ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
STREAM OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Advanced Computer Networks
Group Assignment:
Submitted By
NAME ID
Alemu Belay………………….ETR/0314/08
Anteneh Melese………………ETR/0326/08
Bereket Worku……………….ETR/0322/08
Elfie Getachew……………………ETR/0463/08
Mengeshaw Aynalem……………..ETR/1737/08

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Submitted to: Instructor: Naterajan C.
Submission Date: Dec/12/24/2020 G.C
Assosa, Ethiopia
1. Why are protocols necessary in communication?
Protocols are basically needed because it's important for the receiver to UNDRSTAND the
sender. In computer communications, protocols also make sure the message gets to its
destination properly, in entirety, and with out distortion.
Network protocols are needed because it include mechanisms for devices to identify and
make connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is
packaged into messages sent and received.
A network protocol includes the pre-defined rules and conventions for communication
between network and devices connected. These include identifying and establishing
connections among devices. Besides, there are formatting rules specifying packaging,
sending, and receiving messages. Additionally, there are protocols for message
acknowledgment and data compression too. It also enables the establishment of reliable and
high-performing network communication. 
In the absence of protocols, devices would not be able to understand the electronic signals
that they send while communicating over network connections. Nowadays, protocols use
packet switching techniques to send and receive messages in the form of packets. These
messages are again divided, collected, and reassembled at their destination. Numerous
computer network protocols serve defined purpose and environment.
2.Discuss the purpose of the Network layer in data communication?
It determines the route from the source to the destination and also manages the traffic
problems such as switching, routing and controls the congestion of data packets. The main
role of the network layer is to move the packets from sending host to the receiving host.
The network layer is a portion of online communications that allows for the connection and
transfer of data packets between different devices or networks.
Anything that has to do with inter-network connections takes place at the network layer. This
includes setting up the routes for data packets to take, checking to see if a server in another
network is up and running, and addressing and receiving IP packets from other networks.
This last process is perhaps the most important, as the vast majority of Internet traffic is sent
over IP.
The network layer is the third level (Layer 3) of the Open Systems Interconnection Model
(OSI Model) and the layer that provides data routing paths for network communication. Data
is transferred to the receiving device in the form of packets via logical network paths in an
ordered format controlled by the network layer. Logical connection setup, data forwarding,
routing and delivery error reporting are the network layer’s primary responsibilities. Layer 3
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can be either able to support connection-oriented or connectionless networks (but not both of
them at the same time).
3.Discuss the role of the major header field in the IPv4 and IPv6 packets?
IP Header is meta information at the beginning of an IP packet. It displays information such
as the IP version, the packet's length, the source, and the destination.
IPV4 header format is 20 to 60 bytes in length. It contains information need for routing and
delivery. It consists of 13 fields such as Version, Header length, total distance, identification,
flags, checksum, source IP address, destination IP address. It provides essential data need to
transmit the data.
Two different versions of IP are used in practice today: IPv4 and IPv6. The IPv6 header uses
IPv6 addresses and thus offers a much bigger address space but is not backward compatible
with IPv4. Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol
(IP). It is one of the core protocols of standards-based internetworking methods in the
Internet and other packet-switched networks. IPv4 was the first version deployed for
production on SATNET in 1982 and on the ARPANET in January 1983. It still routes most
Internet traffic today,[1] despite the ongoing deployment of a successor protocol, IPv6.

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 IPv4 uses a 32-bit address space which provides 4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses, but
large blocks are reserved for special networking methods.

IPv4 and IPv6 main headers. The options field in the IPv4 header is used to convey
additional information on the packet or on the way it should be processed. ... The processing
of most header options pushes the packet into the slow path leading to a forwarding
performance hit.
The IPv6 protocol defines a set of headers, including the basic IPv6 header and the IPv6
extension headers.
The following figure shows the fields that appear in the IPv6 header and the order in which
the fields appear.
Version Traffic class Flow label
Payload length Next header Hop limit
Source address
Destination address
The following list describes the function of each header field.

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  Version – 4-bit version number of Internet Protocol = 6.
 Traffic class – 8-bit traffic class field.
 Flow label – 20-bit field.
 Payload length – 16-bit unsigned integer, which is the rest of the packet that follows
the IPv6 header, in octets.
 Next header – 8-bit selector. Identifies the type of header that immediately follows
the IPv6 header. Uses the same values as the IPv4 protocol field.
 Hop limit – 8-bit unsigned integer. Decremented by one by each node that forwards
the packet. The packet is discarded if the hop limit is decremented to zero.
 Source address – 128 bits. The address of the initial sender of the packet.
 Destination address – 128 bits. The address of the intended recipient of the packet.
The intended recipient is not necessarily the recipient if an optional routing header is
present.
4.What are the common components and interface of router?
A generic router has four components: input ports, output ports, a switching fabric, and a
routing processor. An input port is the point of attachment for a physical link and is the point
of entry for incoming packets. Ports are instantiated on line cards, which typically support 4,
8, or 16 ports.
Internal components:
a. ROM:- Used to store the routers bootstrap details, operating system software.
b. Flash memory: - holds the operating systems images. The content is retained when the
router is restarted.
c. RAM: - Used to store the Routing tables, configuration files, caching and buffering details.
Content is lost when lost router is switched off or restarted.
d. NVRAM:- Stores the routers startup config files. Data is non volatile.
e. Network interfaces to connect router to network.
External components:
a. Virtual terminals: For accessing routers
b. Network management stations.
LAN interfaces – Used for connecting cables that terminate with LAN devices, such as
computers and switches. This interface can also be used to connect routers to each other.
WAN interfaces – Used for connecting routers to external networks, usually over a larger
geographical distance.
Router Interfaces
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Routers can have many different types of connectors; from Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and
Token Ring to Serial and ISDN ports.  Some of the available configurable items are logical
addresses (IP,IPX), media types, bandwidth, and administrative commands.  Interfaces are
configured in interface mode which you get to from global configuration mode after logging
in. Interfaces are used by a router for routing packets and bridging frames through a router.
The types of interfaces available change over time due to new technology. For example,
packet-over-SONET and voice interfaces are relatively recent additions to the product line.
However, some confusion exists about what to call the actual cards that house the physical
interfaces. Table 2-2 summarizes the terminology that might be referred to on the test.
5.How are IPv6 addresses represented?
IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups, separated by colons, of four hexadecimal
digits. The full representation may be shortened; for example,
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 becomes 2001:db8::8a2e:370:7334. An IPv6
address is represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each group representing
16 bits (two octets, a group sometimes also called a hextet). The groups are separated by
colons (:). An example of an IPv6 address is: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.
The IPv6 address size is 128 bits. The preferred IPv6 address representation is:
x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, where each x is the hexadecimal values of the eight 16-bit pieces of the
address. IPv6 addresses range from 0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000 to
ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff.
In addition to this preferred format, IPv6 addresses might be specified in two other shortened
formats:
Omit leading zeros
Specify IPv6 addresses by omitting leading zeros. For example, IPv6 address
1050:0000:0000:0000:0005:0600:300c:326b can be written as
1050:0:0:0:5:600:300c:326b.
Double colon
Specify IPv6 addresses by using double colons (::) in place of a series of zeros. For
example, IPv6 address ff06:0:0:0:0:0:0:c3 can be written as ff06::c3. Double colons
can be used only once in an IP address.
An alternative format for IPv6 addresses combines the colon and dotted notation, so the IPv4
address can be embedded in the IPv6 address. Hexadecimal values are specified for the left-
most 96 bits, and decimal values are specified for the right-most 32 bits indicating the

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embedded IPv4 address. This format ensures compatibility between IPv6 nodes and IPv4
nodes when you are working in a mixed network environment.
IPv4-mapped IPv6 address uses this alternative format. This type of address is used to
represent IPv4 nodes as IPv6 addresses. It allows IPv6 applications to communicate directly
with IPv4 applications. For example, 0:0:0:0:0:ffff:192.1.56.10 and ::ffff:192.1.56.10/96
(shortened format).
6.How is ICMP used in IPv4 and IPv6 addresses?
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) in IPv6 functions the same as ICMP in IPv4.
ICMP generates error messages, such as ICMP destination unreachable messages, and
informational messages, such as ICMP echo request and reply messages. Additionally, ICMP
packets in IPv6 are used in the IPv6 neighbor discovery process, path MTU discovery, and
the Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) protocol for IPv6. MLD is used by IPv6 devices to
discover multicast listeners (nodes that want to receive multicast packets destined for specific
multicast addresses) on directly attached links. MLD is based on version 2 of the Internet
Group Management Protocol (IGMP) for IPv4
ICMP is available for both IPv4 and IPv6. ICMPv4 is the messaging protocol for IPv4.
ICMPv6 provides these same services for IPv6 but includes additional functionality. In this
course, the term ICMP will be used when referring to both ICMPv4 and ICMPv6
In IPv4, ICMP was used for error reporting and flow control management among others. Due
to lack of security consideration in the design of ICMPv4 protocol leading to numerous
vulnerabilities, this has led to exploitation and attacks on a particular network. IPv6 is a new
protocol introduced to replace IPv4 in order to circumvent IP address depletion. In the new
IPv6, the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is an essential component. The IPv6 is
designed to incorporate more ICMP messages in addition to the basic one found in IPv4.
While the IPv4 utilized the ARP functionality, in the IPv6 this has been replaced with Router
Discovery and Neighbor Discovery messages. Moreover, fragmentation in IPV6 as opposed
to IPv4 is only done by endpoints.
Fragmentation requires that ICMP type 2 packets are sent to the host and allowed into the
network. If this is not done, the fragmentation will break. This is a drawback, but considering
that the MTU for fragmentation in IPv6 is 1280 octets as compared to the 576 in IPv4, the
need for frequent fragmentation will not emerge that often
7.How are the Ping and traceroute utilities used to test Network activities?
Ping and Trace Route tests can help to identify any connection issues between your network
and a specified server (or website) address. The PING command is used to test the
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connection and latency between two network connections. The PING command sends
packets of information to a specified IP Address and then measures the time it takes to get a
response from the specified computer or device.
Traceroute and Ping network tools or utilities that use the ICMP protocol to perform testing
to diagnose issues on a network.
Instructions for Windows XP. Vista or Windows 7 (for Windows 8 and Mac, see below)
1. Open the command window by clicking START, then RUN. Type CMD, and hit
Enter or click OK.
2. Type PING in the command dialogue window.
3. Hit the space bar once.
4. Type the IP or website address that you want to ping. For example, if you want to
ping your own website, type (without quotes) "mywebsiteaddress.com" <- REPLACE
this with your own website address
5. Hit "Enter" or return on your keyboard. If the website is up and actively responding,
you receive replies back from the server that you pinged with the following
information:
 The IP address
 The number of Bytes sent
 The time it took in milliseconds
 Any information loss during transit
6. You can now move to the next step to perform a TRACERT test (see below)
Trace Route test
The TRACERT command is used to conduct a similar test to PING, but instead of
displaying the time it takes to connect, it looks at the exact server hops required to
connect your computer to the server.
You should already have the CMD prompt dialogue box open, after performing the
PING test above.
1. Type "TRACERT" (without quotes) in the command dialogue window.
2. Hit the space bar once.
3. Type the IP or website address that you want to check. For example, if you
want to check your own website, type (without quotes)
"mywebsiteaddress.com" <- REPLACE this with your own website address

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 4. Hit "Enter" or return on your keyboard. If the website is up and actively
responding, you receive replies back from the server that you pinged with the
following information:
 The number of hops to reach the server from your computer.
8.What are the uses of private and public addresses space?
All IPv4 IP addresses can be divided into two major groups: global, or public, or external -
this group can also be called 'WAN addresses' — those that are used in the Internet, and
private, or local, or internal addresses — those that are used in the local network (LAN). It is
public global addresses that are used in the Internet. A public IP address is an IP address that
is used to access the Internet. Public (global) IP addresses are routed on the Internet, unlike
private addresses. 
The presence of a public IP address on your router or computer will allow you to organize
your own server (VPN, FTP, WEB, etc.), remote access to your computer, video surveillance
cameras, and access them from anywhere in the global network. Private internal addresses are
not routed on the Internet and no traffic cannot be sent to them from the Internet, they only
supposed to work within the local network.
Private Address Space
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has reserved the following three blocks of
IP address space for private networks:
 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
The first block is a single class A network number, the second block is a set of 16 contiguous
class B network numbers, and the third block is a set of 255 contiguous class C network
numbers.
If you decide to use private address space, you don't need to coordinate with IANA or an
Internet registry. Addresses within this private address space will only be unique within your
network. Remember, if you need globally unique address space, you must obtain addresses
from an Internet registry.
In order to use private address space, determine which hosts do not need to have network
layer connectivity to the outside. These hosts are private hosts, and use private address space.
Private hosts can communicate with all other hosts within the network, both public and
private, but they cannot have IP connectivity to any external host. Private hosts can still have
access to external services via application layer relays.
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All other hosts are public and use globally unique address space assigned by an Internet
registry. Public hosts can communicate with other hosts within the network, and can have IP
connectivity to external public hosts. Public hosts do not have connectivity to private hosts of
other networks.
Because private addresses have no global meaning, routing information about private
networks is not propagated on outside links, and packets with private source or destination
addresses should not be forwarded across such links. Routers in networks that do not use
private address space, especially those of Internet service providers, should be configured to
reject (filter out) routing information about private networks. This rejection should not be
treated as a routing protocol error.
Indirect references to such addresses (like DNS Resource Records) should be contained
within the network. Internet service providers should take measures to prevent such leakage.
The obvious advantage of using private address space for the Internet at large is to conserve
the globally unique address space. Using private address space also gives you greater
flexibility in network design, since you will have more address space available than you
could get from the globally unique pool.
The primary disadvantage of using private address space is that you have to renumber your IP
addresses if you want to connect to the Internet.
9.How do local hosts access remote resources on a Network?
Remote resources are resources that reside on a remote system but that need to be accessed
by the local CICS® system. In general, you must define all these resources in your local
CICS system, in a similar way as you define your local resources, by using CICS resource
definition online (RDO) or resource definition macros, depending on the resource type.
1. Click the Start button and type the word Remote. Then click the Remote Desktop
Connection icon. ...
2. Enter the name of the computer you want to connect to. ...
3. Click the Connect button. ...
4. Enter your username and password, and then click OK. ...
5. Use the remote computer!
10.How does data encapsulation allow data to be transported across the network?
The packet is the basic unit of information transferred across a network, consisting, at a
minimum, of a header with the sending and receiving hosts' addresses, and a body with the
data to be transferred. ... When a protocol on the sending host adds data to the packet header,
the process is called data encapsulation.
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The sending and receiving of data from a source device to the destination device is possible
with the help of networking protocols when data encapsulation is used. The data is
encapsulated with protocol information at each OSI reference model layer when a host
transmits data to another device across a network. Each layer communicates with its neighbor
layer on the destination. Each layer uses Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to communicate and
exchange information.
 encapsulation process with the OSI model

The Data Encapsulation Process

1. One computer requests to send data to another over a network.
 2. The data message flows through the Application Layer by using a TCP or UDP port
to pass onto the internet layer.
3. The data segment obtains logical addressing at the Internet Layer via the IP
protocol, and the data is then encapsulated into a datagram.
4. The datagram enters the Network Access Layer, where software will interface with
the physical network. A data frame encapsulates the datagram for entry onto the
physical network. At the end of the process, the frame is converted to a stream of bits
that is then transmitted to the receiving computer.
5. The receiving computer removes the frame, and passes the packet onto the Internet
Layer. The Internet Layer will then remove the header information and send the data to
the Transport layer. Likewise, the Transport layer removes header information and
passes data to the final layer. At this final layer the data is whole again, and can be
read by the receiving computer if no errors are present.

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