et al. (1970). The ease of solution was
Program (From Walker et al., 1970):
given a weight of 1; value of solution, 3; ease of imple-
Literature search and review. mentation, 1; and geographical significance, 2. The costs
Develop a field method for continuously and accu- were based on an average rate of $3,000 per man-month.
rately measuring moisture content of an aggregate mass. Estimates of equipment costs varied between $5,000 and
Test and evaluate method. $20,000.
Data analysis, synthesis, and reports. The total cost of the 12 programs is $1,191,000. The
total cost of the two programs having the top priority index
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS OF AVAILABLE is $153,000. The top five programs have a total cost of
TECHNIQUES $508,000. These programs represent needed research in
the area of moisture measurement instrumentation. The
Although the nuclear method is probably the most suitable cost is small in comparison with the costs associated with
method for in-situ measurement of moisture in compacti- the problems they are intended to solve. Although all of
ble materials, there are potential modifications to this mea- these problems are not likely to be solved in one or two
surement that would reduce its susceptibility to inter- years, a significant contribution can be made through a
ferences. It is assumed that bulk density corrections continuous research effort guided by an awareness of pres-
normally are applied. Interferences occur from slow ent technological capabilities and the proper perspective of
neutron-absorbing materials as well as organic or hydroge- moisture measurement requirements in the many facets
nous materials. Although it is not widely considered, the of highway engineering activities.
 23

APPENDIX A

MOISTURE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

In searching for all possible methods of measuring mois- retention characteristics of the material and the RH of the
ture, it was found convenient to divide potential methods cavity. These methods have application, however, where
by the chemical and physical processes on which the mea- RH in the material is related directly to other properties;
surement principle is based. In this way the methods were e.g., the drying shrinkage of concrete. In evaluating hygro-
broken down into sufficiently small categories in which the metric methods, the following characteristics are especially
title is a partial description of the method used. It is not significant: (1) range of water contents of interest,
the purpose of this study to completely describe and (2) hysteresis effects in both the material and the sensi-
characterize each of these methods and document the tive element, (3) the size of the sensitive element, (4) the
extensive research in this area. Consequently, an effort type of water to be measured, and (5) the durability of the
was made to be brief, and yet present the information sensor in the particular medium.
needed by the highway engineer. Some background in- For a detailed study of humidity sensors, see Wexier and
formation is provided on the principle behind each mois- Ruskin (1965).
ture measurement, and as much information as possible is
presented concerning the instrument performance charac- 1.1 Electrical Resistance Hygrometer
teristics. In many cases little specific information on these
1.1.1 Chemical Salts and Acids
characteristics was available. In other cases extensive in-
formation was found in research reports, textbooks, and The electrical resistance of sensors is modulated by changes
journals. In those sections of this appendix where it is in the water content of volumetric and electrolytic proc-
desirable to present the results of many publications, an esses. Most resistive humidity transducers consist essen-
abbreviated format of presentation is used: the material is tially of a hygroscopic material that absorbs water from
grouped by the author or agency conducting the work, and the surrounding atmosphere. Generally, the material con-
date (month/year) of publication. Pertinent material is tains a salt that disassociates in the presence of water. The
described by a brief review, followed by a summary listing concentration of these disassociated ions is determined by
of the performance characteristics for which the work con- the measurement of the electrical resistance between the
tributed additional information. The performance charac- electrodes applied to the transducers. The hygroscopic ma-
teristics are indicated on the left by numbers from 1 to 35, terial is deposited on a substrate-either ion-impervious
which represent the numbered definitions of performance insulating surfaces, or fibers, or fabrics, or ceramics. Typi-
listed in Table A-i. Where only limited information on a cal examples of hygroscopic materials that have been sug-
particular method was available, it is presented in textual
form.

1.0 HYGROMETRIC TECHNIQUES TABLE A-1

Among the earliest references in hygroscopy are the works INDEX OF PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS USED
FOR THE LITERATURE REVIEW a
of Hooke (1665) and Boyle (1725). Leonardo da Vinci
also is credited with the application of the relationship
1. Availability 20. Temperature effects
between relative humidity (RH) and the physical proper- 2. Practicability 21. Interference
ties of hair. Considering the technological advances made 3. Portability 22. Radius of influence
in modern times, it is surprising that the hair hygrometer 4. Size 23. Sensitivity
introduced by de Saussure in 1783 is widely used in 5. Versatility 24. Range
6. Fragility 25. Accuracy
industry today (Fraade, 1963).
7. Durability 26. Stability
The general nature of the relationship between moisture 8. Serviceability 27. Precision
content in porous materials and the RH of the immediate 9. Simplicity of operation 28. Response time
atmosphere under equilibrium conditions is reasonably well 10. Operator experience 29. Speed of measurement
known. Consequently, a relatively large number of simple 11. Reliability Time monitoring capa-
30.
12. Lifetime
devices for indicating and recording RH have been con- bility
13. Cost
ceived. There are basic disadvantages, however, in using 14. Hazards 31. Remote monitoring capa-
these methods to measure RH in a small cavity inside a 15. Sample weight bility
porous material and deriving the moisture content of the 16. Simple volume 32. Power requirement
17. Effect on sample 33. Calibration requirements
solid. These include deteriorating effects of soil compo- 34. Maintenance requirements
18. Physical state
nents on the sensing element, and the need for a special 19. Moisture type 35. Application materials
calibration for each material to be sampled. The latter is
the result of the funadmental dependence on the moisture- Terms are defined in Chapter Two.
 24

gested are sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, lithium chloride, in which

calcium chloride, zinc chloride, and solutions of the tetra-
chlorides of tin, zirconium, hafnium, or lead (Wexier, L = length of film;
Ruskin, 1965). W = equivalent weight of solute in film of electrolyte;
Reliability.—For accuracy, speed of response, and sta- m = mass of solute; and
bility, some authors consider the most successful humidity A = equivalent conductivity.
transducers to be those fabricated on an insulating poly- The sensitivity is obtained by differentiation with respect
styrene form supported with two wires of a noble metal to relative humidity:
that are wound in the form of two parallel helixes (Dun-
more, 1938) Others (Bouyoucos, Cook, 1965) consider R L2W
(-1/A2 ) ( A-2)
lithium chloride (LiCl) and similar elements to be un- (RH)m (RH)
reliable and short-lived, even with plastic sealers. Nielsen
Notice the inverse dependence on mass of solute. Ex-
(1967) found them inadequate for long periods of time,
or high RH. periments with LiCl solutions show a decreasing sensitivity
as the amount of LiCl is increased.
Gause and Tucker (1940) used a Dunmore-type electric
As indicators of the moisture content of the solid en-
hygrometer coated with polyvinyl acetate. Bakelite wash-
closing the cavity, the sensitivity falls off for a cavity RH
ers were replaced by polystyrene washers as binding posts
greater than 90 percent. Near saturation it is especially
to prevent leakage at high humidities. They concluded that
poor, with some materials doubling the moisture content
electrical resistance hygrometers are well suited to measure
RH in concrete. as the RH of the cavity goes from 99 to 100 percent
(Monfore, 1970).
Temperature E/Jects.—The resistance at constant hu- Range.—The resistance of such transducers ranges from
midity depends strongly on the temperature; therefore, about 10,000 ohms to 10 megohms. The resistance varia-
either operation at a constant temperature or effective com- tion corresponds to a limited range of RH of approximately
pensation is required. A negative temperature coefficient 25 to 35 percent. Several transducer elements are required
normally is encountered (White, 1954).
to cover the total range from approximately 2 to 99 percent
Interference.—Ionic or hygroscopic materials cannot be RH. The different ranges can be made by using different
tested. Certain volatile materials will interfere, such as concentrations of LiCl in the hygroscopic layer deposjtc1
acetone, acetylene, acid vapors, alkaline vapors, amines, on the insulated form. The individual sensors in the unit
ammonia, ethylene oxide, glycol vapors, salt air, sulfur described by Roth covered a range of 4 percent (dry).
dioxide, and saturated air subject to condensation (Roth, White (1954) indicated that a sodium dichromate solu-
1966).
tion was better than LiCl at higher humidity and tempera-
Klein and Trescony (1965) suggest two potential solu- ture. The resistance of an alumina core saturated with
tions to problems with resistance hygrometers: sodium dichromate was found to vary linearly with RH
between 30 and 99 percent. It was found that with a heater
Hygroscopic sensory element that is unaffected by
solutions of salts in the meter. environment. current a variety of responses could be achieved with
possible control applications.
Protective covering, such as a membrane that presents
a barrier to salt ions and is permeable to moisture. Ionic crystals have been considered as fractional dew-
point indicators (Wylie, 1955, 1962). The fractional dew-
For applications in fresh concrete or deep fills, they point is indicated by the sensor temperature for which the
chose an ionic barrier moisture meter that was developed surface resistance reaches some constant value. The RH
at the University of California (Blythe, 1957). at that temperature is then near the equilibrium RH of the
The hygroscopic sensory element is formed by dipping crystal, such as: K2SO4 (99 percent), NaCl (76 percent),
in a concentrated solution of polyvinyl alcohol in alcohol CaCl2 (30 percent), and LiCl (15 percent). The method
and water. This coating is dried at 60°C. Klein and is limited and would require temperature measurement and
Trescony (1965, Figs. 2 and 3) show the moisture meter control for implementation.
and the monitoring circuit. Response Time.—If the hygroscopic material is very
Leaching tests indicated that if the sensing element is thick, a long time is required for it to come into equi-
encased successively in shells of an anionic and a cationic librium with the surrounding atmosphere. Therefore, the
permselective membrane the moisture meter operates with- dynamic response is poor and the indication of the system
out salt interference. will show a time lag, perhaps of several hours. If the
Sensitivity.—A commercial unit produced by Honey- hygroscopic body is very thin, the physical process is
well (Roth, 1966, p. 84) has a lower limit of detection limited to the surface, or to extremely near the surface
(LLD) of 0.5 percent (dry). This system encloses the layer, and the system is easily influenced by the surface
sample in a small volume and allows about 10 min for the contamination and mechanical injury, resulting in the mea-
vapor pressure to reach equilibrium. The sensor is a thin surements becoming nonreproducible. The sensing ele-
film of LiCl on interlacing gold grids on a plastic base. ments should be protected from long exposure to environ-
The resistance of salt solution is given by Schaffer ments of 100 percent RH, because condensation is likely
(1946): to damage the vulnerable surface.
The speed of response is high for LiCl sensors with
R=L2W/mA (A-i) respect to the hair hygrometer. If exposed to an abrupt
 25

large change of RH at room temperature, the element will The typical transducer is essentially a capacitor with a
assume 63 percent of its equilibrium resistance within porous dielectric film of aluminum oxide. One capacitor
several seconds. However, the speed of the response plate should be permeable to water vapor to permit
depends on the air turbulence in the vicinity of the sensor. penetration into the aluminum oxide.
In a cavity, diffusion is the limiting mechanism. The speed The porous oxide layer is formed by various means such
of response also depends on the magnitude of the humidity as (1) sputtering, (2) vapor deposition, and (3) anodiza-
change and on the temperature. The resistance changes tion. Anodization is more popular and is generally an acid
faster when the humidity varies from a low to a higher electrolyte (17.5 volume percent H2SO4, current density
value than it does in the opposite direction. The response 100 ma cm-2, 30 mm).
time generally increases with increasing temperature. The apparent dielectric constant of such an oxide in the
Faster response transducers are described by Wexler et al. vicinity of saturation ranges from 1,000 to 8,000. A typi-
(1962) using potassium metaphosphate in the humidity cal calibration curve is shown in Figure A-i.
range of 83 to 100 percent. These transducers will reach The sensitivity decreases near the saturation values of
63 percent of the final resistance in approximately ½ sec RH. Typical accuracy is estimated to be about ±3 percent
at room temperature and in about 10 sec at —20°C. The (Cutting, Jason, Wood, 1955). The dynamic response to
response time of this transducer is decreased by factor of a sudden variation of ambient humidity depends on the
20 to 30, compared to the previously described LiC1 sensor. magnitude and direction of such a change. Response times
The, response time of sodium dichromate elements is a range on the order of 10 to 100 sec. Response is slower
few minutes at room temperature and higher humidity and slight hysteresis effects are noticeable at high degrees
values. However, at 0°C and humidity of less than 30 per- of humidity. The resistance increases and the capacitance
cent this time increases to about 1 hr. Barium fluoride films decreases, causing aging effects during the first few months
have been designed with a 1-sec response time at —20°C after oxide formation. The transducer output is practically
and 3 sec at —30°C. Response is essentially instantaneous independent of temperature between 0° and 80°C. Changes
at higher temperatures. in resistance and capacitance with variations in relative
Accuracy.—Transducers of the described type are ac- humidity may be irreversible in the temperature range of
100° to 400°C.
curate and reproduce to within ±2.5 percent. However,
special sensing elements with an error that does not exceed Cutting, Jason, and Wood (1955) list the following
advantages and disadvantages of aluminum oxide sensors:
± 1.5 percent are commercially available (Wexler, Ruskin,
1965). The calibration curves generally are nonlinear, and I. Advantages:
an empirical calibration is required. Hysteresis is almost Insensitive to temperature variation from 0° to
always a problem in the material being monitored, and 80°C.
frequently occurs with the sensor as well. The interpreta- With care some calibration curve can be used
tion of results for the worst cases is thus very difficult. for many units.
Applicable Materials.—Shiba and Ueda (1965) suggest Change fabrication for different characteristics.
the use of resistance hygrometry for estimating the drying Displays humidity as one electrical parameter.
rate of a concrete wall. The difference in vapor pressure Physical size can be varied.
of ambient air and the surface of the wall was found to Air velocity insensitive.
have an exponential relation with time. Remote monitoring possible.
Stable after aging.
z p= ae t (A-3) Rapid response time.
Rugged construction.
The constants were determined for mortar blocks and
2. Disadvantages:
were found to be: a = 7.3 Torr, and n = 0.2 day-1. Problems above 90% RH are slow response,
The stability of these sensors in most materials for long drift, hysteresis, low sensitivity, and possible
periods of time probably is inadequate. Some improvement destruction of element.
may be gained by the use of RH wells (Monfore, 1963). Applied voltage above 80% of formation volt-
age may cause temporary breakdown.
1.1.2 Aluminum Oxide Oil or grease ruins response.

Both resistance and capacitance of aluminum oxide films

have been correlated with RH. This would allow its classi-
fication together with techniques 1.2 as well as techniques
1.1. The two techniques, however, are treated as one for
this sensor. log R (a)
jog C (pf)
Ansbacher and Jason (1953) and Cutting, Jason, and
Wood (1955) have investigated and described an electrical
hygrometer based on variations of the electrical properties
of aluminum oxide with changes in humidity. Jason
(1965) also has considered some of the basic limitations h 1.fl

of this sensor. Figure A-i. Typical calibration curve.

 26

Results of other research with aluminum oxide are given Del Pico (10/67)
in the following, in the format mentioned at the beginning
of this appendix. The numbers on the left refer to per- Used aluminum with 1.5% manganese. Anodized in
formance characteristics listed in Table A-i. The order 17.5% (V/V) H2SO4 at 25°C, 50 ma cm-2 for 30 mm.
is chronological. Aquadog electrodes were applied. Table 1 (p. 15)
gives solutions for calibrating RH.
Films were about 30 thick.
Stover (6/63) 21 Polar gases such as ammonia, CO,, CO, NO2, and
SO2 interfere, but low concentrations should give neg-
Anodized aluminum (99.99%) 0.075 mil (-4.9
ligible effect.
thick is used. Fabrication formula is 50% sulfuric
acid, 90°F, 25 mm, and 12 a (AC) per ft2 .
Morrissey, Brousaides (10/67)
4 Foil is 3 mils X .o in. X % in. and weighs about 12 mg.
20 Linearity of 2% between 10 and 90% RH (good re- Takes issue with Chleck (1966). Time constant may
sponse curve on p. 634) between _800 and 120°F. be longer and element may have temperature as well
21 Condensation on surface has no permanent effect. as RH coefficient. Glueckauf (1947) predicts an in-
(May not be true in presence of salts.) verse dependence of response time on pressure.
23 Too-thin coating of gold causes high resistance; too-
thick coating causes tight layer that does not allow Lai, Hidy (8/68)
moisture to migrate freely.
24 Range is 0-100% (0.000614-145 mm Hg, —106° to Used 20,000- to 40,000-A-thick sputtered films, on a
thin quartz fiber. Electrodes were gold on platinum
130°F dewpoint, 1 ppm up to pure water).
with a gap between. A1209 was sputtered on gap and
26 Recalibration may be required if the unit is subject to
topped with porous graphite.
severe conditions, or stored for long periods. 23 C and R curves shown on p. 1200.
28 75°F, 100% - 50% RH ..... < 300 msec.
24 Range is from 30 to 90%.
75°F, 0% —*50% RH .. <100 msec.
28 Response time is about 0.1 sec.

Parametrics (12/64) Disadvantages:

Units were similar to those used by Stover, who con- I. Low sensitivity at less than 20% RH.
sulted on the program. Loss of sensitivity in storage for a few days.
Behaved as a pure capacitor (Z 1/f). Any conve- Hysteresis-like effect given longer response time for
nient frequency can be used. changes from high humidity to low, then vice versa.
4 Element dimensions: /io X % X 0.003 in. Limited range.
23 Elements were calibrated to frost points of —100°C.
A linear response was obtained of impedance vs frost Barton, Maffei (10/68)
point.
33 Shift of 5°C in frost point resulted from high-vacuum In nuclear reactor gases.
12 Unit performed satisfactorily for a year or more.
storage for 4 mo.
24 Range is from —110°C (<0.01 ppm) to 10°C
(>10,000 ppm).
Chleck (12/66) 28 Response time was less than 10 sec.
Stover consulted in fabrication of sensor but does not
Brousaides (10/68)
give detailed description. Results are inconsistent with
Brousaides (1968). Fabrication is an art. This technique is based on the fact that thin, porous
25 1. Measured absolute humidity. films of A1203 are hygroscopic. Common practice is
± 1.5° to 3°C error in dew point. to prepare films by anodization in a porous-oxide-
Good stability and aging. producing electrolyte. Behavior has not been satis-
Negligible hysteresis. factorily explained in terms of diffusion and sorption
28 Response time is 2 sec at ambient conditions. theory. Large variations in reported results may be
related to different construction techniques. Stover
Locke (8/67) (1963) used AC anodization and Jason (1963) used
DC anodization.
Describes construction and operation of a small instru- Figure 2 (p. 3) shows the sensor configuration.
ment for Martian water vapor detection. 20 The temperature dependence is approx. 10% RH per
4 Instrument weighs 0.8 lb with a volume of 36 in3. °C.
25 Error is ±2°C dew point. 23 Response curves are shallow.
32 Power required is 0.4 w. Factor of 2 change occurs between 20 and 95% RH.
(The ML-476 carbon element changes by factor of
Refers to date; (6/63) = June 1963. 100.)
 27

25 Accuracy is limited by temperature control and hys- 96500X Wwa ter

K=2<8016 (A-7)
teresis. Hysteresis gives error of 10% RH or greater. Wgas
Some error may be apparent hysteresis due to an ex- in which Wwater and Wgas are gram-molecular weights of
cessively long time constant. Permanent hysteresis also the water and of the gas.
is an unavoidable aspect of most porous materials. The For air, Eq. A-i becomes
"ink-bottle" theory advanced by Kraemer (1931) and
McBain (1936) is based upon meniscus advance and Viv (A-8)
I = 6.6 X 10 Vrn
decline in pores of varied geometry. Meniscus forma- air
tion in the capillary is determined by the Kelvin in which VTv/ V 1 is the concentration by volume of water
equation: in air in parts per million (ppm). For example, for a
—2yV cos 0 volume flow of 100 cc/mm, the current will be 13.2
ln(P/p0 ) = ga/ppm by volume at a temperature of 25CC and a
R I rrn
pressure of 1 atm.
in which Po is the saturation vapor pressure; y is the The instrument is particularly useful for very small con-
surface tension; 0 is the contact angle; V is the molecu- centrations of water in a gas, usually between 1 to 1,000
lar volume of the liquid; rm is the mean radius of ppm, with the lower limit of 1 ppm. Accuracy of the
the meniscus; R is the gas constant; and T is the tem- electrolysis system is between ±3 and ±5 percent (Beck-
perature. The partial pressure required to fill the neck man Instruments, Inc., Bull. 4101). For lower ranges of
(rm = r) is less than that required to fill the bottle humidity, the water in the gas will not reach equilibrium
(rm = rb). Thus, during sorption when the meniscus with the hydrated P205 layer. Where the "efficiency" is
reaches the neck, it fills spontaneously. However, dur- low, empirical calibration frequently is required (Taylor,
ing desorption, the pressure must fall below that re- 1956).
quired to empty the neck, resulting in significant hys- The time response for a sudden increase in water vapor
teresis. (Soaking procedures reduce this effect, possibly concentration is approximately 1 min to reach 63 percent
by permanently filling the smaller pores.) of the final indication. An equivalent decrease in humidity
28 Response times of different units varied from 5 to 80 corresponds to 2 mm.
sec for 63% response for increasing RH. For decreas- Disadvantages of the electrolysis system include the re-
ing RH, the response is about ¼ these values, 90% quirement for constant mass flow, constant temperature
response times are as long as 15 mm. (induces an error of 0.3 percent/degree) and the inter-
ference from gases that would interact with P 205 .
Some specific findings of other work follow.
1.1.3 Electrolysis
The electrolysis system consists of a gas mixture flowing Fraade (4/63)
continuously over a thin layer of partially hydrated phos- Device reported by Keidel in February 1956 at the
phorous pentoxide (P205 ), with the humidity in the gas Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and
absorbed by the P205 layer. A typical sensor is con- Applied Spectroscopy. It is based on Faraday's laws
structed with two platinum wires wound helically inside of coulometry.
an insulating tube and then coated with a layer of P 205. 1 The technique is licensed by E. I. du Pont and manu-
A DC voltage is applied to the two noble wires, de- factured by Consolidated Electrodynamics Corp., Beck-
composing the water into gaseous H2 and 02 . The DC man Instruments, and Manufacturers Engineering and
voltage must be much larger than the polarization voltage Equipment Corp.
(-2V). 2 Rapid acceptance of this technique has led to industrial
The current, I, during the time, t, will decompose a mass models with explosion-proof housing, rugged and sim-
of water of ple components.
(A-4) 31 Modular design permits signal transmission to a remote
Mwater = Alt
central location.
For a humid gas flowing continuously with a constant-
mass flow rate, Honnell, Hibbits (8/68)
Mrnix !VIS An evaluation of accuracy is conducted.
Vrn (A-5)
The sensor is constructed of a bifilar helical winding of
rhodium wire potted in plastic. Moisture is absorbed
the system will reach equilibrium when the rate of water by a P905 dessicant deposited between the windings.
absorbed by the P205 layer is equal to that decomposed by The hydrated P005 is electrolyzed with a 70-v DC
electrolysis. The current, I, is potential releasing H0 and 02.
1 The unit is the Electrolytic Hygrometer, Model 17901,
(A-6) manufactured by Beckman Instruments.
16 100 ml (gas) is sampled in 1 mm.
in which V 1, and V. are the partial volume of water vapor 19 Sensor responds to unbound water.
and gas. The constant, K, is 23 The sensitivity is 1 ppm.
 28

24 The range is 20-260 ppm. Meteorology Research, Inc. (9/65)

25 Accuracy is ±5% or 2 ppm, whichever is greater.
30 System provides continuous operation. An extension and conclusion of earlier work (Mac-
31 It is suitable for remote monitoring. Cready, 1962). Functional problems were significant.

Roth (8/66) 1.1.4 Thermal System

Description: This is an electrolysis system, but is used Although similar in appearance to a previously described
in a gravimetric fashion in that the sample is weighed, method, the thermal system operates on a different princi-
heated to volatize the moisture, and the resultant vapor ple and permits an absolute determination of humidity. The
is carried into an electrolytic cell by a stream of dry element consists of a tubular wick made from glass fibers
nitrogen. and impregnated with a hygroscopic salt (LiCl) insulated
Consolidated Electrodynamics; Manufacturers Engi- from a thin metal tube. Two silver wires are bifilar wound
neering. The former is a single-cell instrument; the around the wick and connected to an AC voltage source
latter, a dual cell. with some means for current limiting. The salt absorbs
21 Ammonia, amines, and alcohol are known to interfere. humidity from the surrounding air and becomes electrically
23 Lower limit of detection is 1 pg of water. conductive. The current passing through the LiCI gen-
24 1 ptg to 0.1 g of water. Materials with moisture of less erates heat and tends to evaporate humidity from it. An
than 10% are most suitable. equilibrium is soon reached when the layer neither gains
25 Calibration can be obtained with such standards as water nor loses water to the surrounding air. Equilibrium
sodium tartrate dihydrate. Calibration curves are not is reached at that temperature of the salt solution at which
necessary. the partial pressure of water over a saturated solution just
28 Response is practically instantaneous, but time is re- equals the ambient water vapor pressure. The temperature
quired to volatize the moisture. is measured by means of a resistance thermometer, therm-
29 10 to 30 min are required for measuring most materials. istor, or thermocouple, and should be in thermal contact
30 Intermittent operation. with the LiCl layer.
35 Can be used with any solid material, preferably granu- The vapor pressure of saturated LiCI solution at dif-
lar or powdered. ferent temperatures is accurately known from tables (Wex-
icr, Ri.iskin 1965); henre, the instrument needs no
Thacker (8/67) empirical calibration. The output can be calibrated in dew-
point temperature directly. The instrument can be used
I Solids Moisture Analyzer, Type 26-321A, made by over a range of relative humidities from about 15 to
Consolidated Electrodynamics Corp. 100 percent at temperatures of —30° to about 70°C. The
23 Lower limit of detection is 1Ø_7 g. regions of highest precision are between _120 and +34°C
and above 41°C dew point.
Barton, Maffei (10/68) The error of the instrument is on the order of ±2° to
3°F dew-point temperature. To reach 98 percent of the
Nuclear reactor gases are studied. equilibrium temperature requires about 2 to 4 mm. The
20 Residual conductivity (zero moisture) varies with
instrument is susceptible to wind speed and water droplets.
temperature. This is less significant at higher moisture Cell reconditioning is recommended every 90 to 100 days
levels.
(Hickes, 1947; Conover, 1950).
23 Performance is poor at less than 1 ppm.
A commercial instrument of this design is made by
Foxboro and Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co. for
Kreider (9/ 68) operation between 40° and 120°F ambient temperature.
Moisture in solid radioactive material is measured. Fraade (1963) listed the following interferences: sulfides,
1 Consolidated Electrodynamics Corp. ammonia, suspended ionic solids or vapors, acid vapors,
24 Range is 1 tg to 10 mg per sample. vapors of hygroscopic liquids such as glycerine or glycols,
25 Accuracy is 2% or ±20 lAg, whichever is greater reactive organic vapors such as ethylene oxide, alcohols, or
ketones.
(manufacturer's specifications).
A different heating approach is described by Byrne and
MacCready (9/62) Rose (1968). A saturated solution of LiCI in an absorbent
tissue between capacitor plates is heated with a 2-w 70-
A miniature breadboard model P 205 system was built MHz oscillator. The equilibrium temperature is a measure
and studied for use in Martian atmosphere. of RH. The operating range is from 1.3 to 30 mb vapor
2 Permits only zero moisture (i.e., dessicant effect). pressure. Byrne and Rose found no significant hysteresis.
4 Weight = 11 oz. Volume = 450 cc.
21 Appears to be somewhat sensitive to hydrogen, as 1.1.5 White Hydrocal
follows: P2O + XH2 --)- H2 0 + some compound of
hydrogen. Bouyoucos and Cook (1965) describe what they consider
25 Minimum detection limit is 0.5 ppm. to be the best hygrometer available. Stainless steel elec-
32 Power required is 0.5 w. trodes are cast in white hydrocal. This is a form of plaster
 29

of paris cement that sets hard, is pure, has low solubility, formed with evaporated gold electrodes thin enough to be
and has no added salts. This unit operates over a range of pervious to water vapor yet electrically conductive.
12 to 100 percent RH and is independent of temperature Charison and Buettner (1963, 1964) used a hygroscopic
liquid to improve the performance of this technique. The
between 2° and 32°C. When calibrated with saturated salt
solutions the resistance as a function of RH exhibits a very sensor consists of a porous plate capacitor through which
small hysteresis. Recalibration should not be necessary for air passes. Fluoropak granules covered with a thin layer
at least a year. The over-all accuracy of the unit is between of a hygroscopic liquid form the dielectric. The humidity
1 and 2 percent up to 75 percent RH, and between 2 and is described by the relative capacitive response:
3 percent from 75 to 100 percent RH. The design reflects AxC
the authors' previous experience in using resistance probes RH= (A-9)
ALC + 1
for soil moisture measurements.
in which A is the experimentally derived sensitivity co-
1.2 Dielectric Systems efficient approximately equal to 0.1 pF'. Liquids used are
carbowax, polyethylene glycol, glycerol, ethylene glycol,
1.2.1 Capacitive Transducers and triethlene glycol dimenthyl ether. The sensor is free of
hysteresis, and experimentally exhibits a 63 percent re-
The high dielectric constant of water (approximately 80)
sponse in 10 sec. This response time is theoretically given
suggests the use of capacitive methods for determining
water content of gases and solids. (Discussion of water by
content in solids appears in the capacitance section.) The ns
(A-b)
low concentration of water in air, even at saturation, causes =
a very small variation in capacitance. The dielectric con-
in which t063 = 63 percent response time;
stant of gases under normal conditions changes from
1.000247 for dry air at 45°C; for saturation it is 1.000593. n. = number of moles of hygroscopic solvent;
For such small capacitance changes, very complex equip- = gas phase mass transfer coefficient (mole sec-1
ment for readout is required. mb-1); and
Capacitive systems have been developed using two con- Pr = saturation vapor pressure of water at sensor
centric cylinders for the capacitor plates (Webb, Neuge- temperature.
bauer, 1954). The capacitance change in response to water
vapor variation causes a frequency variation of an oscilla- Many problems are evident with this system. The tem-
tor at about 2 MHz, indicated by the beat frequency perature coefficient is about 6 percent per degree Centi-
method. Dynamic time response is limited only by the grade. Interference occurs with ethanol, carbon monoxide,
time required for flushing the cell. The system is capable and other polar molecules. Irreversible damage may result
of detecting changes of 1 mg of water vapor per liter of from 03, NO2, NO, SO2 , or a RH of more than 50 percent.
air. Typical flow rates permit 50 percent of the final The accuracy of the measurement is 3 to 5 percent or
indication in 0.1 sec. about 0.1 mb in field tests with a precision of about 1 per-
Sensors of this type are usable in the range of 10 to cent. The minimum detectable level is 0.1 mb (-40°C
100 percent RH over a temperature range of —35° to 80°C frost point); the developers believe it is possible to reduce
(Nelson, 1965). A sensor with a typical capacitance of this to 10-3 mb, or better.
500 picofarads at 25°C will result in a capacitance varia-
tion of 11 percent for a RH change from 10 to 90 percent. 1.2.2 Microwave Re/ractometer
The dynamic response is 15 sec at 25°C, but increases to
1 hr at —35°C. The microwave system is an arrangement to determine the
These sensors show a substantial variation of capacitance resonant frequency of a cavity. The resonant frequency
with temperature as well as RH; however, it appears varies with the dielectric constant of the material in the
feasible to compensate with additional circuitry. cavity. If / is the resonance frequency of a cavity con-
Improvements in the capacitive method have resulted taining a reference gas (dielectric constant t0) and /1 is the
from the work of Nelson and Amdur (1965). The main resonance frequency of the cavity with the gas to be
disadvantage of this technique is the relatively small change measured, then
in capacitance of the sensor with a change in humidity.
One way to increase this capacitance change is to displace ;:=: 7: (A-1 1)
. (fl)2
the air with a material that will pick up an increased
amount of water. Some desirable qualities of the dielectric The quantity € is the complex dielectric constant of the
material are: (1) low water absorption (<½ percent at form € = A + JB; however, experiments have shown the
100 percent RH), (2) high permeability to water vapor, loss factor for gases and water vapor may be neglected in
(3) low permeability to contaminants, (4) good mechani- the region 1010 Hz (Sargent, 1955).
cal strength, (5) high bulk resistivity, and (6) stability with A frequency modulator shifts the Klystron frequency in
wide ranges of temperature and humidity. such a fashion that one cavity will resonate before the
Such a capacitive transducer is constructed with a thin other cavity if the gases in the two cavities have different
plastic film of acetal resin, which is a crystalline form of dielectric constants. The resonance maximum at the de-
highly polymerized formaldehyde. The capacitor plates are tector will be displaced in time by an amount that is pro-
30

portional to the difference between the resonant frequen- 1.4 Optics

cies of the cavities. The gas temperature and pressure in
the cavity remain constant. 1.4.1 Emission
At an operating frequency of 1010 Hz the difference in Potential methods for analyzing water content of moon
resonance frequency is 0.27 MHz for one cavity filled with materials were studied by van Tassel and Salisbury (1964).
dry air and another filled with air plus a water vapor Remote sensing methods considered were radio waves,
pressure of 100 mb. infrared (IR), visible, ultraviolet, and X-radiation. JR
Response time is determined by the flushing time of the emission was considered to be the least ambiguous. If
cavities. particles are micron sized, the identifying spectral structure
The wide range, accuracy, and sensitivity of this tech- is lost. Particles greater than 15 (or the wavelength of
nique makes it superior to all other systems. Electronic the JR source used) produce a diagnostic spectrum.
and material specifications, however, are stringent (Birn- No advantage for this technique is seen at this time.
baum, Kryder, Lyons, 1951; Birnbaum, Chatterje, 1952;
Bussey, Birnbaum, 1953).
1.4.2 Absorption and Transmission
A microwave refractometer of different construction is
described elsewhere (Cram, 1948, 1950; Cram, Deame, The existence of optical absorption bands and transmis-
1952). sion windows in the JR region provides a specific and
Several types of double tuned cavities are discussed by accurate means of measuring humidity. Wood (1958)
McGavin and Vetter (1965). Response is a function of designed an optical instrument with - a 12-in, absorption
pressure, temperature, and humidity. Over-all accuracy of path and germanium narrow-band filters to compare the
a laboratory model is 2 percent absolute humidity. transmission at 2.54 g and 2.60 u. The ratio of -the ampli-
Brown and Billeter (1967) estimated the feasibility for tudes at the two frequencies is a function of water vapor
three methods of monitoring trace moisture in reactor concentration. A rotating disk that alternately passes each
coolant gases such as helium: (1) frequency shift of a wavelength is installed in front of a lead sulfide detector.
resonant cavity (dielectric constant change), (2) phase This technique is similar to a U.S. Weather Bureau rotating
shift in a waveguide (dielectric), (3) attenuation in a section filter.
waveguide. The third method requires a long path Fractional absorption (A) is given by
(0.1 dB km-' at 22 GHz). The first two exhibit de-
creasing sensitivity with temperature. A = CW°-5 (P + P) ° • 23 (A-12)
The microwave refractometer is a very accurate tech- in which
nique for measuring RH if the temperature is controlled W = water vapor concentration;
accurately. However, it does not appear to be easily P = total gas pressure; and
adaptable to the measurement of moisture in most highway p = water vapor pressure.
components.
At concentrations below 0.2 g m 1, variations of 1 mg
1.3 Piezoelectrjc Sorption m 3 (1 ppm) can be detected. The 95 percent response
time is less than 5 sec.
In this method the sensing element is a quartz crystal
Accuracy of the system is ±0.5°F (dew point at 32°F),
coated with a hygroscopic material. The resonant fre-
±1°F (dew point at —20°F), and ±2°F (dew point at
quency of such a crystal depends on the crystal mass (King, —50°F).
1964). The -mass (and, hence, resonant frequency)
Brenden, Coleman, and Moore (1967) used a similar
changes with the adsorption of moisture. A typical sensi- technique but compared absorption at 2.55 ju and 2.3 /L.
tivity factor is about 1 Hz per A thickness of added
material. This matches the best lead sulfide response, but over-all
accuracy was not improved.
To date, the technique has not been applied to highway
Salkowski (1966) used JR absorption at 2.8 p. to mea-
engineering problems. It has the disadvantages characteris-
sure moisture in jet fuel and residual fuel.
tic of other hygrometric methods. The Model 510 Moisture
The optical-acoustic gas detection method has been de-
Analyzer (E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.) operates on
signed for water vapor (Mikhaylenko, 1966). In this
this principle to measure moisture in gases. Two crystals
method the radiant energy of an JR source is absorbed in
are alternately exposed to sample air and dry air. The
a sample cell and a reference cell. Expansion caused by the
frequency difference between the two is indicated on the
absorption of this energy provides the signal for the irstru-
analyzer scale in parts per million (ppm) water vapor by
ment output. The response time is about 20 sec.
volume.
Jnterference by CO, and other gases normally is about
The range of the instrument described is from 1 to
25,000 ppm (V/V). ±0.] percent of range. The maximum range is 15 to
100 percent. Over-all accuracy is ±2.5 percent of range,
The accuracy is ±5% of full scale. The lowest range with hysteresis accounting for ±1 percent.
is 0 to 5 ppm.
Other than those between 2.5 p and 3.0 i, absorption
Precision and accuracy remain stable up to 18 mo.
bands of water that have been used are near 1.87 , 1.37 a,
Although applicable to flowing gases, the method would
and 1.12 p. These shorter wavelengths have weaker ab-
require extensive modification before it could be used for
moisture in solids. sorption bands and sometimes are used to analyze moisture
in solids (see technique 6.2.4).
 31

1.5 Dimensionally Varying Elements instrument (Wexier, Ruskin, 1965). Commercially pro-
duced instruments of this type may be the most accurate
Engineers have long been aware of the variation in size of
hygrometers currently available. However, the slow re-
certain materials as the humidity changes. The practicality
sponse necessitated by the thermal characteristics of Peltier
of using this phenomenon in hnnfidity measurement is evi-
coolers limits their application to relatively static situations.
denced by its wide use in industry (Fraade, 1963). Some
Such instruments may be useful for calibration of faster-
of its desirable features are easy calibration, little manual
responding sensors.
know-how required, and easy recording of results. It is
Commercial instruments are produced by Illinois Test-
characterized by poor accuracy and a host of other diffi-
ing Laboratories, Compu Dyne Corp., and Technology/
culties, but it performs well where these deficiencies can be
Versatronics. Interference may be caused by condensable
tolerated.
vapor such as hydrocarbons (Fraade, 1963).
Monfore (1963) developed a system for determining
In the Technology/Versatronics (1968) instrument a
moisture in concrete based on the expansion of a dacron
thermoelectric cooler is used and a quartz crystal serves
thread monitored by a wire strain gauge. The accuracy
as an internal reflector that is affected by condensation on
was found to be ±2 percent of the calibration value. The
its surface. The accuracy of this instrument is about 0.5°F
response time was less than 5 mm.
dew point.
A special need exists for a small probe for measuring
Units designed for smallness and portability include one
moisture condition in concrete specimens that are to be
using alpha radiation attenuation by a condensing film at
fire tested, because moisture content and distribution affect
the dew point (Brousaides, Morrissey, 1967), and another
the test results for fire resistance. The Monfore type was
that uses a small jet of freon from a 1-lb tank to cool the
found to be better than the Dunmore type (LiCI) for this
condensation mirror. The latter unit weighs 1,800 g and
application (Abrams, Monfore, 1965). Narrow-range
Dunmore types require 10 elements to cover the range operates for only 1 hr.
The most likely candidate for measuring RH in a cavity
between 2 and 99 percent RH. A copper wire in series
is a small unit designed for space application by Cambridge
with the wire gives sufficient thermal compensation between
Systems (1966). It weighs 2 lb 4 oz. The sensor is 1 in.
70° and 80°F. A two-point calibration (0 and 100 per-
in diameter and 3 in. long; the control unit is 6 X 2 X
cent) requires about 20 mm. Humidity wells are required
2.5 in., including telemetry circuitry. Other specifications
for concrete. Little difference is noted between %2- and
are:
1-in.-diameter wells. The units have a long life and are
reusable in many samples. Linearity ....... 1.2°F.
Dimensional variation adapts readily to vibrating wire Range .........40° to 100°F dew point or greater.
strain gauges. A vibrating wire "telehygrometer" is de- Accuracy ......±1°F dew point.
scribed by de Castro (1962). Using 16-cm white oak and Response time . <10 sec.
scotch pine strips as sensing elements, an accuracy of Power ......... <3w(28vDC).
±2 percent RH is obtained over the range of 5 to 27 per-
cent. The maximum operating range is a function of soil 1.7 Psychrometry
type. Hysteresis of up to 10 percent RH is noted.
This method should be adaptable to remote monitoring Psychrometric instruments form another major grouping of
of RH in porous cavities. The apparent need is for sensing hygrometers. All such instruments depend on the cooling
materials that are compatible with the highway component of a wetted thermometer and the subsequent temperature
environment as well as strain sensing devices. Ceramic difference between the "wet bulb" and the "dry bulb" of
materials are potentially useful, but their response to the temperature sensor. Data usually are reduced by the
moisture variation normally is very long (Cole, Birtwistle, use of the psychrometric formula or a set of tables based
1969). on this formula. Although this principle and its theories
The use of very thin materials and miniature strain have been known more than 250 years, definitive papers
gauges could mhimize this defieiency. on the sensitivity and time response of the psychrometer
were still being presented in the 1930's. The chief advan-
1.6 Dew Point
tage of the psychrometer is its simplicity. If the ambient
Dew or frost point hygrometers depend on the measure- air has a velocity of more than 3 m sec 1, two thermome-
ment of temperature and are relatively simple and in- ters, one covered with a wet wick, are all that is needed. If
expensive devices. The temperature at which dew or frost wind is nonexistent, aspiration must be provided either by
appears on the surface of a cooled object denotes the point a fan or by moving the wet bulb through the air, as with
at which the RH at the surface is 100 percent. This tem- the sling psychrometer (Assman, 1892). Details of the
perature thus may be related to the partial pressure of theory for psychrometric methods are found in Arnold
water in the sample gas via the known saturation vapor (1933), Spilhaus (1937), and Wexier, Ruskin (1965).
pressure of water or ice. Many different methods of cool- Difficulties leading to erroneous readings arise when the
ing a surface and of detecting the formation of condensa- RH is low and the wet bulb depression is large. Further
tion have been used. Modern improvements in these meth- problems arise with the response time with wet bulb
ods, including the use of Peltier devices for cooling and temperatures of less than 0°C.
photometric detection of condensation, have both added to Fraade (1963) describes an instrument manufactured by
the cost of the device and afforded an accurate and useful Mine Safety Appliances Company. The technique is based
32

on the wet-dry principle. Materials such as cotton and veloped by Bouyoucos and Mick (1948) relies on the
wool absorb; their temperature rises. Upon desorption, change Of resistivity of.-the soil With changes in moisture
their temperature falls. Alternate exposure to sample gas content. Two electrodes covered with nylon, fiberglass
followed by dry gas results in 'a fluctuation in temperature fabric, or plaster of paris are buried in the soil and allowed
that is related to the RH of the sample gas. Each cycle to reach equilibrium before the measurement is made. This
requires about 4 mm. type of measurement is most accurate at very low moisture
The requirement of a flowing gas prevents the use of this content. It has the disadvantage of a long response time to
technique in solids. reach equilibrium.
Some typical examples of electrode configurations are
2.0 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
(1) sample cells for loose material, (2) clamps for boards,
The resistance of a material, its specific conductive ca- rollers or parallel plates for moving sheet material,
pacity, and its dielectric losses vary with the amount of probes for plunging into loose material, (5) sword
moisture it contains. An instrument for measuring one of electrodes for insertion between stacked sheets, (6) needle
these quantities thus can be calibrated in terms of moisture electrodes for penetrating wood or textile fiber, and (6)
content. surface electrodes for pressing against flat surfaces (Geary,
Some of the earliest work of importance in this area was 1956).
done by Whitney et al. (1897) in soil and Spencer (1938) The resistivity measurements are related to the free water
in concrete. The use of gypsum absorbent blocks has re- content (Monfore, 1968), although some authors believe
sulted from many difficulties in making direct contact, salt partially bound water also plays a role (Roth, 1966).
interference, and similar problems (Bouyoucos, 1940).
Other types of absorbents used are nylon and gypsum, 2.1.1 Interference
fiberglass and gypsum (Bourget, 1958), aluminous cement
Even in the early work of Whitney et al. (1897) the soil
(Croney et al., 1952), and portland cement mortar (Mer-
resistivity was found to depend on soil type and the pres-
tin, 1965). Four-point electrical probes have been used
ence of ionized salts. This is an inherent problem with the
(McCorkle, 1931, and Neto, 1962) to overcome electrode
method, because the conductivity of the sample or sensor
contact problems.
material results from impurities and soluble components in
Instrument characteristics that have received most of the
the material that are dissolved in the water. The interpre-
attention in application and evaluation studies are response
tation of results obtained using these methods must recog-
time, size, interference, sensitivity, and accuracy. The ad-
nize the limitations imposed by the basic source of the
vantages of the method generally are considered to be the changes in resistivity of moist materials.
small size, simplicity of operation, and rapid response. The
The variable contact problem can be partially overcome
disadvantages are primarily those characteristics that are
by using four electrodes. McCorkle (1931) placed his
reflected in the relatively poor accuracy of the method.
electrodes in a line about 2 ft apart. The resistances were
In spite of the problems cited, Mertin (1965) concluded
then measured as shown in Figure A-2, in which K de-
that electrical conductivity methods most nearly satisfied
pends on probe length and distance between probes.
four important requirements for measuring moisture in
Smaller electrodes have been used. The portable hand
concrete: (1) nondestructive, (2) telemetering, (3) con-
unit of Szuk (1965) attempted to achieve reproducibility
tinuous measuring for weeks or months, and (4) a large
in the contact pressure applied for each measurement. This
number of measuring points.
unit and others require calibration for each type of soil or
2.1 Sample Resistivity material.
Resistivity measurements can be made by direct contact of
2.1.2 Sensitivity
the electrodes with the material of concern. With this
principle, a calibration must first be obtained for the The sensitivity of the method is relatively high, except near
specific material. The electrical resistance method de- saturation. Neto (1962) found this to be true also with the
four-point probe.

2.1.3 Accuracy
With a rather limited variation in type of material the
k R2 >R*
accuracy is usually adequate. Kondo and Norose (1962)
made surface measurements on mortar and plaster with an
estimated standard deviation of less than 1 percent, using
conducting rubber electrodes with a constant contact pres-
R5H sure. The errors in McCorkle's data appear to be about
2 percent (dry).
R5 + R2 - R6 - R1 Szuk (1962) made moisture measurements on sand and
R= gravel samples by adding a potassium chloride solution.
S K This masked the effect of electrolytes dissolved out of the
Figure A-2. Measurement of re- sample, but the effect of particle size remained significant.
sistances. His accuracy was about 0.5 percent.
 33

2.1.4 Other Applications 2.2.1 Portability

Szuk observed a significant feature with concrete in the Salaruddin and Khasbardar (1967) describe a portable
form of an inflection point that occurs in the resistance unit. Most applications take the form of inserted probes
proflic as the w/c ratio gradually changes with the addition or semi-permanent sensor installation.
of water. This corresponds to the point at which all parti-
cle surfaces are wet, and coincides with the maximum 2.2.2 Reliability
crushing strength of the concrete. This inflection point is Clean procedures in preparing gypsum improve reliability
also useful in indicating the wetting point of various (Nielsen, 1967) .. Soil moisture blocks are more dependable
aggregates. at low moisture content below field capacity than at higher
Roth (1966) describes an instrument for measuring moisture content (Johnson, 1962).
moisture in sheet materials manufactured by several com-
panies (Electronic Automation Systems, Mt. Hope Ma-
2.2.3 Temperature Effects
chine Co., Hartley Controls Corp.). The method is a
nondestructive surface measurement in which the instru- These units are temperature-sensitive, but it is not their
ment continually balances the resistance and capacitance major cause of error (Taylor, 1955; Bourget et al., 1958).
of the test material, using two well-balanced servo-loops. A 3.5 percent change in resistance per degree Centigrade
Percentage of moisture is proportional to the position of occurs in the portable unit mentioned previously.
the resistance balancing loop. Compensation is provided
for other materials that contribute to the conductivity of 2.2.4 interference
the sample. The transfer function is a direct exponential
relationship with percentage of moisture in the low mois- All units are sensitive to salts (Bourget et al., 1958). NaCl
ture range. The over-all range is 3 to 50 percent (dry). content greater than 0.01 N (1,800 ppm) causes significant
An accuracy of ±0.5 percent is claimed. The response deviation (Hancox, Walker, 1966). Fiberglass units are
time of the system is limited only by electrical components more sensitive to salts than are gypsum units (Taylor,
so that it is suitable for rapid measurement and control 1955).
processes.
2.2.5 Sensitivity
2.2 Sensor Resistivity An S-shaped response curve is common with the sensitivity
The fundamental difference between sensor resistivity being low at the higher moisture content (Building Re-
methods and sample resistivity methods lies in the require- search Station, Watford, 1962; Johnson, 1962). The sen-
ment that the sensor reach moisture equilibrium with the sors of Hancox and Walker (1966) exhibited a log-log
sample. Thus, the sensor resistance depends on (1) the relation between resistance and moisture.
relative attraction of the soil and the matrix material R = K(c(A) (A-14)
(sensor) for moisture, (2) the amount of moisture pres-
ent, (3) the rate that water transfer can be made from one in which
material to the other, and (4) the electrical conductivity c = ratio of moisture content to the value at saturation;
of the components (moisture, solution, soil) within the and
electrical influence of the electrodes. = porosity.
The most common sensor materials that are used for soil
and concrete are gypsum (plaster of paris), nylon-gypsum, Typical values for the constants are
fiberglass-gypsum, and resin-treated gypsum. A relation- K = (3.2 ±0.2) X 10
ship exists between this technique and the tensiometric and n= 1.3 ±0.05
hygrometric techniques. The difference lies in the equi-
librium mechanism. Closs (1954) developed a calibration These sensors were formed as plaster cylinders 5 cm long
technique for the resistance block and the soil moisture and 0.5 to 1 cm in diameter, with conducting silver point at
tension based on the relation between the freezing point each end as the electrodes.
depression (sr) due to pressure on the water. The re-
sistance is measured at the freezing point and the moisture 2.2.6 Range
tension is given by Fiberglass blocks normally have a greater range than gyp-
pF = 4.097 + log ii (A-1 3) sum. Salaruddin and Khasbardar (1967) used two sensing
elements: (1) a combination of fiberglass and gypsum for
Nielsen (1967) used a gypsum cell to relate shrinkage and the high moisture range, and (2) gypsum for the low
creep to moisture content in concrete. Capacitance and moisture range. The resistance changes from about 500
phase difference at 1 KHz were calibrated with RH. Care ohms to 105 ohms for the normal range of gypsum blocks.
must be taken in the comparison of results obtained by the
different methods, however, because vapor transport and 2.2.7 Accuracy
equilibrium may be entirely different from total moisture
transport between two materials. Moisture retention re- Bouyoucos (1961) found an increase in accuracy and
lationships vary between materials and between soils. sensitivity by using 80 parts of water to 100 parts of
34

gypsum. This ratio gives increased pore space, with some herent source of error. Other inherent errors are variations
sacrifice of stability. The variation between measurements in particle size, packing density, and ionized salts.
by different units made by Hancox and Walker was A comprehensive treatment of the method appears in
<± 1.5 percent. The best accuracy claimed by the de- Wexler (1965). Roth (1966) compared the method with
velopers of soil moisture blocks is 1 percent. other methods suitable for application in industry. Mon-
The data taken at the Building Research Station, Watford fore (1970) and Geary (1956) reviewed its application in
(1962), with different types of limestone and brick indi- highway engineering.
cated that 90 percent of the data were within ±2 percent
(dry). 3.1 Sample Capacitance
Penner (1962) contends that their accuracy is good
enough for irrigation purposes, but not good enough for Many relatively inexpensive instruments have been de-
most other applications. signed and used to measure the moisture of solids, based
Ashcroft and Taylor (1953) used plaster resistance on the sample capacitance method. They are primarily
blocks to measure moisture tension in 32 plots, with 8 low-frequency designs, and have been successful only when
different locations in each plot at depths of 6, 12, 18 and the variability of nonwater components was small, or when
24 in. The variability for locations and plots was much high accuracy was less important than speed and low cost.
greater than the variability for the resistance blocks. This An instrument operating in the vhf range offers much
justified their use, even though the coefficients of variability superior performance but is inherently larger, more compli-
were 6 to 12 percent. Because block data are much faster cated, and more expensive. One such instrument has been
than sampling data, the number of measurements can be designed by Thomas (1966), with the sensing element in
increased to gain a reduction in the location variability the form of a long, slender probe to be inserted in the
coefficient. sample. The sensitivity of the probe was improved by
Relating accuracy and range, Bourget et al. (1958) con- designing electrodes with a large fringing field. Other
cluded that gypsum is best above 0.3 atm tension. Nylon- problems normally associated with capacitance methods
gypsum is best below 0.3 atm tension. Fiberglass-gypsum (such as temperature dependence and ionized salt inter-
with big electrodes is the best compromise from 0 to ference) contribute their effect through the imaginary com-
15 atm tension. ponent of the complex dielectric constant. By operating
above 30 MHz these effects were significantly reduced. A
2.2.8 Stability Wayne-Kerr (B 801) vhf admittance bridge was used to
measure the capacitance in the prototype instrument. Low
Nylon, fiberglass, and resin treatment are added to gypsum or moderately priced meter-type instruments were not com-
to stabilize its use for long periods of time. This is es- mercially available at that time, but Watson indicated that
pecially true for the more sensitive blocks of Bouyoucos development work to meet this need was being conducted
(1961). Several years' stability of calibration has been in his laboratory. Test results with this instrument were
claimed in some cases. excellent using a wide variety of soils. A functional rela-
tion between the volume fraction (0) of water in soils and
2.2.9 Precision the charge of capacitance (SC) when the probe was in-
Taylor (1955) has compared the precision of several serted was determined together with the standard error,
S(0), in a given measurement (Ok). These functions are:
methods. He found that two resistance measurements or
two neutron measurements are equivalent to one gravi- 0=0.245(C-2.6) 0<0<0.1 (A-is)
metric determination. To detect a mean difference between
groups of less than 10 percent requires 8 resistance, 5 S(0) = 0.07 0k (A-16)
neutron, and 4 gravimetric measurements. 0 = 0.38 log(C - 0.21) 0.045 <0 < 0.45 (A-17)

2.2.10 Speed of Measurement S(Ok ) < 0.005 (A-18)

From the foregoing work, 80 to 100 resistance measure- Lower-frequency methods are less accurate. Leach and
ments equal 20 neutron measurements and I gravimetric Neilson (1960) designed a one-terminal capacitance probe
measurement. to measure moisture in bales of jute.
Gagne and Outwater (1961, 1965) designed a small
3.0 CAPACITANCE TECHNIQUES portable surface prototype for measuring moisture in lami-
nated plastic rocket cases. Permittivity and dissipation fac-
The measurement of capacitance is one of the simplest, tors were measured with a balanced bridge powered by a
most rapid, and least expensive methods for determining stable crystal-controlled oscillator at 460 Hz. The dimen-
soil moisture. This is because the dielectric constant for sions were 51/4 X 7 X 31/2 in. A 9-v dry cell operated the
most soils is about 2.6, whereas the dielectric constant for instrument intermittently for more than 100 hr.
free water between 15° and 35°C, within the frequency A surface unit consisting of two stainless steel plates 1 in.
range of 105 to 1011 Hz, is about 80. Fundamentally the wide and 1 in. apart, operating at 1 KHz, was used by
method involves the measurement of the dielectric constant de Plater (1955). Penetration was determined to be about
of the material between two electrodes. Thus, variation in ½ in. Response time was about ½ mm. A separate cali-
the dielectric constant of nonwater components is an in- bration was required for significantly different soils.
 35

Hancox (1966) and Bell et al. (1963) also noted the Another method consists of the use of a gamma-ray gauge
need for different calibration curves and dissolved salt for the measurement of density and the subsequent use of
interference. Except for these effects, Bell et al. determined calibration curves for various densities. Use of a dual
an accuracy of 0.25 percent below 6 percent total moisture gauge where each detector has a different sensitivity to
(dry) in concrete. composition is another possible way to eliminate the effect
Roth (1966) evaluated the method for measuring mois- of variable amounts of thermal neutron absorbers.
ture in granular and sheet materials in industry. Instru- Recent theoretical studies on neutron gauge design have
ments manufactured by Foxboro Co., James Hunter Ma- been conducted by Gemmell, McGregor, and Moss (1966),
chines Co., Forte Engineering Corp., and Moisture Register ølgaard and Haahr (1967), Gardner and Roberts (1967),
Company were identified. The minimum detectable limit of Nagy and Vertes (1968), McDougall, Dunn, and Gardner
this group of instruments was 2 percent (dry). The range (1969), Lippold, Carnesale, and Gardner (1969), and
of measurement was 2 to 25 percent (dry). The precision ølgaard (1969). These studies used multigroup theory and
was estimated to be ±2 percent. Calibration for each ma- Monte Carlo methods to estimate the effects of the inter-
terial was required. One of their desirable attributes was ferences discussed previously. The results in some cases
their almost instantaneous response. were used to optimize the gauge design with respect to
minimizing interference effects.
3.2 Sensor Capacitance The results of a survey by the American Society of Civil
It is somewhat difficult to distinguish sensor capacitance Engineers (Roberts, Waananen, 1964) indicate that about
from the capacitance hygrometer methods or the electrical 80 gL
tensiometer methods. It is easy to see how the problems iits are used to obtain data for construction. The survey
encountered in the sample capacitance method are com- also indicated that gauges
pounded with the sensor technique. In addition to the Research studies in
problems of relating the capacitance of the sensor material recent years have shown a similar distribution of emphasis.
to the moisture in the sensor, the interface between the Comparative evaluation studies have led to the conclu-
sensor and the sample introduces variability into the mea- sion that the previously mentioned interferences lead to
surement problem. This is related to quality of contact, errors in moisture measurement in soils (sometimes pro-
physical characteristics of sensor and sample surfaces, hibitive errors), but the errors are commonly less than
temperature, and other moisture transport parameters. those for any other method (Stewart, Taylor, 1957; John-
Some of the early work was done with plaster of paris son, 1962; Wofford, 1964; Ballard, Gardner, 1965; Waters,
blocks, similar to the resistance-type measurements. The 1965; Gardner, Roberts, 1967; Hughes, Anday, 1967,
accuracy appears to be sufficient in agriculture for deter- 1970). Over-all, the nuclear method appears to be the
mining moisture content of soil between the permanent best method for measurement of moisture in a 3- to 4-in.
wilting percentage and the moisture equivalent points surfceAayer. The relatively high cost has been a deterrent
(Anderson and Edlefsen, 1942). Sufficient accuracy, how- to its use in some cases; but, unlike with some commercial
eyer, has not been demonstrated for highway engineering instruments, the cost of nuclear gauges has decreased for
measurements of moisture content. As indicated in the several years to around $3,000 to $4,000. This is not a
discussion of hygrometric techniques and tensiometric prohibitive cost for an instrument that is to be used on a
methods, there may be other uses where quantities other routine daily basis.
than the free water content are important. Extensive material was reviewed in the literature. To
present as much of it as possible, an abbreviated format is
4.0 NUCLEAR METHODS used that is similar to the abstracting notes that were taken
4.1 Neutron Scattering
during the literature review. The first entry is the author
and the date (month/year) of publication. The numbers
Since the pioneering *ork of Beicher, Cuykendall, and on the left represent the 35 performance criteria that
Sack (1950) much work has been devoted to a better formed the basis of the review and evaluation (Table A-i).
understanding of the interaction between neutrons and the The order is chronological.
soil-water-detector system. The technique depends on the
ability of hydrogen in water to slow down fast neutrons.
The form of the hydrogen cannot be distinguished by this Gardner, Kirkham (5/52)
method. The measurement interferences existing in pres-
Gives theory of methods. Tabulates scattering co-
ently used commercial gauges consist of sensitivity to:
efficients of a few elements.
(1) the total sample density, (2) sample composition
16 Shows effective range for water of —12 in.
(particularly the presence of thermal neutron absorbers,
such as chlorine and boron, and of other moderators, such
as hydrogenous material), (3) surface roughness, and Sharpe (3/53)
(4) sample homogeneity. These measurement interferences
23 D(cm) —8 1 3 1 5 1 10
can be minimized by several methods. One such method S/N 3.5 5 8 6
consists of the use of the new He-filled proportional count-
ers to detect epithermal neutrons that are relatively in- Variation of source to base of counter dimensions indi-
sensitive to the presence of thermal neutron absorbers. cates best discrimination at 5 cm. B'°F countr length
36

is 15 cm. (No indication of effect of difference in CR.) Marias, de V. Smit (2/58)

Count rate (8% water) On five different soils, three different calibration curves
S/N =
Count rate (dry sand) were determined to be significantly different.
25 The resulting error ranged as high as 2 pcf around
Stone, Kirkham, Read (10/55)
15 pcf moisture content.
Operation of depth units limited to depths of less than
9 in.
13 Parts cost about $750. Holmes, Turner (3/58)
15 45 lb. A linear response curve is obtained up to 100% mois-
25 Accurate within the standard deviation of gravimetric ture. A polyethylene access tube is used. Resolving
determinations. time correction was made.
16 R=2OcmatO.2g/cc 'h
Holmes (3/56) =llcmatl.Og/cc ) vertical
Reviews theory. The mean distance between source
and detector must be determined. Davidson, Nielsen, Perrier (5/59)
21 Absorber depression shown with NaCl solution.
25 Gets a linear calibration curve up to 30% (Vol) for 1 Nuclear Chicago
loam, clay, and sand. 20 5% decrease in count going from —20° to 30°C. Count
went to zero between 32° and 46°C.
van Bavel, Underwood, Swanson (7/56)
Experimental surface and depth probes are evaluated. Holmes, Jenkinson (59)
22 Resolution is not better than 25 cm. The radius of
21 100 ppm boron reduces slope by 10%.
influence is a function
Bound water of clays and chemical absorbers tend to
R=15'yi00/W cm cancel.
23 For linear response, detector should not extend more
than 17 cm from source (can turn up or down).
25 0.6% (Vol) below 30% (Vol) moisture content for a Stone, Shaw, Kirkham (6/60)
5-cm-diameter hole in a 60-cm layer. 25 Coefficient of variation equals standard deviation di-
vided by the mean (C=s/m).
Geary (56) For moisture content which yields about 17,000 counts,
21 Hydrogenous material will give an effective moisture C <1%.
reading. Materials in the sample having a high absorp- 27 Where 7 gravimetric measuring sites are required, only
tion cross-section will reduce the moisture reading. The 3 nuclear sites would be required.
slow neutron count is relaled primarily to the weight of
water per unit volume. To convert to percentage mois- Templeman ( 5/61)
ture by weight it is necessary to know the density of the
material. Fifteen references are given. 13 Economical as measured by costs per determination.
1 system is equivalent to a 5-man crew.
Stewart, Taylor (2/57) 16 0.5 ft3.
25 Equal to or better than other techniques.
25 A 2-year field study is reported. Correlation coefficient
Minimizes human error.
at 15-cm depth was 0.76. Correlation coefficient at 26 0.4 pcf with 95% confidence in 1 mm.
depths from 30 to 122 cm was 0.95 to 0.98. For depths
29 2-3 mm.
between 30 and 125 cm, variation is 7 to 9% of pre-
5-to-1 time saving in fine-grain materials.
dicted regression value. Results are better for measure-
ments at same depth. 15-to-1 time saving in base-course materials.
Plaster resistance blocks were studied at the same time
and gave a coefficient of variability of 15% of mean van Bavel, Nielsen, Davidson (10/61)
value. This method is more accurate for measuring
tension at more than 1 attn. Below 1 atm the tensi- End-source and center-source designs were compared
ometer is most reliable, but errors are introduced in and absorber solutions were studied as standards.
converting moisture. 1 Nuclear Chicago, Troxler.
Over-all, the nuclear method is most accurate. 16 Effects noted from soil within cylindrical volume up to
3 ft. There is a noticeable difference between 3 and
Pawlin, Spinks (3/57) 4 ft.
23 Response or calibration curve turns up for short, and
Used neutron gauge on concrete. Experimented with turns down for long counters. Troxler unit is approxi-
steel reflector for surface gauge. mately linear and intermediate in length. End-source
25 Concrete and sand-sugar calibration curve indicated system has two- to threefold greater efficiency than
error of less than 0.02 gm cm-3. center source.
 37

van Bavel (12/61) E= VK(P/ST)

16 Down to 15 cm. in which
23 400 cpm per 1% (Vol). K = number of standard deviations;
25 Large errors result from stratification or irregular = slope of the calibration curve in cpm/P1,; and
surface. T = sampling time.
27 1% (Vol).
29 5 mm. He contends that earlier comparisons of end-vs-center
locations did not take into consideration the much
larger counting tubes in the end-source geometry.
Burn (6/62)
Discusses in much detail the procedures and require- B. G. Richards (8/63)
ments for artificial standards for calibration purposes.
25 Australian soils with high clay content can result in
errors of ±7% gravimetric moisture. An Australian-
Smith, Weber, Campbell (10/62) made instrument was judged inadequate for subgrade
1 Nuclear Chicago, Hidrodensimeter. moisture investigations.
20 Scaler inoperative below 32°F; operable up to 140°F.
25 Standard error = 0.8 pcf. Lawless, Macgillivray, Nixon (9/63)
26 Spread of 2 to 4 pcf over 3 months, 1 pcf day to day.
27 Thin layer of sand less than M6 in. improves per- Determined gauge response at interfaces (air-soil; wet
formance. soil-dry soil).
34 Much time spent in maintenance. 1 Troxler, Nuclear Chicago.
23 End source probe is 1½ to 2 times as efficient in terms
of cpm/mC. This advantage decreases at higher mois-
Johnson (62)
ture contents.
Energy loss is large when neutrons collide with low- 25 1. Near soil surface, corrections must be applied to
atomic-weight atoms. The hydrogen in water is the depth probes; this effect extends as deep as 18 in. for
most effective of all elements. dry soil.
Summary: Only methods in common use are gravi- 2. Gauges underestimate moisture in stratified profiles
metric, electrical resistance, tensiometric, radioactive. (or where moisture gradients occur).
The ideal method has yet to be developed. The gravi-
metric method requires less experience than indirect Burn (3/64)
methods and also requires more effort under some con-
ditions. Indirect methods are most desirable if continu- Leda clay in the valleys of Ottawa and St. Lawrence
ous or frequent measurements are necessary. Radio- Rivers gives a depression of slow-neutron counting rate
active methods probably are the best in this case, but of 11 %; scintillation nuclear detector was used. A cali-
are more expensive. bration curve is included using different calibration
16 The soil volume measured in this manner is bulb-shaped materials.
and has a radius of 6-15 in., depending on moisture 21 4% reduction in count for 2% dry weight of potassium
content and soil density. at 50% moisture content.
25 With calibration with type of soil to be tested, the 25 ±0.5 lb/cu ft.
accuracy is within 1-2% volume. Readings close to the 26 Standard deviation of 3 sets of profiles for one day are
surface are affected by the position of the probe. Near 0.18 lb/cu ft.
the air-surface interface the count is lower than at
greater depth. Wofford (3/64)
Time errors may be minimized by a standard count
cycle of 2 mm. 16 30 times sand-cone test volume.
Access tubes must be kept free of excess moisture. 24 Normal operation between 2-30 pcf.
33 Calibration is required for the type and size of casing 25 Fewer inherent errors than sand cone.
used for each installation. 25 3 pcf at 4 in. in embankment material.
The radiation hazard is minimized by proper handling. 4 pcf at 6 in. in stone base courses.
The method is time-consuming if calibration time is 33 A minimum of 10 tests required.
included. Equipment is heavy and delicate; equipment
failures are likely. Re-calibration is required after re- Preiss, Grant (8/64)
pairs. Repairs may require services of an electronic
specialist. Paper studies optimum design for soil or concrete. De-
tector: (1) insensitive to fast neutrons, gamma rays,
and slow neutrons below 0.8 EV.; (2) high sensitivity
Merriam, Copeland (1 / 63)
to epithermal neutrons. One solution is cadmium cov-
27 Random instrument error in moisture percent by vol- ering over normal detector to give 0.4 EV cut-off.
ume is given by 0.015 in. Cd reduces CR by almost factor of 10.
38

21 With 0.015-in. Cd shield, 8% ±4% reduction in count ment. Concluded that theory was sufficient for present
is seen per gm cm-3 NaCl. Absorbers are given in measurement capability.
Table 2 in terms of NaCl equivalent. A systematic 16 Sphere of importance is consistent with theory used and
correction can be applied by using the slope of the model fits data better than van Bavel model. For typical
calibration curve. soil:
iCR ACR 100
(absorption) R cm
R1 dCR/dw 1.4 + 0.1 M,
25 Time to achieve a certain accuracy due to counting M = moisture percent (Vol)
statistics is
Composition and cross-section data that were used are
T CR included.
(R1cr) 2 21 Interferences were indicated to be density, absorbers,
and hydrogen content of dry soil.
Roberts, Wyndham, Waananen (11/64)

This paper reports the results of a survey by the ASCE Benz, Willis, Nielsen, Sandoval (6/65)
Task Force on use of neutron meters. Observational Advantages:
procedures are reviewed.
Greater accuracy if calibrated.
Nuclear Chicago, Test Lab. Corp., Troxier.
Response is convertible directly into volume
Hydrodensimeter made by Viatec Division of Tellur- moisture percent.
ometer.
Successive samples can be taken from the same
Kaiser-Tempe made by Kaiser Aircraft and Electronics. location.
Mobile logging unit by Dresser Research.
Disadvantages: Dependence on soil composition, es-
Most sources are 3-5 mc.
pecially neutron absorbers.
Use by highway departments (15 responses):
1 Nuclear Chicago instrument is used in this study.
Data for construction ......... ..12 21 During field calibration as much as 20% reduction in
Data for agriculture ............1 rate was observed for high-salinity soils. In the labora-
Data for other use ..............1 tory NaCl in a water bath resulted in approximately
Equipment for depth moisture. . . . 4 5% depression of counting rate for 5,000 ppm. Results
Equipment for surface moisture. . . Ii were nonlinear.
10 Effective application requires trained personnel.
11 Most reliable of available methods. Ballard, Gardner (65)
13 High initial cost.
A review of simple models is given, together with the
17 Nondestructive nature is primary advantage of this
definition of important neutron transport parameters.
method for studying moisture movement and profiles.
A literature review of experimentally determined ac-
20 Ratemeters made require shading in field use.
curacies and interferences is given in Table 9. Type of
21 Close fit of access tubes required in depth measure- system and operating range are included.
ments, organic soils with organic salts.
25 A simple regression model is proposed that is based on
High accuracy.
the absorption and scattering probabilities of the ma-
Interpretation of data is important in such effects as terial to be measured.
air-soil interface, response to gradients, effect of stones
and stratification. Smooth surfaces and uniform meter
contact are required.
27 Good reproducibility. in which
29 Observation time is reduced from weeks to days; gives
P3 = probability of a thermalizing collision;
on-the-spot guide to compaction.
p = density of medium;
30 Ideal for repeated measurements.
w j = weight fraction of the ith element in barns per
33 Of total users, 44 used manufacturer's calibration; 74
atom;
indicated field calibration.
= scattering cross-section of the ith element;
Calibration required for special soils and different ac-
Ai = mass of the ith element; and
cess tubes or surface conditions.
34 = logarithm of the average energy decrement per
Radiation safety requirements.
collision of the ith element.
Equipment and cable breakdown are problems resulting
in significant down-time. The probability of thermal neutron absorption is

ølgaard (1/65) w1 0-,1 /A1

A 3-group diffusion-theory model is applied to neutron in which

scattering in soil and results are compared with éxperi- ai = thermal neutron cross-section of the ith element.
 39

The model proposed is tion of hydrogenous material other than water would
cause serious error.
R - B = a(P8 )b exp(cP, + dPa) 24 2-80%.
in which 25 Depends on the material being measured. It is about
0.2% if the material has zero or a fixed hydrogen
R = counting rate of detector;
content.
B = background counting rate; and
27 CanbeO.2%.
a, b, c, d = constants determined by a regression
analysis using calibration standards. 29 Instantaneous.
30 Continuous.
25 Best accuracy in the review was 1% (Vol); the worst 35 Most solids. For a conveyor-belt application, the sam-
results were obtained by Mintzer (6/60) with 35% ple must be 16 in. wide and at least 2 in. thick. See
error using a single calibration for 4 New York soils. Figure 10 (p. 88).

Cermak (65) Beskin (66)

25 Water in sand, 0.8%. 23 Boron detector with frontal placement of source has the
highest sensitivity up to 30% moisture (Vol). Lateral
placement of source is the only one of several configura-
Kasi, Koskinen (65)
tions that had a linear correlation curve.
Combined Monte Carlo and diffusion theory calcula- Slow neutron density (at r) is given by:
tions are used.
21 Large effect of density is shown in Figure 4 (p. 6) N(r) =exp(_ _)
Lf
(theory).
23 Increased sensitivity with iron reflector on back is in which
shown in Figure 7 (p. 8). Q = fast-neutron source length;
r = distance from source;
Waters (65) r = lifetime; and
L f = moderation path length.
Neutron method appears to be best method available
for surface measurements of concrete and masonry L1 =L
structures. no8 3
1 Hydrodensimeter made by Viatec Division of Tellur- in which
ometer.
25 A wide variation (as much as 0.1 g cm-3 ) for different n = atomic density;
materials was observed. Differences correlated with ab- = anisotropic scattering coefficient;
sorbers present in significant quantities such as 0.02% a-a = neutron-scattering cross-section per atom; and
boron in plywood and 3 to 5 ppm gadolinium and other j = amount of collisions resulting in thermalization
rare earths in some cements. (E= 0.025).

Gemmell, McGregor, Mo'ss (66)

Roth (8/66)
Presents a multigroup theory.
Description: Hydrogen, because of its close mass re-
21 Density appears to have a positive correlation with
lationship to neutrons, is a very efficient moderator.
response.
The neutron technique generally operates with a fast-
Boron decreased response by 25%/100 ppm at 0.2 gm
neutron source and a slow- or thermal-neutron detector
cm 3 , ( p = 0.99 g cm 3 )
for those neutrons that the sample has slowed. It is
fundamentally a volumetric measure of moisture con-
tent. A simultaneous measure of density by means of van Bavel, Stirk (3/67)
gamma-ray scattering is sometimes used to convert Soil water inventories were made at one site to a depth
volumetric moisture to a weight basis. A ratio signal of 170 cm. A gamma-free Am241-Be neutron source
from the gamma-ray detector and the thermo-neutron was used in a Troxler N104 probe.
detector is functionally related to percentage of water 25 0.6% of total moisture.
on a weight basis. 27 0.2% of total moisture.
1 Nuclear Chicago, Kay-Ray Division of Kay Electric 33 Separate calibration within 15 cm of surface.
Co., Numec Instrument and Controls Corp.
13 $5,000-$50,000 (1966). Ølgaard, Haahr (5/67)
17 Nondisturbing.
18 Incapable. Applies 3-group diffusion to gauge design (sensitivity)
19 Total moisture. and influence of density and composition.
21 All materials interact with neutrons, but normally in a 33 Some normalization constants are determined for using
minor way compared to hydrogen or moisture. Varia- a theoretical calibration model.
40

Stone, Barefoot, Garton (8/67) LeFevre, Manke (68)

21 Interference may result from ignition noise of recipro- 1 Troxier attempted to develop a calibration procedure
cating engines. Coupling is electromagnetic, apparently using dual-purpose standards for both moisture and
through cable connection. Count rate almost doubled density. He used 55-gal drums cut to a height of 24 in.
near a fast-idling engine. Effect decreases with dis- and an average volume of. 5 cu ft.
tance. Coiling cable around distributor bead gave 23 Linear between 5 and 30 pcf.
16,000 spurious counts per minute. 25 Significantly different slope from manufacturer's cali-
bration curve developed from cadmium chloride
Gardner, Roberts (67) standards.
33 Calibrate for type of soil being tested.
A calibration model based on 2-group diffusion theory
for a slightly absorbing spherical cavity in a homo- McDougall, Dunn, Gardner (4/69)
geneous medium is
25 Surface effect error (E):
K1
R= a(Ll +K2)(LZ +K4 )( Ll+Ll) +K3 p= normal indicated density;
= indicated density in a position A6 in. above
If the cavity is nonabsorbing, K2 = K4. R is gauge
response; Xa is the microscopic thermal absorption sample; and
E =p p'.
-
cross-section; L1 is the fast diffusion length; L2 is the
thermal diffusion length; and K1, K2, and K3 are gauge Statistical counting rate error:
constants. Details of calculating soil moisture parame-
ters and application of the model are given [Hughes, cT8 (p) o(R)
Anday, 1967].
16 3-5-in, depth for W < 10 pcf; 1-in, depth for W> Using more than one count for composition correction
40 pcf. gives
25 Using 4 calibration standards, one calibration curve was
obtained by the model and another was obtained by
=J/()2
o 2(R1) +(-~P—) 0-2 (RO
fitting a straight line. The fit gave a standard error of
1.144 pcf for the straight line and 0.352 pcf for the Composition and other errors:
model (3 constants vs 2). Results on the five test-site Grouping all remaining errors that are determined
soils at the Virginia Conference, however, showed little experimentally results in
difference between the two.

Hughes, Anday (67)

33 A lengthy calibration model is given based on Monte
21 High iron content causes wider variability between
gauges. Carlo calculations. A series of curves are drawn with
25 For 30 gauges, standard deviation for calibration curves density and equivalent iron content. Average standard
deviation for 3 gauges and 15 test sites was 1.72 pcf.
ranged from 0.1 to 4.4 pcf. The average standard
Results indicate a large effect of both sample density
deviation was 1.2 pcf. Tests on five sections resulted
and composition. Commercial gauges have good re-
in standard deviations between gauges of 1.5, 1.8, 2.9
producibility. A multiple-curve laboratory calibration
(19.8% Fe), 2.2, 2.0 pcf.
shows promise of increasing accuracy.
33 Different manufacturers using different standards for
calibration have a much wider variation than when they
use the same standards. Ehlers, Reese, Anagnos (6/69)
1 Troxier Electronic Labs, Inc.
Nagy, Vertes (11/68) 9 Drill holes are used for depth probe (procedures are
outlined by Heiliger and Haliburton).
Standard deviation may be written 13 Relatively high cost.
crM /M= 1/(SVPq) 16 0.5 cu ft average.
19 Total water (Belcher et al., 1952) indicate response to
in which
bound water which is not removed at 110°C.
S = relative sensitivity of probe; 20 No temperature effects between 40° and 110°F.
P = efficiency of probe; and 21 Influence of rocks: fluctuations were observed, but
q = source strength. they remained within 1.25 pcf (1% dry weight).
23 Most sensitive with source located near midpoint of
21 Using 3-group theory, corrections for variation in dry detector,
bulk density are calculated. Significant corrections can 25 2% (dry weight) or less variation with gravimetric.
be made with curves and equations that are presented. 26 Coefficient of variation of 1%.
 41

27 Lower at high moisture. Carlo technique for surface probes indicate the need
Air gap variation results in decrease of 0.4% per 1,k6 in. for simpler model. Theoretical models can be used in
of gap for 13-15% moisture range. gauge design (sensitivity, etc.).
33 Uncertainty in generality of calibration when applied 21 Density effects are shown in Figure 4 (p. 70).
to diverse materials. 33 Discrepancies between calibration curves for low mois-
Requires understanding of error that may occur and ture can result from too-small calibration samples.
that may be tolerated.
Monfore (1/70)
Cameron (69)
16 Radius from 4-18 in.
A good review is given. Need is for simple, accurate
Thickness from 4-24 in.
model besides group theory.
Advantages: rapid, precise, nondestructive, large-vol- 19 Measures total water content.
ume average, lightweight, portable, reliable, simple, 21 Scattering and absorption of other atomic nuclei are
not negligible. Cadmium shield reduces composition
inexperienced operators.
Detector using 6 Li-loaded glass scintillators may be dependence.
used for moisture and density measurements. 25 Calibration of meters has received considerable atten-
It is common to have an accidental correlation between tion.
bound water content and absorbing elements, so that
the two cancel each other (as was observed in work of Anday, Hughes (6/70)
Anday and Hughes).
Precision: Electronic ±0.1%. 25 1 calibration curve: 3 pcf standard error.
Accuracy: 1% (Vol) or 0.01 g cm-3. 2 calibration curves:
CLASS A CLASS B
Hönig, Pospililova, Klablena, Pape (69) (unpublished)
Optimum moisture content (%) >18 <18
Probably the most comprehensive collaborative testing Percent passing No. 200 screen >48 <48
program of international commercial gauges. Impor- Percent sand <30 >30
tant characteristics that were considered are: Standard error (pcf) 1.5 0.84
Calibration relationships. Correlation coefficient 0.907 0.971
Temperature stability. No trend for addition of Fe2O3 was noted.
Chemical influences of measured medium.
Optimum measuring time. In Class B ignition loss at 1,000CC was relatively low;
Resolution of subsurface probes. content of neutron absorbers also was low (i.e. Fe2O3,
Depth effect of surface probes. TiO2 ). (Density was not indicated.)
Short- and long-time stability.
4.2 Gamma-Ray Interaction
Simplicity of operation.
Measurement of time. Two gamma-ray-interaction methods have been proposed
Design of scaler. for highly specialized applications. The first is applicable
Design of probes. where it is desired to measure moisture within a 1/2 -in.
Weight of complete instruments. layer of soil (Smith, Taylor, Smith, 1967). This technique
Suitability of instruments for field work (including assumes that the specific gravity of soil remains constant
auxiliaries for driving in access tubes and for as moisture gain or loss changes the wet density. The wet
surface leveling). density is determined by gamma transmission technique.
charging of batteries.
P(soil)
Servicing arrangements. Wp(def) —p(dry) (A-l9)
Safety of work. p (dry) (100)
Field capacity moisture deficit, p(def), was defined as a
Results of this program will be published soon.
relative measurement because both p(soil) and p(dry) are
undetermined. The density measurement at or near field
Lippold, Carnesale, Gardner (69)
capacity is designated as Pj. Subsequent measurements of
A Monte Carlo simulation was used for gauge calibra- P2 give the moisture deficit with respect to field capacity
tion and design optimization. moisture.
Predicted effects of density and thermal neutron ab-
sorbers (in terms of iron equivalent) are shown in (100)
WI,1 - Wv 2 = ( P2 - P2) (A-20)
Figure 3. Pw

in which
Ølgaard (69)
W1,1 = volume moisture percent at field capacity;
Presents 3-group diffusion theory and experimental re- W 2 = volume moisture percent at subsequent time; and
sults for depth probe. Preliminary studies using Monte Pw = density of water.
 42

The standard error was determined to be 2.35 percent be fixed to the solid phase in various degrees ranging from
(Vol). chemically bound to essentially unbound or free. The re-
A second method was studied by Babinets and Zvol'skii moval of chemically bound water generally drastically
(1966). They proposed a logarithmic relation as the first changes the properties of the solid material. The chemi-
approximation of the gamma radiation induced by neutron- cally bound water often is described as the nonevaporable
activated atoms and detected near the source of fast water. It should be noted that aggregates, concrete, and
neutrons. soils may contain an appreciable amount of nonevaporable
R = A +BIn(w11 ) ( A-21)
water.
The evaporable water customarily is defined as that
A and B are experimentally determined constants; WH is which is removed under a vacuum of 0.5 microns of
the total hydrogen content. The mean deviation of their mercury at 23°C. This pressure and temperature corre-
experimental results from this model was 0.02 g cm-3. spond approximately to the water lost during oven drying
Neither of the foregoing methods appears to be a sub- at 105°C. The evaporable water in soils frequently is
stitute for more conventional methods, but they may be classified as (1) hydroscopic, and (2) gravitational. The
useful for special applications. The second method is a hydroscopic water is under the influence of surface forces;
good candidate for incorporation into the operation of the gravitational water is that part that will drain from the
conventional moisture gauges to provide a dual-gauge soil under the force of gravity.
capability for discrimination of neutron absorbers.
5.1 Thermal Extraction
5.0 GRAVIMETRIC TECHNIQUES
5.1.1 Oven Drying
The gravimetric technique is the most commonly used tech-
nique for measuring moisture in soil. Some general appli- A practical and easily controlled technique for water re-
cations of this technique appear in Wexler (1965), Mon- moval is oven drying. Heating raises the vapor pressure
fore (1970), and Geary (1956). of the free water within the porous material. A reduced
The gravimetric method of determining moisture con- vapor pressure in the environment serves as a force to move
tent involves five steps: (1) collecting a soil sample, this vapor out of the solid. This reduced pressure is ob-
(2) weighing it, (3) removing the moisture, (4) weighing tained either by evacuation, or dessication, or the flowing
the dry sample or the removed water, and (5) calculating of dry air over the samples. As the difference between the
the moisture content. The gravimetric method is the most vapor pressure in the porous material and that of the
direct way of measuring soil moisture; therefore, it is environment gets small, so does the drying rate. At this
required for calibrating equipment used in other moisture time, a greater portion of the remaining moisture is tightly
measuring techniques. To collect the best soil samples, the bound.
soil should be homogenous; just moist enough to permit Although oven drying is the widely accepted standard for
easy cutting by the sampling equipment; and free from measurement of moisture, there are sources of error that
roots, stones, organic matter, and other unwanted particu- must be considered. Interferences are present in the form
lates. In practice, these conditions are seldom met. The of absorbed volatiles, sample decomposition, water of crys-
technique and equipment used for sample collection should tallization, and adsorbed gas into or out of the sample. An
be such that the samples do not lose or gain moisture or impervious crust may trap moisture within the solid. Mois-
otherwise become altered or contaminated during sampling ture or gases may be adsorbed between the time the sample
in the first weighing of the sample material. In collecting is dried and the time it is weighed.
samples, one must proceed with caution when sampling Dryness of the sample when drying stops depends on
through a wet layer into a drier layer. The sampling equip- ambient vapor pressure. Turbulent drying air also may
ment should be kept as dry as possible to prevent water remove solids. At the same time water may not be re-
from running down the hole into the drier material. In moved that is partially bound. Under these conditions
sampling some very wet soils, some of the water may be absolute equilibrium is never reached. Thus, a standard
squeezed out during the compaction and probably will in- drying time—say, 1 hr—has to be specified.
dicate less than the correct value of moisture content. In Several multisample units are available to speed the mea-
sampling hard, dry, fine-textured sediments, it is difficult surement process and provide economy where large num-
to drive the core barrels or sampling tubes into the sample bers of samples are to be measured. Two of these are
region. Dry, coarse-textured sediments may slide out of described by Roth (1966). The units accepted a sample
the sampling tube or the core barrel as it is withdrawn from of approximately 10 g. The range of measurement was
the sample hole. The gravimetric method requires con- between I and 100 percent. The accuracy and precision
siderable time and effort to collect samples, especially from are quoted at 0.2 percent. Between 5 min and 1 hr is
depths greater than a few feet, and to oven dry and weigh required for each drying cycle. The units are applicable
the many samples required for most projects. For many to any oven-driable material, preferably with a maximum
projects the sampling procedure (making numerous holes) of surface area.
alters the area of the experiment. Under some conditions, The long times required for oven drying have led to
the holes may have to be refilled and packed. It is desirable searches for faster methods. Microwave ovens have been
to discuss some background information on the kinds of applied to this problem; these were found to be very fast
water usually found in materials. Water in materials may and agreed well with standard oven drying procedures at
 43

105 to 110°C (Ryley, 1969). GHz waves are absorbed 5.1.4 Heating in Oil
by polar molecules. After water removal, some soils were Geary (1956) also discusses the method of heating the
found to cool; others were found to heat. In the foregoing sample in nonvolatile oil. This is an empirical technique
work, a laboratory prototype oven was used. Its cost was that may be used for specialty applications. The few refer-
about five times that of the conventional oven. Ryley found ences given by Geary are not especially important in the
that primarily unbound water is removed. At higher oper- measurement of highway components.
ating levels the removal of some bound water. is evident by
the greater loss in weight of high-clay-content soils when
5.1.5 Dessicant Weight Gain
compared to conventional oven drying. An over-all agree-
ment of 0.4 percent was found when this method was Dessicant weight gain can be used with other drying tech-
compared with standard oven drying methods. Sample niques (Geary, 1956). Inert gas or dry air is drawn over
time is between 10 and 15 mm. the samples and passed through a dessicant. The weight
Microwave ovens should be especially good for cement- gain of the dessicant is assumed to be water. This tech-
stabilized soils. One precaution is noted: fuel ash materials nique often is applied to coal. A dessicant may be chosen
may ignite. A unique control feature was added by Algee, that passes volatiles other than water where normal drying
Callaghan, Creelman (1969). The load voltage-standing techniques result in ambiguity. Thus, this is a good
wave ratio was found to be a good indicator of the time supporting technique.
if the sample is "just dry." A change in the reflected
signal occurs as moisture is removed. Samples of 200 to 5.1.6 Alcohol Burning
300 g were used and an accuracy of 0.5 percent was ob-
tained, as compared to a conventional oven drying method One of the more rapid gravimetric techniques is alcohol
at 110 ±5°C. Some samples were dried for 3 min at 2 kW burning. This consists of mixing alcohol with the sample
(2.45 GHz). Others were dried for 30 min at 200 w and igniting the mixture. Most of the water is removed
(2.987 GHz). during the process (Geary, 1956; Bouyoucos, 1937). The
It is often desired to measure the water of hydration in sample is reweighed after the water-removal process. An-
hardened concrete. Wesche and Schlotmann (1962) found trim et al. (1970) found that three successive burnings
that loss on ignition was a more accurate method than were required for high moisture content. A correlation
determination of specific volume or specific density. Care coefficient of 0.999 with oven-dry results was obtained with
was taken to deduct the CO2 content. a standard error of 0.42 percent (dry).

5.2 Chemical Extraction

5.1.2 Freeze Drying
The three principal categories of chemical extraction are
Freeze drying sometimes is referred to as lyophilization. alcohol, calcium carbide (hydride), and the Karl Fischer
This method offers no risk to decomposition of heat- reagent. In addition to these methods, the refractive index
sensitive materials. Freezing also has the effect of loosen- of dioxan has been measured and related to water in solu-
ing the structure of organic materials so that additional tion (Geary, 1956). Other measurements on extraction
moisture that remains after freeze drying is removed by liquids related to water content are depression of freezing
oven drying. A combination of the two methods would point, elevation of boiling point, separation temperature of
result in greater removal of moisture. ethyl alcohol and petroleum, electrical conductivity, and
A vacuum with a dry-ice cold trap has been compared capacitance.
with a vacuum dessicator drying method to measure non-
evaporable water in hardened portland cement paste 5.2.1 Alcohol
(Copeland, Hayes, 1953). The dry-ice method was found
to be simpler and resulted in a precision of 0.0008 g/g of Alcohol extraction is one of the simplest of the liquid-
cement. The magnesium perchlorate-dihydrate procedure extraction methods (Bouyoucos, 1931). The water content
resulted in a precision of 0.0012 g/g of cement. The is determined by the density of the alcohol-water mixture
vacuum dessicator gives a value of 1.084 times the moisture after extraction from the sample. A hydrometer can be
value obtained by the dry-ice method. used to measure the liquid density.
A slightly different approach was used by Hancock and
Hudgins (1954). A soil sample was mixed with a 70 per-
5.1.3 Distillation
cent ethyl alcohol-30 percent acetone solution and sodium
The Brown-Duvel moisture tester uses this technique chloride. The conductivity of the solution was related to
(Geary, 1956). The sample is immersed in a liquid that the moisture extracted from the soil. The accuracy was
is immiscible with water. Liquids are typically benzene, determined to be ½ percent dry-weight basis.
toluene, and xylene. The mixture is then raised to the boil-
ing point of the liquid, which is normally below that of 5.2.2 Calcium Carbide (Hydride)
water. The refluxing column then feeds a calibrated bulb,
where the liquid and water separate. The volume of the The calcium carbide method is used widely. The moisture
bulb is calibrated accordingly as the liquid is lighter or content usually is related to two measurements: (1) the
heavier than water. Many of the references that Geary uses decrease in the weight of the sample carbide mixture after
apply primarily to organic solids. evolution of acetylene, and (2) the rise in pressure inside
44

an enclosure containing the mixture that determines the of the H2, and, thus, the moisture of the sample. The
volume of gas produced. The latter is commonly known average error for this method was found to be ±0.1 percent
as the speedy moisture method and is produced by Ash- (wet) for a 0.5-g sample, and ±0.05 percent (wet) for a
worth & Co. (Geary, 1956) and Soiltest, Inc. Extensive 1.0-g sample (Güven, Kerr, 1965). This method measures
comparative evaluations of this method with oven-drying, free water that is held by physical adsorption similar to
nuclear, and alcohol-burning methods have been made condensation forces. The heat for each is 5 to 10 Kcal
(Antrim et al., 1970; Blystone, 1961). It is generally con- mole-'. The rate of adsorption is very rapid. Chemisorp-
sidered to be relatively accurate, inexpensive, and rapid. tion holds water tightly, similar to chemical bonds. Hydra-
The calcium carbide (CaC,) reaction with moisture tion involves a discontinuous adsorption of water. The en-
proceeds as follows: CaC2 + 214,0 -+ Ca(OH) 2 + C,H,. ergy may be more or less than that of physical adsorption.
The calcium carbide gas pressure method measures the Because heating to 105 to 110°C removes some chemi-
moisture content indirectly by gauging the pressure of sorbed water and water of hydration, the results of this
C 2H2 gas generated by the reaction in a closed vessel. The method may vary significantly from the weight loss during
tester used in the work of Blystone is a hollow aluminum oven drying. This difference is typically 5 to 15 percent
vessel, with a pressure gauge on one end and a cap with (wet).
a clamping arrangement on the other. A 26-g sample size
is used. Two steel balls, 11/4 in. in diameter, were effective
5.2.3 Karl Fischer Reagent
in pulverizing soil samples. Attempts to correlate the tem-
perature rise of the sample and holder with moisture were The Karl Fischer reagent is used widely with the titration
unsuccessful. This study led to a recommendation of a method for measuring moisture in solids. It is prepared by
six-step procedure for this method of measurement: reacting SO, with iodine dissolved in pyridine and methyl
Place three measures (approx. 22 g) of calcium alcohol. A more stable reagent is obtained by substituting
carbide and two 11/4 -in, steel balls in the large chamber ethylene glycol for methyl alcohol. The titration is con-
of the moisture tester. ducted on the sample in methanol or other suitable solvents.
Using the tared scale, weigh a 26-g sample of soil. Both direct and back titration are effective. The endpoint
A 13-g sample should be used if the moisture content is is commonly determined electronically. When free iodine
much greater than 20 percent. Moisture percentage is in excess reagent is present, the sample solution will con-
given on a dry-weight basis. duct electricity. A sharp change in conductivity is observed
Place the soil sample in the cap. With the pressure at the equivalence point. Two commercial instruments
vessel in a horizontal position, insert the cap in it, and using this principle are described by Roth (1966). These
tighten the clamp to seal the cap to the unit. are the Auto-Aquatrator (manufactured by E. H. Sargent &
Raise the moisture tester to a vertical position so that Co.) and the Aquameter (manufactured by Beckman In-
the soil in the cap falls into the pressure vessel. struments, Inc.).
Holding the moisture tester horizontally, manually This method measures the total bound and free water
rotate the device for 10 sec so that the steel balls are put that will react with the reagent. It is very specific relative
into orbit around the inside circumference. Rest for 20 sec. to other techniques, because many common substances are
Repeat the shake/rest cycle for a total of 3 mm. Do not inert to the Fischer reagent. Interference may come from
allow the steel balls to fall against either the cap or the (1) oxidants such as chromates, dichromates, cupric and
orifice leading to the dial because this might cause damage. ferric salts, higher oxides, and peroxides; (2) reductants
Read the pressure gauge of the moisture tester and such as sulfates, sulfides, and stannous salts; and (3) bo-
rates, basic oxides, and salts of weak oxyacids that might
determine the moisture content of the soil on a dry-weight
react with the reagent to form water.
basis from the calibration curve.
The technique is extremely sensitive; the lower limit of
As compared with the oven-dried methods, with this detection is 0.01 percent. Samples with water content up
method the average moisture content difference is approxi- to pure water can be measured. The precision of measure-
mately 0.5 percent dry weight (Blystone, 1961). The ment is 0.025 ml of titrant.
measurement range is from 0 to 45 percent dry weight. The response time is normally a few minutes. However,
Applications are considered to be in-place density tests, the total measurement time may be long if interfering
auger and split-spoon samples, sands used in concrete mix- materials are present, or if moisture is difficult to extract.
tures, and proper moisture content for earth work. Field Thus, finely divided solids require a shorter measurement
laboratory applications may include hygroscopic moisture, time than coarser materials.
development of compaction curves, and low-value liquid
and plastic limits (Blystone, 1961). 5.3 Mechanical Extraction

The hydride method is similar to the carbide method. Samples containing high water content can be mechanically
The reaction is: CaH, + 2H20 -4 Ca(OH)0 + 2H2. pressed to remove water (Geary, 1956). The weight before
The reaction is exothermic, with a standard heat of and after compression can be used to calculate the water
reaction (iH°) equal to —122.38 Kcal mole-1. The stan- content, or the weight of the water removed can be mea-
dard free energy of the reaction (F°) is a highly negative sured. This technique has not been applied to highway
—121.24 Kcal mole-'. When the reaction is complete the components, and there are no obvious applications to
cell is cooled to 20°C. The pressure in the cell is a measure which it is suited.
 45

5.4 Immersion (Pycnometer) Studies of the effect of temperature indicated little vari-
ance from 0° to 30°C. However, a marked difference
The immersion method is based on classical procedures for
occurred on freezing.
determining specific gravity. It is in fairly common use in
Interference from salt ions and organic material was
the measurement of loose materials such as sand and ag-
found at 15.9, 19.8, and 59.0 MHz. Very little interference
gregates (Geary, 1956). Some of the early work in this
was found at 114 and 142 MHz.
area is attributed to Tortensson and Eriksson (1936).
Garton and Crow (1954) used a 150-cc laboratory bottle
equipped with an aluminum stopper with a hole in the 6.2 Electromagnetic
center. Soil was added to the bottle and it was weighed.
6.2.1 Radiowaves
Water was added to completely fill the bottle and it was
weighed again. Moisture percentage was determined by: By definition, radiowaves include microwaves; however, an
attempt is made here to separate the two in terms of fre-
W3Wm (A-22) quency. Microwaves are considered to start between 300
W p(W m 1) and 1,000 MHz and to extend up to 300 GHz. The radio-
in which wave section considers frequencies below microwave fre-
= moisture percent of dry weight; quencies. Although there is some overlap, the purpose of
W, = specific weight of soil particles; and making this distinction is the difference in equipment used
W. = specific weight of moist soil. at the different frequencies. Similarities also may be seen
in the capacitance and resistance parameters.
A convenient curve can be plotted for 0 to 40 percent RF energy is highly absorbed by moisture. The method
moisture for W. of 1.80 to 2.50 and 2.52 to 2.68. is not very specific, because many polar compounds also
The mean difference between this technique and the absorb this energy. Thus, the primary disadvantage of this
oven-drying method was determined to be 0.152 percent. technique is that it requires a calibration curve for each
Obviously, the moisture determined in this manner is free material on which it is to be used. The calibration slope
water in the sand. This is especially important when one is very steep, however, and with adequate control of other
is using wet sand in proportioning concrete. variables the precision and accuracy can be achieved in the
Results obtained by Wilde and Spyridakis (1962) during low fractions of a percent. Roth (1966) has noted the
field tests were not nearly as accurate as the foregoing. availability of instruments by Boonton Polytechnic Co. and
They attributed an error of 2 percent to the normal varia- Moisture Register Co. The operating range is between 0.01
tions of specific gravity of soil particles. and 60 percent (dry). Specific materials may have a much
more restricted range (e.g., concrete blocks have a range
6.0 RADIATION TECHNIQUES
of 10 to 50 percent; molding sand has a range of 2 to
15 percent). Probe-type electrodes normally are designed
With modern refinements in electronic techniques there has for the particular material to be measured.
been a concurrent effort to apply mechanical and electro- Using an airplane overflight technique, Geleynse and
magnetic waves to the measurement of moisture because Barringer (1965) accomplished remote sensing of conduc-
of their compatibility with electronic systems. Nuclear tive bodies located in the ground by transmitting a train
methods could be grouped under this category as nuclear of high-powered unipolar electromagnetic pulses of half-
radiation. sine-wave shape and receiving the reflected signal. The
pulses have a base width of 1.5 X 10 sec and are spaced
6.1 Mechanical 2 x 10-3 sec apart (3.5 X 10 sec between peaks). Pulse
decay in the receiver depends on conductivity of the re-
6.1.1 Ultrasonics flecting material. Close inspection of the return pulse is
Ultrasonic energy propagation was studied experimentally required for interpretation, but it was found that ore bodies
at frequencies of 15.9, 19.8, 114, and 142 MHz by Mack could be detected at depths of 50 to 100 ft. Increased
and Brach (1966). Samples were sealed in 130-cm3 con- conductivity of wet soils also has a characteristic effect on
tainers and placed between matched transmitter and re- the reflected pulse.
ceiver transducers. The 114-MHz signal provided the best The transmitter is several hundred ampere-turns around
discrimination between water and the solid matrix. A a small airplane. The receiver is a coil towed in a bird
laboratory-type oscillator was used in the studies, manu- behind the plane at a height of about 100 ft. The total
factured by Marconi Instruments Ltd. The Model TF 1246 weight of the equipment is 600 lb.
was used in the range of 40 KHz to 50 MHz; the Model A very high frequency sweeping technique with a log
TF 1247 was used in the range of 20 to 300 MHz. spiral antenna also was used to study layered structures.
A correlation coefficient of 0.95 was obtained for a wide An undetermined calibration shift was related to the sam-
variety of materials at 114 MHz. This was improved to ple homogeneity. Layered structures or nonhomogeneous
0.97 by including an effect for density variation. The water content were difficult to analyze. This could be re-
moisture content ranged from 0 to 56 g water/130 cm3. solved only by elevating the transmitter and receiver such
At lower frequencies the range is limited from 0 to 12 g as with an airplane. A spatial resolution was obtained
water/130 cm3. An instrument sensitivity was observed of (using delay line correlation techniques) of 2 in. in a total
1.20 amp/g water. layer spacing of 20 in.
 46

6.2.2 Microwaves Microwave radiometers also require bulky equipment.

Johnson and Gravitte (1966) mounted a microwave radi-
The moisture content of nonmetallic porous solids is related
ometer on a pneumatic-tired cart. Penetration was 2 to
to the absorption of microwave energy. For many ma-
4 in. in soil with low moisture content. For high moisture
terials a linear relationship exists between moisture density
content, the signal was reflected essentially at the surface.
and the logarithm of microwave attenuation (sometimes
Using a 16-ft mobile laboratory on a 11/2 -ton flatbed
expressed in decibels). Microwaves between 3- and 30-cm
truck, Edgerton (1968) found that microwave radiometers
wavelengths are most suitable from an economic stand-
were dependent on sensor frequency, polarization, soil
point. However, there are certain improvements in speci-
ficity below 3 cm, particularly with respect to soluble salts. moisture particle size, and surface roughness. The last two
influence the general shape and slope of the curves of
Busker (1968) gives a capsule summary of microwave
radiometric vs antenna viewing angle.
absorption at different frequency ranges. He considers the
Moisture caused response curves to shift along the tem-
22-GHz absorption peak a good candidate for moisture
perature axis. Microwave temperature difference between
measurement. It is noted that the attenuation of bound
water is low, whereas the attenuation of free water is high. tidal mud and dry soil is about 120°K. A qualitative
The temperature dependence goes from a negative tem- relationship was found between brightness temperature and
soil bearing strength.
perature coefficient at high moisture content to a positive
coefficient at low moisture content. Work at the Building
Research Station (1962) considered moisture measurement 6.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
in walls at 7.5- and 12.0-cm wavelengths. The mathematics
When a sample is placed in a fixed magnetic field and a
to describe the attenuation of the sample is:
varying magnetic field, nuclear magnetic resonance results
in an increased absorption of energy at specified frequen-
I=io exP(_2IT7l) (A-23) cies of the varying magnetic field. The varying nuclear
magnetization is converted into a voltage by using either
in which
the single-coil absorption technique or the quadrature-coil
I = transmitted intensity; induction technique. The resonant frequency of the ab-
I = initial intensity; sorption or induction is characteristic of a particular nu-
A = wavelength; cleus. The highest signal-to-noise ratio for measuring water
= thickness of material, molecules is obtained by looking at the hydrogen nuclei
spectra. Obviously, this technique is difficult to apply to
I (€, - €8) A8 /X 2oX materials containing nonwater hydrogen. It is likewise re-
(A-24)
1 + (X8 /x)2 c sponsive in varying degrees as the water is bound or free.
= dielectric constant at 0 frequency; The large size and the critical geometry of instrumentation
= dielectric constant at OD frequency; restricts its use to the laboratory. Geary (1956) notes that
n = refractive index; this measurement is directly related to the water content of
= conductivity; the material. Unlike with nuclear-scattering methods, the
A3 = characteristic relaxation wavelength; and signal obtained from bound hydrogen water is different
c = velocity of light. from that of free hydrogen or hydrogen in solid material.
There may be some overlap in signals from hydrogen-
Dissolved salts contribute to the conductivity term. This containing liquids, such as fat or oils. Because this equip-
term becomes negligible in sea water below 3 cm. The need ment in its present state of development is large and highly
for calibration curves for different material is indicated by complex, its use in measuring moisture in highway materials
the following absorption coefficients: is restricted.
Clay bricks .,........ 8 db/g water/ sq cm
Sand/lime bricks ..... 5 db/g water/sq cm 6.2.4 infrared Reflection
Concrete ............9 db/g water/sq cm
A relatively new technique that is widely accepted in some
Watson (1965) noted that the method is not nearly as industrial processes is based on the infrared (IR) reflection
accurate as oven drying, but it is much faster. that is proportional to the moisture content of the exposed
Roth (1966) gave the commercial manufacturers of this solid. A limitation is that the interaction is primarily a
type of equipment as Charter Industrial Engineering Co. surface interaction. If moisture is not homogenous, sig-
(2.45 and 10.68 KHz) and Microwave Instruments (2.8 nificant errors can occur. Galluzzo (1968) indicated the
and 9.4 KHz). The range of these instruments is from cost of such equipment to be $5,000 to $15,000. The range
1 to 90 percent (dry). The response is sensitive to other of measurement is between 0.05 and 80 percent (dry).
polar materials, to thickness and bulk density variation, and There is obvious interference by other materials that reflect
to small changes in temperature. IR. The method can be used for most solids, preferably
Lundien (1966) concluded that estimates of moisture sheet or granular, where rapid response is required.
content of deep homogeneous samples could be made. An instrument to measure moisture in paper was eval-
Pulsed radar sensors were tested in a hangar-like enclosure uated by Hardacker (1968). Reflection signals of 1.94
at frequencies from 0.297 to 31.543 GHz. The equipment and 1.80 1, were compared with the aid of a filter disk.
used was very bulky. This particular instrument was the Inframike made by
 47

General Electric. The range is from 0 to 40 percent mois- order of ½ hr to many hours. Several workers have
ture (dry). The accuracy was determined to be 0.1 to devised methods for reducing this response time.
0.3 percent. A drift of 0.1 percent was observed in 7 days. Miller (1951) and Dumbleton and West (1968) used a
Various sources of error were found. A 0.75 percent manometer pressure balance system to measure tension
change was found from 20° to 170°F. A 10 percent basis without flow of moisture through the porous cup. An
weight change gives a 0.3 percent change in moisture indi- improvement in accuracy also results in that moisture is
cation. Plasticizers also affected the response. Spacing neither gained nor lost from the sample. The time response
between the gauge and the surface was critical, with a is about 30 sec for a reading accuracy of 0.1 cm water.
0.1 percent error for a 0.05-in, deviation. Although salt concentration in the soil may affect the
An instrument made by Anacon Inc. (1968) also uses tensiometric method, it is considered to interfere less than
the filter wheel technique. The reflection of 1 .9-s radiation with electrical methods (Johnson, 1962). Organic content
indicates moisture. The 1.7-1, wavelength is used as a of soil also results in a shift in the calibration (Stoeckeler,
reference. Aamodt, 1940).
Jumikis (1969) has been studying the problem of mois-
7.0 TENSIOMETRY
ture transfer under freeze-thaw cycling conditions. He
includes 85 references in his report, many of which report
7.1 Porous Cup his previous work. Porosity appeared to be the principal
factor in determining film flow, vapor flow, or pure vapor
The name "tensiometer" was used by Richards and Gard- diffusion. In common soils, where the porosity is less than
ner (1936) as an unambiguous reference to the porous cup 50 percent, the most effective mechanism for upward flow
and vacuum gauge combination for measuring capillary of moisture is the mechanism of film flow. His moisture-
tension or the security with which water is held in soil. related measurements include a tensiometer plus gravi-
This term replaced earlier designations such as "capillary metric measurement at termination of his experiments. He
potentiometer" (Gardner et al., 1922), "soil hygrometer" used a conical-shaped tensiometer with effective surface
(Heck, 1934), and "soil moisture meter" (Rogers, 1935). area of 30.52 cm'. The porosity was 67 percent with an
The term "pF," introduced by Schofield (1935), is com- average capillary radius of 0.3 microns. The bubbling
monly used to describe tensiometer response. It is defined gauge pressure (equal to air-entry value) is 2 atm.
as the common logarithm of the height of a water column The air entry value is the tensiometer pressure difference
in centimeters equivalent to the soil moisture tension. necessary to bring about an air leak through the porous
Richards and Gardner (1936) found that air entry in wall when the wall is saturated with distilled water. Nor-
dry soil was a serious problem with the early porous cups. mally when one is measuring soil tensions up to about
They observed hysteresis errors of about 3 percent. Tem- 1 atm., the tensiometer must test an air-entry value greater
perature corrections were based on the temperature
than 1 atm.
dependence of surface tension. During freezing the tensiometers used by Jumikis were
Tensiometers were more fully developed by Richards found to contain ice; however, no damage was found on
(1942), following earlier work by Neal, Richards, and thawing. His restriction of about 0.85-atm water pressure
Russell (1937, 1939) and Stoeckeler and Aamodt (1940). apparently was the result of the porosity of his sensing
Agriculture has been the most notable beneficiary where element and the use of flexible tubing to transmit pressure.
high accuracy is not required. Using inexpensive porous Combining pressure transducers with tensiometers in
cups costing less than $1.00 each, Kenworthy (1945) ob- recent years has resulted in an improvement in over-all
tained sufficient air entry values and determined laboratory performance of this method. Klute and Peters (1962)
and field calibrations to have an accuracy of 5 percent used a strain gauge pressure transducer to obtain a short-
(dry). The cup conductance of about 0.02 cm3 atm.-' time response of less than 1 sec, including the recorder.
sec-1 gave a response time of less than 1 mm. Based on cup conductance (K) and gauge sensitivity, the
In a revue of tensiometers, Johnson (1962) was some- time constant (T) was figured to be 0.02 sec from the
what more generous in his estimate of the accuracy attain- relationship
able. He indicated about 2 percent using a vacuum gauge, (A-25)
T = 1/Ks
and a little better using a mercury manometer. Taylor
(1955) attributed the largest source of error to air bubbles. The gauge sensitivity was 3 X 103 mb cm 3. With the strain
His units were pretested at 20 psi or greater, but dis- gauge bridge voltage at 6 v, a 4-mv-per-volt transducer
solved air in water passing through the cup was indicated output corresponds to 12 v cn of water. This resulted
as an additional source of bubbles. in a minimum detectable change of 3 mm of water. With
Temperature also has been a source of error. Haise and the exception of the recorder drive, the unit was powered
Kelley (1950) and Taylor (1955) attributed large diurnal by a 6-v dry cell (or a regulated power supply).
variations to temperature-related vapor-pressure gradients Thiel, Fouss, and Leech (1963) developed a pressure
and distillation transfer between cup and soil. transducer ceramic tip combination for laboratory and field
Hysteresis is significant with this technique. A moisture use for measuring hydrostatic pressures in a porous me-
tension curve generally indicates a higher soil moisture dium. As a deflection sensor, linearly variable differential
tension during drying than during wetting. Some of this is transformers (LVDT) were found to be superior to strain
real, possibly from the ink-bottle effect, but part of it is gauges and semiconductor force transducers. The system
apparent as a result of the long response times, on the cost $50, assembled and calibrated.
48

For maximum sensitivity a stainless steel diaphragm in field situations. This equipment appears to be able to
should be designed for a specific operating range. The achieve increased accuracy and response with a minimum
maximum height of water that the diaphragm can with- of development effort and fabrication complexities.
stand is
Srt2 7.2 Permeable Membrane
h— (A-26)
- 0.027 a2
in which A permeable membrane tensiometer is similar to the porous
cup tensiometer. Instead of capillary flow through a porous
Sr = maximum radial stress in the diaphragm (44,000 ceramic wall, the flow mechanism of a permeable mem-
psi is a typical proportional limit for stainless steel); brane is more nearly described by osmosis. According to
a = diaphragm radius; Coleman and Marsh (1961), seven components of a soil
t = diaphragm thickness; and stress tensor are determined by the moisture content den-
h = water pressure inches of water. sity, shear strength, and total free energy depression of soil
A typical gauge sensitivity is 0.3 v/50 cm water. water. The components are the principal total stresses,
The unit was powered by a 6-v audio-oscillator at 01, O, o- pore water pressure, ; pore air pressure, IT;
10 kHz. The resulting accuracy was ±0.5 cm water. osmotic pressure, P; and temperature, 0. A model relating
Watson (1963, 1965, 1967) has contributed to the de- these parameters would be very useful in the design of a
velopment and application of self-contained pressure trans- functional field instrument.
ducer tensiometers. He lists their advantages for field use For laboratory use, Coleman and Marsh developed two
as: (1) rapid response of system due to small volume pressure-membrane apparatus, one for low and one for
displacement of transducer, (2) convenience of obtaining high pressures. Another laboratory technique for high
a chart record of the pressure changes with time, (3) avoid- pressures has been designed by L. A. Richards (Patent
ance of diurnal temperature effects such as those that oc- No. 2353760—Pressure membrane extraction apparatus).
cur in tensiometer-manometric systems with above-ground A field unit is known commercially as the Aquapot. It is
components, (4) applicability of the method to the mea- manufactured by NIC Instrument Co., Victoria, Australia.
surement of the capillary pressure at depth, (5) relative
ease in which the system can be instrumented for automatic 8.0 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
control, and (6) elimination of the response problems that
occur in soils of low conductivity when one is using a The Lheriiial conductivity method relies on the increase in
selector valve to switch from one tensiometer to another. thermal conductivity of porous materials with increasing
Commercially available pressure transducers are small moisture content. This principle can be applied through
in size, highly accurate, and very stable. This should make transmission in which a rise in temperature of the material
it possible to achieve sensitivities and responses in the field is measured at a distance from the heat source. It also may
equivalent to those achieved in the laboratory. A typical be applied through dissipation, by measuring the tempera-
transducer is Type PM-i 3 1TC manufactured by Statham ture rise of the heating element. In the former case, the
Instruments, Inc. Characteristics of this transducer are as response time is a function of the spacing between the
follows: thermocouples and the heating element. Although thermal
contact may present problems, there are inherent advan-
tages to the technique that make it suitable for incorpora-
CHARACTERISTIC VALUE tion into highway embankments, or pavements, or struc-
tures where moisture is to be measured. Thermocouples
Rated excitation 5 v DC or AC and heating wires normally have little disturbing effect on
Nominal output 4 mv/v these materials, and salt or other compositions of the ma-
Nominal bridge resistance 350 ohms terial offer less interference than in any other technique.
Hysteresis and linearity 0.75% normal, 0.25% The continuous monitoring of variations of moisture with
special time is the most notable need to which this technique may
Compensated temperature 650 to 250°F be applied. According to Johnson (1962), the transmis-
range sion type or thermal conductivity cell has been the most
Thermal shift: Sensitivity 0.01 % / °F satisfactory.
Thermal shift: Zero 0.01% / °F Shaw and Bayer (1939) applied a laboratory apparatus
Weight ¼ oz of their own design to a variety of soils. No hysteresis was
Differential pressure ranges ±2.5, ±5, ± 10, ± 15, observed with their method, but a wide variation in cali-
±25 bration curves was obtained for different soils. The repro-
Differential overload 200% of range ducibility with the same soil was relatively good, being less
Hydraulic sensitivity (S) 5.9 X 10 cc/mb than 1 percent (dry). The sensitivity of the method was
found to be increased by the fact that conductivity and heat
capacity change with moisture content in the same direc-
Pressure changes of 0.2 mb are detectable with this system. tion. Their instrument was designed to keep the tempera-
With a ceramic 600-mb bubbling pressure, the time con- ture difference between the heat source in the soil very
stant .is approximately 0.2 sec. This method is particularly small to prevent the movement of moisture from the point
applicable to the movement of water in unsaturated soil where heat is applied.
 49

The temperature rise is given approximately by peculiarities, and density. These variations can be greater
than 20 percent (dry). A porous envelope was found to
(A-27) improve performance through improved reproducibility of
dQ/dt = KzT + A (1 - e
_K) physical contact.
when heat is added at a constant rate. A and K are con-
9.0 MISCELLANEOUS METHODS
stants, and C is the specific heat.
A negligible effect from ambient temperature of soil 9.1 Vapor Pressure
between 0° to 54°C was found. Also, a negligible effect
Upon evaporation, the volumetric expansion of water is
from 10,000 ppm KC1 was observed.
Because heat transport in moist, porous materials oc- very large. When the sample is enclosed in a small volume
and the temperature is raised to evaporate the water that
curs with some distillation of water vapor, de Vries (1952)
proposed a nonstationary method and small temperature it contains, the pressure of,the container will rise. This
gradients for measuring thermal conductivity of soils. pressure can then be related directly to the moisture con-
The soil parameters of primary interest are thermal con- tent. Minute amounts of moisture can be measured through
ductivity (X) and thermal diffusivity (a). At a point, 4, the use of small volume, heating, or condensation and re-
from the center of a long heated wire, the rise of tempera- evaporation techniques (Geary, 1956). Volatile materials
in the sample would be expected to interfere.
ture (0) is given by
0 = (q/41rX){_Ei(_r2 /4at)} (A-28) 9.2 Colorimetry

The reaction of cobalt chloride with moisture produces a

in which q is the amount of heat produced per unit time measurable color change proportional to moisture content.
and unit length of the source, and the elliptic integral is An automatic system manufactured by Technicon Control,
given by Inc., is described by Roth (1966). A bead chain feeder
serves to measure the amount of solids taken in so that this
Ei(x) (l/x) exp (—x)dx technique might be considered a gravimetric method with
=f the colorimetric technique for measuring the evolved
x x2
0.5772 + In x - (A-29) moisture.
This technique is highly specific, although materials that
Experiments were carried out with a relatively small sensor form insoluable compounds with cobalt chloride ions will
buried in the soil. Measurements were taken after about interfere. Samples must be removed for analysis, and the
60 sec (when the temperature difference has a logarithmic state of the water measured is somewhere between un-
dependence on time) and were found to be a good bound and partially bound. The measurement range is
indicator of soil moisture changes. between 0.01 and 20 percent. The measurement is con-
Additional development work has been done by Winter- tinuous, with a response time of between 2 and 3 mm. The
precision is limited to the reproducibility of the bead sam-
korn (1956), Bloodworth (1967), and Vos (1965). Using
a thermistor as a combination heating element and tem- pler, which is about ±10 mg. This limits high accuracy and
perature indicator, Bloodworth found that the technique precision to materials with a moisture content greater than
was unaffected by salt concentration and had greatest sensi- 5 percent. This technique is most applicable to free-
tivity below field capacity. He also found that calibration flowing uniform granular materials that can be brought
was required for different soils and that soil temperature to the instrument by conveyor.
corrections must be applied, but the measurements could 9.3 Penetrometer
be easily made. Vos (1965) looked at the nonsteady state
with twin probes. The technique was found to be a very The basis for the penetrometer method is resistance to
good measure of thermal conductivity, but caution was penetration or deformation. Geary (1959) reviewed its
expressed concerning the errors occurring, especially due use in highway materials and referenced some of the earlier
to moisture migration under a temperature gradient. work. The penetration device has become known as the
Globus and Kaganov (1965) developed a thermistor Proctor Needle (Proctor, 1933). Some problems related to
probe-type instrument in which they attempted to get its use are that penetration equipment must be calibrated
around the problem of sensitivity to ambient temperature. for each type of soil, and gravelly or stony soils are un-
The unit weighed 2.5 kg, was powered by a pen-light bat- suitable. However, the method is very fast and often is
tery, and provided temperature compensation by means of used in correlation studies with other test methods (Antrim
a variable resistance. They attributed the sensitivity to type et al., 1967). A commercial device is distributed by
of soil to the variation in pore size distribution, structural Soiltest, Inc.
 50

APPENDIX B

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The literature survey portion of this research effort en- of Soil Properties." Final Report, Virginia Highway Res.
countered several thousand references. This was expected Council and BPR (June 1970) [4.1, R2].
for such a broad coverage of moisture measurement tech- ANDERSON, A. B. C., and EDLEFSEN, N. E., "The Electri-
niques. Included in this bibliography are those publica- cal Capacity of the 2-Electrode Plaster of Paris Block as
tions that were either referenced in this report, or reviewed an Indicator of Soil-Moisture Content." Soil Science,
and rated for usefulness of contents, or for which abstracts Vol. 54, pp. 35-46 (July 1942) [3.2, R21.
were reviewed. Brackets following each bibliographic item ANSBACHER, F., and JASON, A. C., "Effects of Water
provide additional information concerning measurement Vapour on the Electrical Properties of Anodized Alumi-
methods reported. For instance, [4.1, Ri] indicates the num." Nature, Vol. 171, p. 177 (1953) [1.1.2, R21.
measurement category that refers to Appendix A, where ANTRIM, J. D., BROWN, F. B,, BUSCHING, H. W., CHISMAN,
section 4.1 is devoted to neutron-scattering techniques; Ri J. A., MOORE, J. H., ROSTRON, J. P, and SCHWARTZ,
is the review rating code. The following abbreviations are A. E., "Rapid Test Methods for Field Control of High-
used: way Construction." NCHRP Report 103 (1970) [5.0,
Ri—Good experimental data on a specific measure- 6.0, Ri].
ment method. ARIIzuMI, A., "Some Applications of Radioisotopes in the
R2—Good general data on moisture measurement. Field of Engineering." Oyo butusuri, Vol. 32, No. 6,
R3—Reportable data with questionable interpretation. pp. 411-420 (1963); AERE Trans. 1044, Harwell, Berk-
R4—Vague applicability. shire, Eng. [4.1, R4].
R5— In applicable. ARNOLD, J. H., "The Theory of the Psychrometer." Phys-
Abs.—Only the abstract was available for review. ics, Vol. 4, p. 334 (1933) [1.7, R2].
Gen.— General moisture-related work. ASCE, "Use of Neutron Meters in Soil Moisture Measure-
Sur.— Survey of many methods. ments." ASCE Proc., Vol. 90 (HY6), pp. 21-43 (Nov.
Bib.— Bibliography. 1964); Vol. 92 (HY3), pp. 72-75 (May 1966) [Sur.].
Tel.—Telemetering. ASHCROFT, G., and TAYLOR, S. A., "Soil Moisture Tension
as a Measure of Water Removal Rate from Soil and Its
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Relation to Weather Factors." Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
Proc., 171 (1953) [2.2, R3].
ABRAMS, M. S., and MONFORE, G. E., "Application of ASSMAN, R., "Aspiration Psychrometer: An Apparatus to
Small Probe-Type Humidity Gate to Research on Fire Determine Temperature and Humidity of Air." Preus-
Resistance of Concrete." PCA Res. and Development sisches Meteorologisches Institut, Abhandlungen, Vol. 1,
Labs. J., Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 2-12 (Sept. 1965) [1.1.1, R2]. No. 5, pp. 117-270 (1892) [1.7, Abs.].
AITCHISON, G. D., "Simplified Measurement of Soil Tem- BABINETS, A. E., and ZVOL'SKII, S. T., "Method of Scat-
perature and of Soil Moisture." Australian J. Appl. Sci., tered Neutrons and Gamma Rays in Studies of Moisture
Vol. 4, pp. 416-426 (1953) [2.2, R21. and Density of Rocks." The Uses of Radioactive Iso-
AITCHISON, G. D. (Ed.), Moisture Equilibria and Moisture topes and Nuclear Radiation in the U.S.S.R. (trans.),
Changes in Soils Beneath Covered Areas. Butterworths, Vol. 4, pp. 273-282, NASA File No. N67-21313 (1966)
Sydney, Australia (1965) 278 pp. [Gen.]. [4.2, R3].
AITCHISON, G. D., and RICHARDS, B. G., "Engineering BALLARD, L. F., and GARDNER, R. P., "Density and Mois-
Concepts of Moisture Equilibria and Moisture Changes ture Content Measurements by Nuclear Methods—In-
in Soils." Road Res. Lab. Rept. No. 38, pp. 1-35 (1966) terim Report." NCHRP Report 14 (1965) [4.1, Ri].
[Gen., R2]. BANIN, A., DAvEY, B. G., and Low, P. F., "Effect of Mem-
ALBERO, C. M., and PATTEN, M. C., "A Psychrometric brane Pore Size on Measurement of Water Tension in
Primer." Naval Eng. J., pp. 717-722 (Oct. 1968) [1.71 Bentonite Suspensions." Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.,
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VAN BAVEL, C. H. M., and STIRK, G. B., "Soil Water Mea- p. 1076 (1951) [1.1.1, R4].
surement with AM 241-Be Neutron Source and Appli- WEBB, P., and NEUGEBAUER, M. J., "Recording Dielectric
cation to Evaporimetry." J. Hydrology, Vol. 5, No. 1, Hygrometer for Expired Air." Rev. Sci. Instruments,
pp. 40-46 (Mar. 1967) [4.1, Ri]. Vol. 25, pp. 1212-1217 (1954) [1.2.1, R21.
VAN BAVEL, C. H. M., UNDERWOOD, N., and SWANSON, WELO, L. A., "Humidity-Resistance in Carbon-Coated Hy-
R. W., "Soil Moisture Measurement by Neutron Mod- groscopic Materials." Nature, Vol. 134, p. 936 (1934)
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Hydration Water in Hardened Concrete." Bull. RILEM,
ture Content by Logging." Internat. Geodetic & Geo- No. 15, pp. 133-134 (1962) [5.1.1, R3].
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VAN TASSEL, R. A., and SALISBURY, J. W., "Remote Detec- 667 (Feb. 27, 1962) [1.1.1, R3].
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sources, pp. 45-56 (1964) [1.4.13 R4]. R. E. Ruskin (ed.); Vol. 2, "Applications," E. J. Amdur
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 59

grometer." Rev. Sci. Instruments, Vol. 29, p. 36 (1958) ZIMMERMANN, U., MUENNICH, K. 0., and ROETHER, W.,
[1.4, Ri]. "Downward Movement of Soil Moisture Traced by
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WYLIE, R. G., "Moisture Explorations in Building Ma- pp. 28-36 (1967) [Gen., Abs.].
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mental Sciences, pp. 19-23 (June 1968) [1.7, R6]. Abs.].

APPENDIX C

REMOTE SENSING

The remote measurement field can be divided into three telemetry has reached a stage of development where it
basic categories: (i) phenomena that are remote by deserves serious consideration for highway engineering
nature, (2) wireless transmission of information, and applications, particularly in the area of moisture-related
(3) physical contact with the sensor element. Of the research (Caceres, 1965; see also NASA Rept. SP-5023,
three categories, the first is the most attractive; however, Rept. SP-5054, and Tech. Brief 66-10057). The incentive
it is the most difficult, and to a large extent has eluded for this development has been the combined requirements
the researcher, except for a few specific cases such as the of the aerospace industry and medical implant bioteleme-
nuclear techniques for near-surface measurements. This try. Some of these requirements are small size and weight,
category includes the transmission and reflection of elec- high reliability, low power drain, and long life.
tromagnetic and acoustical energy as well as nuclear par- A small circuit developed by MacKay is shown in Fig-
ticles. A good understanding of these phenomena within ure C-i (MacKay, 1965). This circuit may be used to
the highway engineering environment should prove fruit- demonstrate the basic compatibility of this technique with
ful in the development of future measurement methods. most of the moisture measurement techniques that have
The major limitation to date in this field has been the lack been identified. A notable exception is the nuclear method.
of understanding of interactions and interferences. Variation of the capacitance, C2, with moisture could be
The second category involves the transmission of data transmitted externally. The resistance, R, could be soil
from a point of interest to a remote location. This category resistance or a hyroscopic film resistance. By replacing
includes the radio transmitter. The sensing mechanism is R with a thermistor, soil temperature could be measured.
considered separately from the transmission mechanisms. Soil moisture tension could be measured by allowing
A typical application of this category would involve the pressure changes to move the transmitter core, M.
implanting of a transmitter with the sensor in the location
of the measurement and then telemetering the data outside
the system. The major problem here is the lack of a good,
inexpensive energy source that will last long enough to
meet present requirements and not significantly disturb the
sample.
The third technique involves a physical link with the
sensor element. An example here is a capacitance probe
implanted into the medium of interest, with wires attached
to the probe and extending outside the medium to the read-
out system. The range of materials, geometry, and sensing
techniques that can be considered is very wide. This cate-
gory of techniques has found some use in the research field,
but in general is frustrating and difficult to use on any
broad scale.
The second category appears to be the most fruitful area Figure C-i. A biotelemetry transmitter circuit (Mac-
of development at present. The technology of implant Kay, 1965).
60

Although the simple circuit of Figure c-i is inadequate There are commercial units available (American Elec-
in terms of long life and stability, the general technique tronic Laboratories, for instance), for special application,
can be greatly improved by using advanced microelectronic but effective use of this technique will require further work.
circuit techniques. For example, Fryer (1965) has re- Significant benefits should result from an applied research
ported an implantable microwatt transmitter that accu- and development program for the purpose of adapting im-
rately measures and telemeters deep body temperature for plant telemetry to specific moisture measurement methods
up to two years. to meet the needs of the highway engineer.
 Published reports of the Rep.
No. Title
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
20 Economic Study of Roadway Lighting (Proj. 5-4),
are available from: 77 p., $3.20
Highway Research Board 21 Detecting Variations in Load-Carrying Capacity of
National Academy of Sciences Flexible Pavements (Proj. 1-5), 30 p., $1.40
2101 Constitution Avenue 22 Factors Influencing Flexible Pavement Performance
Washington, D.C. 20418 (Proj. 1-3(2)), 69 p., $2.60
23 Methods for Reducing Corrosion of Reinforcing
Steel (Proj. 6-4), 22 p., $1.40
Rep. 24 Urban Travel Patterns for Airports, Shopping Cen-
No. Title
ters, and Industrial Plants (Proj. 7-1), 116 p.,
-* A Critical Review of Literature Treating Methods of $5.20
Identifying Aggregates Subject to Destructive Volume 25 Potential Uses of Sonic and Ultrasonic Devices in
Change When Frozen in Concrete and a Proposed Highway Construction (Proj. 10-7), 48 p., $2.00
Program of Research—Intermediate Report (Proj. 26 Development of Uniform Procedures for Establishing
4-3(2)), 81 p., $1.80 Construction Equipment Rental Rates (Proj. 13-1),
1 Evaluation of Methods of Replacement of Deterio- 33 p., $1.60
rated Concrete in Structures (Proj. 6-8), 56 p., 27 Physical Factors Influencing Resistance of Concrete
$2.80 to Deicing Agents (Proj. 6-5), 41 p., $2.00
2 An Introduction to Guidelines for Satellite Studies of 28 Surveillance Methods and Ways and Means of Com-
Pavement Performance (Proj. 1-1), 19 p., $1.80 municating with Drivers (Proj. 3-2), 66 p., $2.60
2A Guidelines for Satellite Studies of Pavement Per- 29 Digital-Computer-Controlled Traffic Signal System
formance, 85 p.+9 figs., 26 tables, 4 app., $3.00 for a Small City (Proj. 3-2), 82 p., $4.00
3 Improved Criteria for Traffic Signals at Individual 30 Extension of AASHO Road Test Performance Con-
Intersections—Interim Report (Proj. 3-5), 36 p., cepts (Proj. 1-4(2)), 33 p., $1.60
$1.60 31 A Review of Transportation Aspects of Land-Use
4 Non-Chemical Methods of Snow and Ice Control on Control (Proj. 8-5), 41 p., $2.00
Highway Structures (Proj. 6-2), 74 p., $3.20 32 Improved Criteria for Traffic Signals at Individual
5 Effects of Different Methods of Stockpiling Aggre- Intersections (Proj. 3-5), 134 p., $5.00
gates—Interim Report (Proj. 10-3), 48 p., $2.00 33 Values of Time Savings of Commercial Vehicles
6 Means of Locating and Communicating with Dis- (Proj. 2-4), 74p., $3.60
abled Vehicles—Interim Report (Proj. 3-4), 56 p. 34 Evaluation of Construction Control Procedures—
$3.20 Interim Report (Proj. 10-2), 117 p., $5.00
7 Comparison of Different Methods of Measuring 35 Prediction of Flexible Pavement Defiections from
Pavement Condition—Interim Report (Proj. 1-2), Laboratory Repeated-Load Tests (Proj. 1-3(3)),
29p., $1.80 117p., $5.00
8 Synthetic Aggregates for Highway Construction 36 Highway Guardrails—A Review of Current Practice
(Proj. 4-4), 13 p., $1.00 (Proj. 15-1), 33 p., $1.60
9 Traffic Surveillance and Means of Communicating 37 Tentative Skid-Resistance Requirements for Main
with Drivers—Interim Report (Proj. 3-2), 28 p., Rural Highways (Proj. 1-7), 80 p., $3.60
$1.60 38 Evaluation of Pavement Joint and Crack Sealing Ma-
10 Theoretical Analysis of Structural Behavior of Road terials and Practices (Proj. 9-3), $2.00
40 p.,
Test Flexible Pavements (Proj. 1-4), 31 p., $2.80 39 Factors Involved in the Design of Asphaltic Pave-
11 Effect of Control Devices on Traffic Operations— ment Surfaces (Proj. 1-8), 112 p., $5.00
Interim Report (Proj. 3-6), 107 p., $5.80 40 Means of Locating Disabled or Stopped Vehicles
12 Identification of Aggregates Causing Poor Concrete (Proj. 3-4(1)), 40 p., $2.00
Performance When Frozen—Interim Report (Proj. 41 Effect of Control Devices on Traffic Operations
4-3(1)), 47 p., $3.00 (Proj. 3-6), $3.60
13 Running Cost of Motor Vehicles as Affected by High- 83 p.,
42 Interstate Highway Maintenance Requirements and
way Design—Interim Report (Proj. 2-5), 43 p., Unit Maintenance Expenditure Index (Proj. 14-1),
$2.80 144 p., $5.60
14 Density and Moisture Content Measurements by
43 Density and Moisture Content Measurements by
Nuclear Methods—Interim Report (Proj. 105),
Nuclear Methods (Proj. 10-5), 38 p., $2.00
32 p., $3.00
15 Identification of Concrete Aggregates Exhibiting 44 Traffic Attraction of Rural Outdoor Recreational
Frost Susceptibility—Interim Report (Proj. 4-3(2)), Areas (Proj. 7-2), 28 p., $1.40
$4.00 45 Development of Improved Pavement Marking Ma-
66 p.,
16 Protective Coatings to Prevent Deterioration of Con- terials—Laboratory Phase (Proj. 5-5), 24 p.,
crete by Deicing Chemicals (Proj. 6-3), $1.40
21 p., 46 Effects of Different Methods of Stockpiling and
$1.60
17 Development of Guidelines for Practical and Realis- Handling Aggregates (Proj. 10-3), 102 p.,
tic Construction Specifications (Proj. 10-1), 109 p., $4.60
$6.00 47 Accident Rates as Related to Design Elements of
18 Community Consequences of Highway Improvement Rural Highways (Proj. 2-3), 173 p., $6.40
(Proj. 2-2), 37 p., $2.80 48 Factors and Trends in Trip Lengths (Proj. 7-4),
19 Economical and Effective Deicing Agents for Use on 70 p., $3.20
Highway Structures (Proj. 6-1), 19 p., $1.20 49 National Survey of Transportation Attitudes and
Behavior—Phase I Summary Report (Proj. 20-4),
* Highway Research Board Special Report 80.
71 p., $3.20
Rep. Rep.
No. Title No. Title
50 Factors 1nfluencing Safety at Highway-Rail Grade 76 Detecting Seasonal Changes in Load-Carrying Ca-
Crossings (Proj. 3-8), 113 p., $5.20 pabilities of Flexible Pavements (Proj. 1-5(2)),
51 Sensing and Communication Between Vehicles (Proj. 37 p., $2.00
3-3), 105 p., $5.00 77 Development of Design Criteria for Safer Luminaire
52 Measurement of Pavement Thickness by Rapid and Supports (Proj. 15-6), 82 p., $3.80
Nondestructive Methods (Proj. 10-6), 82 p., 78 Highway Noise—Measurement, Simulation, and
$3.80 Mixed Reactions (Proj. 3-7), 78 p., $3.20
53 Multiple Use of Lands Within Highway Rights-of- 79 Development of Improved Methods for Reduction of
Way (Proj. 7-6), 68 p., $3.20 Traffic Accidents (Proj. 17-1), 163 p., $6.40
54 Location, Selection, and Maintenance of Highway 80 Oversize-Overweight Permit Operation on State High-
Guardrails and Median Barriers (Proj. 15-1(2)), ways (Proj. 2-10), 120 p., $5.20
63 p., $2.60 81 Moving Behavior and Residential Choice—A Na-
55 Research Needs in Highway Transportation (Proj. tional Survey (Proj. 8-6), 129 p., $5.60
20-2), 66 p., $2.80 82 National Survey of Transportation Attitudes and
56 Scenic Easements—Legal, Administrative, and Valua- Behavior—Phase II Analysis Report (Proj. 20-4),
tion Problems and Procedures (Proj. 11-3), 174 p., 89 p., $4.00
$6.40 83 Distribution of Wheel Loads on Highway Bridges
57 Factors Influencing Modal Trip Assignment (Proj. (Proj. 12-2), 56 p., $2.80
8-2), 78 p., $3.20 84 Analysis and Projection of Research on Traffic
58 Comparative Analysis of Traffic Assignment Tech- Surveillance, Communication, and Control (Proj.
niques with Actual Highway Use (Proj. 7-5), 85 p., 3-9), 48 p., $2.40
$3.60 85 Development of Formed-in-Place Wet Reflective
Markers (Proj. 5-5), 28 p., $1.80
59 Standard Measurements for Satellite Road Test Pro-
gram (Proj. 1-6), $3.20 86 Tentative Service Requirements for Bridge Rail Sys-
78 p., tems (Proj. 12-8), $3.20
60 Effects of Illumination on Operating Characteristics 62 p.,
of Freeways (Proj. 5-2) 148 p., $6.00 87 Rules of Discovery and Disclosure in Highway Con-
demnation Proceedings (Proj. 11-1(5)), 28 p.,
61 Evaluation of Studded Tires—Performance Data and
Pavement Wear Measurement (Proj. 1-9), $2.00
66 p., 88 Recognition of Benefits to Remainder Property in
$3.00 Highway Valuation Cases (Proj. 11-1(2)), 24 p.,
62 Urban Travel Patterns for Hospitals, Universities,
Office Buildings, and Capitols (Proj. 7-1), $2.00
144 p., 89 Factors, Trends, and Guidelines Related to Trip
$5.60 Length (Proj. 7-4), $3.20
63 Economics of Design Standards for Low-Volume 59 p.,
$4.00 90 Protection of Steel in Prestressed Concrete Bridges
Rural Roads (Proj. 2-6), 93 p., (Proj. 12-5), $4.00
64 Motorists' Needs and Services on Interstate Highways 86 p.,
91 Effects of Deicing Salts on Water Quality and Biota
(Proj. 7-7), 88 p., $3.60 —Literature Review and Recommended Research
65 One-Cycle Slow-Freeze Test for Evaluating Aggre- (Proj. 16-1), $3.20
gate Performance in Frozen Concrete (Proj. 4-3(1)), 70 p.,
92 Valuation and Condemnation of Special Purpose
21 p., $1.40 Properties (Proj. 11-1(6)), $2.60
47 p.,
66 Identification of Frost-Susceptible Particles in Con-
$2.80 93 Guidelines for Medial and Marginal Access Control
crete Aggregates (Proj. 4-3(2)), 62 p., on Major Roadways (Proj. 3-13), 147 p.,
67 Relation of Asphalt Rheological Properties to Pave-
ment Durability (Proj. 9-1), $2.20 $6.20
45 p.,
68 Application of Vehicle Operating Characteristics to 94 Valuation and Condemnation Problems Involving
Geometric Design and Traffic Operations (Proj. 3- Trade Fixtures (Proj. 11-1(9)), 22 p., $1.80
10), 38 p., $2.00 95 Highway Fog (Proj. 5-6), 48 p., $2.40
69 Evaluation of Construction Control Procedures— 96 Strategies for the Evaluation of Alternative Trans-
Aggregate Gradation Variations and Effects (Proj. portation Plans (Proj. 8-4), 111 p., $5.40
10-2A), 58 p., $2.80 97 Analysis of Structural Behavior of AASHO Road
70 Social and Economic Factors Affecting Intercity Test Rigid Pavements (Proj. 1-4(1)A), 35 p.,
Travel (Proj. 8-1), 68 p., $3.00 $2.60
71 Analytical Study of Weighing Methods for Highway 98 Tests for Evaluating Degradation of Base Course
Vehicles in Motion (Proj. 7-3), 63 p., $2.80 Aggregates (Proj. 4-2), 98 p. $5.00
72 Theory and Practice in Inverse Condemnation for 99 Visual Requirements in Night Driving (Proj. 5-3),
Five Representative States (Proj. 11-2), 44 p.. 38 p., $2.60
$2.20 100 Research Needs Relating to Performance of Aggre-
73 Improved Criteria for Traffic Signal Systenis on gates in Highway Construction (Proj. 4-8), 68 p.,
Urban Arterials (Proj. 3-5/1), 55 p., $2.80 $3.40
74 Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel 101 Effect of Stress on Freeze-Thaw Durability of Con-
- (Proj. 4-6), 64 p., $2.80 crete Bridge Decks (Proj. 6-9), 70 p., $3.60
74A Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel— 102 Effect of Weldments on the Fatigue Strength of Steel
Literature Survey (Proj. 4-6), 275 p., $8.00 Beams (Proj. 12-7), 114.p., $5.40
74B Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel— 103 Rapid Test Methods for Field Control of Highway
Current Highway Practices (Proj. 4-6), 102 p.' Construction (Proj. 10-4), 89 p., $5.00
$4.00 104 Rules of Compensability and Valuation Evidence
75 Effect of Highway Landscape Development on for Highway Land Acquisition (Proj. 11-1).
Nearby Property (Proj. 2-9), 82 p., $3.60 77 p., $4.40
Rep. Rep.
No. Title No. Title
105 Dynamic Pavement Loads of Heavy Highway Vehi- 133 Procedures for Estimat11g Highway User Costs, Air
cles (Proj. 15-5), 94 p., $5.00 Pollution, and Noise Effects (Proj. 7-8), 127 p.,
106 Revibration of Retarded Concrete for Continuous $5.60
Bridge Decks (Proj. 18-1), 67 p., $3.40 134 Damages Due to Drainage, Runoff, Blasting, and
107 New Approaches to Compensation for Residential Slides (Proj. 11-1(8)), 24 p., $2.80
Takings (Proj. 11-1(10)), 27 p., $2.40 135 Promising Replacements for Conventional Aggregates
108 Tentative Design Procedure for Riprap-Lined Chan- for Highway Use (Proj. 4-10),
nels (Proj. 15-2), 53 p., $3.60
75 p., $4.00 136 Estimating Peak Runoff Rates from Ungaged Small
109 Elastomeric Bearing Research (Proj. 12-9), 53 p., Rural Watersheds (Proj. 15-4),
$3.00 85 p., $4.60
137 Roadside Development—Evaluation of Research
110 Optimizing Street Operations Through Traffic Regu- (Proj. 16-2), $4.20
lations and Control (Proj. 3-11), 78 p.,
100 p., $4.40 138 Instrumentation for Measurement of Moisture—
111 Running Costs of Motor Vehicles as Affected by Literature Review and Recommended Research
Road Design and Traffic (Proj. 2-5a and 2-7), (Proj. 21-1), $4.00
60 p.,
97 p., $5.20
112 Junkyard Valuation—Salvage Industry Appraisal
Principles Applicable to Highway Beautification
(Proj. 11-3(2)), 41 p., $2.60
113 Optimizing Flow on Existing Street Networks (Proj.
3-14), 414p., $15.60
114 Effects of Proposed Highway Improvements on Prop-
erty Values (Proj. 11-1(1)), 42 p., $2.60 Synthesis of Highway Practice
115 Guardrail Performance and Design (Proj. 15-1(2)), No. Title
70 p., $3.60
116 Structural Analysis and Design of Pipe Culverts (Proj. 1 Traffic Control for Freeway Maintenance (Proj. 20-5,
15-3), 155 p., $6.40 Topic 1), 47 p., $2.20
117 Highway Noise—A Design Guide for Highway En- 2 Bridge Approach Design and Construction Practices
gineers (Proj. 3-7), $4.60 (Proj. 20-5, Topic 2), 30 p., $2.00
79 p.,
118 Location, Selection, and Maintenance of Highway 3 Traffic-Safe and Hydraulically Efficient Drainage
Traffic Barriers (Proj. 15-1(2)), Practice (Proj. 20-5, Topic 4), 38 p., $2.20
96 p., $5.20 4 Concrete Bridge Deck Durability (Proj. 20-5, Topic
119 Control of Highway Advertising Signs—Some Legal 3),
Problems (Proj. 11-3(1)), 28 p., $2.20
72 p., $3.60 5 Scour at Bridge Waterways (Proj. 20-5, Topic 5),
120 Data Requirements for Metropolitan Transportation $2.40
Planning (Proj. 8-7), 37 p.,
90 p., $4.80 6 Principles of Project Scheduling and Monitoring
121 Protection of Highway Utility (Proj. 8-5), 115 p., (Proj. 20-5, Topic 6),
$5.60 43 p., $2.40
7 Motorist Aid Systems (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-01),
122 Summary and Evaluation of Economic Consequences 28 p., $2.40
of Highway Improvements (Proj. 2-11), 324 p., 8 Construction of Embankments (Proj. 20-5, Topic 9),
$13.60 $2.40
38 p.,
123 Development of Information Requirements and 9 Pavement Rehabilitation—Materials and Techniques
Transmission Techniques for Highway Users (Proj. (Proj. 20-5, Topic 8), $2.80
3-12) 41 p.,
239 p., $9.60 10 Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Maintenance and
124 Improved Criteria for Traffic Signal Systems in Ur- Equipment Personnel (Proj. 20-5, Topic 10), 35 p.,
ban Networks (Proj. 3-5) 86 p., $4.80 $2.80
125 Optimization of Density and Moisture Content Mea- 11 Development of Management Capability (Proj. 20-5,
surements by Nuclear Methods (Proj. 10-5A),
$4.40 Topic 12), sop., $3.20
86 p.,
126 Divergencies in Right-of-Way Valuation (Proj. 11- 12 Telecommunications Systems for Highway Admin-
4), 57 p., $3.00 istration and Operations (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-03),
127 Snow Removal and Ice Control Techniques at Inter- 29 p., $2.80
changes (Proj. 6-10), 13 Radio Spectrum Frequency Management (Proj. 20-5,
90 p., $5.20 Topic 3-03),
128 Evaluation of AASHO Interim Guides for Design 32 p., $2.80
of Pavement Structures (Proj. 1-11), 14 Skid Resistance (Proj. 20-5, Topic 7), 66 p.,
111 p., $4.00
$5.60
15 Statewide Transportation Planning—Needs and Re-
129 Guardrail Crash Test Evaluation—New Concepts
and End Designs (Proj. 15-1(2)), quirements (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-02), 41 p.,
89 p., $3.60
$4.80
16 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (Proj.
130 Roadway Delineation Systems (Proj. 5-7), 349 p., 20-5, Topic 3-08), 23 p., $2.80
$14.00
131 Performance Budgeting System for Highway Main-
tenance Management (Proj. 19-2(4)), 213 p.,
$8.40
132 Relationships Between Physiographic Units and
Highway Design Factors (Proj. 1-3(1)), 161 p.,
$7.20
T H E NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a private, honorary organiza-
tion of more than 700 scientists and engineers elected on the basis of outstanding
contributions to knowledge. Established by a Congressional Act of Incorporation
signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3, 1863, and supported by private
and public funds, the Academy works to further science and its use for the general
welfare by bringing together the most qualified individuals to deal with scientific and
technological problems of broad significance.
Under the terms of its Congressional charter, the Academy is also called upon
to act as an official—yet independent—adviser to the Federal Government in any
matter of science and technology. This provision accounts for the close ties that
have always existed between the Academy and the Government, although the Academy
is not a governmental agency and its activities are not limited to those on behalf of
the Government.

THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING was established on December

5, 1964. On that date the Council of the National Academy of Sciences, under the
authority of its Act of Incorporation, adopted Articles of Organization bringing
the National Academy of Engineering into being, independent and autonomous
in its organization and the election of its members, and closely coordinated with
the National Academy of Sciences in its advisory activities. The two Academies
join in the furtherance of science and engineering and share the responsibility of
advising the Federal Government, upon request, on any subject of science or
technology.

THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL was organized as an agency of the

National Academy of Sciences in 1916, at the request of President Wilson, to
enable the broad community of U. S. scientists and engineers to associate their
efforts with the limited membership of the Academy in service to science and the
nation. Its members, who receive their appointments from the President of the
National Academy of Sciences, are drawn from academic, industrial and government
organizations throughout the country. The National Research Council serves both
Academies in the discharge of their responsibilities.
Supported by private and public contributions, grants, and contracts, and volun-
tary contributions of time and effort by several thousand of the nation's leading
scientists and engineers, the Academies and their Research Council thus work to
serve the national interest, to foster the sound development of science and engineering,
and to promote their effective application for the benefit of society.

THE DIVISION OF ENGINEERING is one of the eight major Divisions into

which the National Research Council is organized for the conduct of its work.
Its membership includes representatives of the nation's leading technical societies as
well as a number of members-at-large. Its Chairman is appointed by the Council
of the Academy of Sciences upon nomination by the Council of the Academy of
Engineering.

THE HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD, organized November 11, 1920, as an

agency of the Division of Engineering, is a cooperative organization of the high-
way technologists of America operating under the auspices of the National Research
Council and with the support of the several highway departments, the Federal Highway
Administration, and many other organizations interested in the development of trans-
portation. The purpose of the Board is to advance knowledge concerning the nature
and performance of transportation systems, through the stimulation of research and
dissemination of information derived therefrom.
 HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES—NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
NON-PROFIT ORG.
2101 Constitutiøn Avenue Washington, D. C. 20418 U.S. POSTAGE
PAID
WASHINGTON, D.C.
PERMIT NO. 42970
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