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MATHEMATICS
(1)
First Year
DIFFERENIATION
AND
INTEGRATION

-2-
 THE CONTENTS

Chapter (1): Functions and limits P.5

(1-1) Some definitions and concepts about real numbers P.1
(1-2) Functions P.11
(1-3) Limits of a function. P.11
(1-4) Differentiation P.32

Chapter (2) Some applications of derivatives

(2-1) Geometrical applications of derivatives P.45
(2-2) Maxima and Minimum P.53
(2-3) Sketching a curve P.63
(2-4) Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) P.78

Chapter (3): Exponential and logarithmic functions -

(3-1) Notes about one-one functions P.91
(3-2) Inverse functions P.93
(3-3) Napier’s number P.98
(3-4) The logarithm and exponential functions P.101
(3-5) Derivatives of logarithmic and exponential functions
P.110
(3-6) Ant derivatives (Integral) P.125

-3-
Chapter (4) : Trigonometric functions
(4-1) Trigonometric identities P.132
(4-2) The curves of the trigonometricfirnctions and their
properties P.134
(4-3) Trigonometric limits P.140
(4-4) Derivarive of trigonometric function P.151
(4-5 Integrals of trigonometric functions P.159

Chapter (5): The definite integral

(5-1) The definition of the definite integral P.175
(5-2) The fundamental theorem of calculus P.177
(5-3) Properties of the definite integral P.179
(5-4) Applications of the definite integral P.189
(5-5) L’Hospitals rule P.214

-4-
CHAPTER (1)
FUNCTIONS
and
LIMITS

-5-
 Chapter (1)
Functions and limits

The aim of our study in this chapter is to remember

the pre 13 universal study and try to connect it with the
universal study.

(1-1) Some definitions and concepts about Real

Numbers: last years, we have studied the following sets of
numbers:
1) Set of natural numbers (N) = { 0,1, 2, 3,…}
2) Set of integers (Z) {….,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,…}
a
3) Set of rational numbers (Q)= { ;a,b Z,b ≠ 0}
b
4) Set of irrational numbers (Q’)
5) Set of real numbers (R) Q  Q'

Also, you have seen how to represent the real

numbers on the number line and how to do algebraic
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and raising to a rational index.
6) Set of complex numbers
(C) {a + ib; a,b are real, i = − 1 and b ≠ 0 }

-6-
7) Modulus function is written as x , defined over R, and

x = x ; x ≥0

=-x;x<0
e.g 5 = 5, − 7 = 7

• if x − a =b  x - a = ± b

• if x − a ≤ b  a - b ≤ x ≤ a + b

• if 0 < x − a ≤ b  a - b ≤ x ≤ a + b and x ≠ a

8) The types of intervals:

• Closed intervals from a to b which is written as:
[a , b ] = {x :a ≤ x ≤ b },
and represented graphically as:

• •
a b

• Open intervals from a to b which is written as:

]a , b [= {x :a < x < b },
and represented graphically as:
 
a b

• Semi (half)-open (semi (half)-closed) intervals from a to

b which is written as:
] a ,b [= {x :a < x ≤ 6 }

-7-
  •
a b

[a ,b [ = { x: a ≤ x < b}

• 
a b

• Infinite intervals
[ a, ∞ [ = { x : x ≥ a }

•
a

] - ∞ ,b [ = { x : x < b }


b

]-∞,∞[=R

Example (1)
Find the solution set for
a) 3x – 2 > 0 b) x2 – 5x – 24 ≤ 0
c) 2 x − 5 ≤ 2 d) 3 x − 1 = x − 5

Answer
2
a)  3x – 2 > 0  3x  > 2  x  >
3

-8-
  2  2 
S.S =  x x   = ,
 3   3 
b)  x2 – 5x – 24 ≤ 0
 (x – 8) (x + 3) ≤ 0

There exist two possibilities:

i) if x – 8 ≤ 0 and x + 3 ≥ 0  x ≤ 8 and x ≥ -3  [ - 3 , 8 ]

• •
a b

Then the solution is x ≥ -3 and x ≤ 8

ii) if x – 8 ≥ 0 and x + 3 ≤ 0
 x ≥ 8 and x ≤ -3

x ≤ -3 x≥8
refused
c) 2 x − 5 ≤ 2  -2 ≤ 2x -5 ≤ 2

 - 2 + 5 ≤ 2x – 5 + 5 ≤ 2 + 5
3 7
 3 ≤ 2x ≤ 7  ≤x≤
2 2

d)  x − 1 = x − 5 squaring both sides

we get 9(x – 1 )2 = (x – 5)2
 9( x2 – 2x + 1 ) = x2 – 10x + 25

-9-
  9x2 -18x + 9 = x2 – 10x + 25
 8x2 – 8x – 16 = 0  x2 – x – 2 = 0
( x – 2 ) ( x + 1 ) = 0  x = 2 & x = -1
S.S = { -1, 2}

Another answer
 x −1 = x − 5

 3 ( x – 1) =  ( x – 5 )
 3x – 3 = x – 5 and 3x – 3 = - x + 5
 2x = - 2  4x = 8
 x = -1 x=2
S.S = { -1, 2 }
‫ـــــــــــــــــــ‬

Example (2):
Find two values of x, one grater than 4 and the other
less than 4 which satisfy 0 < x − 4 < 0.05. Does x = 4

satisfy this inequality?

Answer:
 0 < x − 4 < 0.05

 4 – 0.05 < x < 4.05 and x ≠ 4

 3.95 < x < 4.05 and x ≠ 4

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 Hence, the required values of x are, say 3.95 and
4.05. As shown above, x ≠ 4, since if x = 4 , x − 4 = 0,

which contradicts 0 < x − 4

(1-2) Functions:
If X and Y are two sets and if by some
correspondence, we can associate, with each element of X,
one and only one element of Y, then we say that we have a
function from set X to set Y.

Let a general element of X be denoted by x and that

of Y be denoted by y .Then we say that y is a function of x ,
if, for every x  X , we can determine one and only one
value of y Y .In such a case, say that:

y = f (x), x  X is a function. And x is called:

independent variable while y is called: dependent variable.
X is the domain of the function f, Y is it’s codomain and the
set {f (x)  x  X} is called the range of f.

For example : suppose X = {1,2,3,4,5}, Y = N ,the set

of natural numbers and we are given that , for x  X and f
(x)  Y ,f (x ) = x2.

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 The ordered pairs of this function are given as (1,1) ,
(2,4) , (3,9) ,(4,16), (5,25).

We see that f(x) = x2 is a function whose domain is X,

codomain is Y and the range is {1,4,9,16,25}.

The elements of the range are the f-images of the

elements of X We see that when x1, f (x) = l this is denoted
by f (1) = 1. Similarly f (2) = 4. f (3) = 9, f (4) =16 and
f (5) = 25.

In general, if Y = f (x), x  X, is a function then f (a)

denotes the value of f(x) when x is replaced by a for each
a  X.

In case a formula stating f (x) in terms of x given but

the domain is not specified, we assume that the domain is
the set of all real numbers x for which f (x) exists.
For example:

i) F(x) = 2x + 3, then the domain is R, since 2x+3 can be

uniquely calculated for every x  R.
1
ii) If f (x) = , then the domain is {x  x  R ,x ≠ 0} , as F
x
is not defined when x = 0.

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iii) If f(x) = x − 5 , then F is defined if
x – 5 ≥ 0, i.e x ≥ 5
 The domain of F is { x x  R; x ≥ 5 }

• Even and odd functions:

Consider f (x) = x2 +1. If we replace x by (-x).
We get f (-x) = (-x)2 + 1 = x2 + l = f (x).

 On replacing x by (-x), the function does not change.

Such a function is called Even Function.
In case of g (x) = x3 + 2x , replacing x by (- x).
We get g (- x) =(- x)3+2(- x) = -x3 - 2x = -(x3+2x) = - g(x).

In this case, the replacement of x by (-x) changes only

the sign of the function. Such a function is called Odd
Function.

The general definitions can be given as follows:

Definitions:
Even function: A function f is said to be an even
function if F(-x) = f(x) for all x and (-x) , which belongs to
the domain of f .
Also the even function is symmetric about y-axis.
e.g: f (x) = x2,f (x)= x4,f (x) = cos (x), f (x) = sec(x).

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 Odd function: A function I is said to be an odd
function if F(-x) – f (x) for all x and (-x) -, which belong to
the domain of f , and it is symmetric about the origin.

e.g : f (x) = x3 ,f (x) = x5 ,f (x) = sin (x), f (x) = cosec (x ),

f (x) = tan (x), f (x ) = cot (x).

However, students should note that there are

functions which are Neither even nor odd. For example,

f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1, f (x) = sin (x) + cos(x) …..etc.

• Elementary Functions: Algebraic Functions:

1) Polynomials of degree n:
P (x) - a0xn + a1xn-1 + ... + an

where n is a positive integer., and a0, a1, ...,an are

constants. It’s domain is R.

Special types of the polynomial:

a) Constant function: f (x) = k, for all values of x and k are
real numbers,
e.g: f (x) = 2

b) Linear function: it’s form is y = ax + b, where a and b are

real numbers,
e.g: y = 3x-2

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c) Quadratic functions: it is a function of the form
y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are real, and a ≠0.

2) Rational function:
P( x)
It’s form is f (x) = , where P(x) and Q (x) are
Q( x)
polynomials, it’s domain is R except the points at which
Q (x) =0.

3) Power function:
It’s form is f (x) = Xn

Transcendental functions:
Are functions which are not algebraic, i.e: donot
satisfy equations in the form of polynomials.

4) Trignometric functions:
Sin (x), cos (x), cosec (x), sec (x , tan (x) and cot (x).

5) Exponential functions:
It’s form is f (x) = ax, where a is constant, a ≠ 0 , 1.

6) Logarithmic functions:
It’s form is f (x) = log a
x ; a ≠0,1

The elementary functions and we shall study it in

details.

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(1-3) Limit of a function:
Let f (x) be defined and single - valued for all values
of x near x = a with the possible exception of x = a itself.
We say that the number L is the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a and write lim f (x) L.
x→ a

Right and Left limits

When:

x → a this means that x → a from right and from left.

If x → a from left only (i.e x < a) we say that Left limit and
write it as lim f (x) = f (a-) If x → a from right only (i.e x >
x→ a

a) we say that Right lim it and write it lim f (x) = f (a+).

x→ a

Definition: The function f (x) has a limit L when

x→a i.e lim f (x) = L. If:
x→ a

f (x)

x
0 (2, 0)

-1

- 16 -
1) lim f (x) exists.
x →a +

2) lim f (x) exists.

x →a −

3) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L.

x →a − x →a +

Otherwise lim f (x) doesn't exist.

x→ a

Example (3):

 x −2 ;x  2

If f(x) =  x − 2
 0 ; x = 2

Find lim f(x) (if it exists)

x→2

Answer:

 x −2 ;x  2

 x −2 =  0 ;x = 2
− x + 2 ; x  2


 x−2
 x − 2 = 1 ; x  2( from right)
 f (x) = 
− ( x − 2)
 = −1; x  2( from left)
 x−2

 lim f (x) = 1 → (1) Exist

x→2+

lim f (x) = -1 → (2) Exist

x→2−

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and lim f (x) ≠ lim f(x)
x→2+ x→2−

 lim f (x) doesn't exist.

x→2

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (4):

 x +1 ;0  x  2
If f (x) = 
3x − 1; 2  x  4
Answer:

lim f (x) = lim (x + 1) = 3 → (1)

x→2− x→2

and lim f (x) = lim (3x – 1) = 5 → (2)

x→2+ x→2

From (1) & (2) we get that lim f (x) doesn't exist
x→2

1
x
0 2 4

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Example (5):
3
Discuss lim 1
x →0
1+ 2 x

Answer:
3 3
lim f (x) = lim
x→0− x→0−
1
= −1

1+ 2 x
1+ 2 0
3 3
= = (2-∞ = 0)
1+ 2 −
1+ 0
3 3 3 3
and lim f (x) = lim = = =
1 + 2 
1 1
x→0+ x→0+
1+ 2 x
1+ 2 0

1
= 0 → (2) ( = ∞, 2∞ = ∞)
0

from (1) & (2) we get that lim f (x)doesn't exist.

x →0

Example (6):
If f (x) = 15- x; x ≥ 2
= 3x2 + 1; x < 2
Find: lim f (x).
x→2

Answer:

lim f (x) = lim (15 – x ) = 13 → (1)

x→2+ x→2

and lim f (x) = lim (3x2 + 1) = 13 → (2)

x→2− x→2

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from (1) & (2), where lim f (x) = 13 = lim f (x)
x→2+ x→2−

then lim f(x) exist and equals 13.

x→2

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Thermos on limits:
The following results will be assumed without proof.
1) If

lim f (x) exist, and lim g (x) exist, then:

x→ a x→ a

i) lim [f (x)  g(x)] = lim f (x)  lim g (x)

x→ a x→ a x→ a

ii) lim k (x) = k lim f (x) , k is constant.

x→ a x→ a

iii) lim f (x) . g (x) = lim f (x) . lim g (x)

x→ a x→ a x→ a

f ( x)
limf(x)
iv) lim x→ a g ( x)
= x →a

g ( x)
proved that lim g(x) ≠ 0
x→ a
x →a

2) if f(x) ≤g(x)  lim f(x) ≤ lim g(x) .

x→ a x→ a

3) for all values of m and n, we have:

xn − a
i) lim = nan-1,
x→ a x−a

xn − an n
ii) lim = (a) n−m
x→ a x −a
m m
m

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‫‪4) If f(x) is a polynomial in x, then‬‬ ‫)‪lim f(x) = f(a‬‬
‫‪x→ a‬‬

‫‪5) lim‬‬ ‫‪n‬‬ ‫‪f ( x) = n‬‬ ‫‪lim f ( x) , provided that lim f ( x) is real.‬‬‫‪n‬‬
‫‪x→ a‬‬ ‫‪x →a‬‬ ‫‪x→a‬‬

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫‪Example (7): Evaluate‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1 + x −1‬‬
‫‪lim‬‬
‫‪x →0‬‬ ‫‪3x‬‬

‫‪Answer:‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1 + x −1 0‬‬
‫‪ lim‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪x →0‬‬ ‫‪3x‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬

‫‪Put y = 1 + x‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪x = y -1‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1 + x −1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫)‪y − (1‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1 1‬‬‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪lim‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪lim‬‬ ‫= ‪= . (1)1/3-1‬‬
‫‪x →0‬‬ ‫‪3x‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪y →0‬‬ ‫‪y −1‬‬ ‫‪3 3‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫‪Example (8): Evaluate‬‬
‫‪x+h − x‬‬
‫‪lim‬‬
‫‪h→ a‬‬ ‫‪h‬‬

‫‪Answer:‬‬
‫‪x+h − x‬‬ ‫‪x− x 0‬‬
‫‪ lim‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫=‬
‫‪h→ a‬‬ ‫‪h‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬

‫‪Then multiply and divide by the conjugate, then‬‬

‫‪- 21 -‬‬
 x+h − x x+h − x x+h + x
= .
h h x+h + x
h 1
= =
h[ x + h + x ] x+h + x

x+h − x 1 1
Then lim = lim =
h→ a h h→ a x+h + x 2 x

Another answer:
If we put y = x + h  h = y – x as h  0  y  x
x+h − x y− x 1
1 2 −1 1
lim = lim = ( x) =
h→ a h y→ x y−x 2 2 x

Continuity of a function:
Definition: f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if:
1) f (a) exist
2) lim f (x) exist
x →a −

3) lim f (x) exist

x →a +

4) lim f (x) = lim f(x) = f(a)

x →a − x →a +

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (9):
Examine (Discuss) the continuity of f(x) at x = 4 if

- 22 -
  x 2 − 16 ; x  4

F (x) =  x − 4
 8 ; x = 4

Answer:
Here f (4) = 8.
x 2 − 16 0
Now lim f (x) = lim =
x→4 x→4 x−4 0
( x − 4)( x + 4)
= lim = 8 = f (4)
x→4 x−4

f (x) is continuous at x = 4
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (10):
Discuss (examine) the continuity on it's domain, of
 2x 2 + 1 ; 0  x  2

F (x) =  4 x + 1 ; 2  x  4
3 x 2 − 3 x + 2 ; 4  x  6

Answer:
The domain of f(x) is [0, 6]
In 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, f(x) = 2x2 + 1 which is a polynomial and
hence continuous.

- 23 -
NOTE
We didn’t include the point x = 2, since on the right
of x = 2, we have a different polynomial where as we
included x = 0, since the continuous at x = 0 is to be
considered from the right only.

In 2<x<4, f(x) = 4x+l which is a polynomial and

hence continuous.

In 4<x ≤ 6, f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2, which is a polynomial

and hence continuous.

 f(x) is continuous on [0, 6] except at x = 2 and

x = 4 considering x =2, here f(2)=2(2)2 + 1=9

lim f(x) = lim 2x2 + 1 = 9 = f(2), and

x→2− x→2

lim f(x) = lim (4x + 1) = 9 = f(2)

x→2+ x→2

 f(x) is continuous at x = 2

Now it's consider x = 4:

Here f(4) = 4 (4) + 1 = 17
lim f(x) = lim (x2 – 3x + 2) = 16 – 12 + 2 = 6 ≠ f(4)
x→4− x→4

lim f(x) = lim (4x + 1) = 17 = f(4)

x→4+ x→4

- 24 -
But lim f(x) ≠ lim f(x)
x→4+ x→4−

Then f(x) isn't continuous at x = 4

Or f(x) is discontinuous at x = 4
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Exercise (1)

1- Find the S.S of the following:

a) x2 – 5x – 24 ≥ 0 b) 7x + 5 < 0
c) 3x + 10 = 2 d) 2 x + 1 = 3x − 2
2- In the following problems:
a) Find two values of x, one greater than 3 and the other less
than 3 , which satisfy x − 3 < 0.01.

b) Find two values of x which differ from 5 by less than 0.1.

c) Find two values of x , one greater than 6 and the other
less than 6 satisfy 0 < x − 6 < 0.05.

3- Prove the following:

1) lim (x+3) (x2 – 5)
x→2
[Ans. (-5)]

x 2 − 16
2) lim [Ans. (0)]
x→4 x 3 − 65

x2 − 4 4
3) lim [Ans. ( )]
x→2 x2 − x − 2 3

- 25 -
 x 3 − 4 x − 15 23
4) lim [Ans. ( )]
x →3 x 3 + x 2 − 6 x − 18 7

x 3 − 3x + 4 3
5) lim [Ans. ( )]
x→2 x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8 4

x 2 − 2x − 3
6) lim [Ans. (∞)]
x →3 x3 − 6x 2 + 9x

 1 1  −2
7) lim  2 + 2  [Ans. ( )]
x→2  x + x − 6 x − 9 x + 14  25

x2 + x 3 − 6 3
8) lim [Ans. ( )]
x→ 3 x 3 − 3x 2

 1 2  1
9) lim  x − 2 − x
x→2
2 
− 2x 
[Ans. ( )]
2

8x 3 − 1
10) lim [Ans. (3)]
x→
1 4x3 − x
2

x3 − a3 3
11) lim [Ans. ( )]
x→ a x10 − a10 10a 7

x 8 − 38 2
12) lim [Ans. ( )]
x →3 x12 − 312 243

y 5 − b5 5
13) lim [Ans. ( )]
y→b y 9 − b9 9b 4

- 26 -
 ( a + h) 6 − a 6
14) lim [Ans. (6a5)]
h →0 h

h 1
15) lim [Ans. ( )]
h →0 ( a + h) 8 − a 8 8a 7

3
x −3 a 2
16) lim [Ans. ( )]
x→ a x− a 6
3 a

x+2 −2 1
17) lim [Ans. ( )]
x→2 x2 − 4 16

x 3 − 27
18) lim [Ans. (36)]
x →3 x2 + 7 − 4

x+3−2 1
19) lim [Ans. ( )]
x →1 2x − 1 − 1 4

x +8 −3 −2
20) lim [Ans. ( )]
x →1 5− x −2 3

x+4 −3 2
21) lim [Ans. ( )]
x →5 3x − 11 − 2 9

x + 4 − x2 + x − 7 1
22. lim [Ans. ( )]
x →3 9 − x2 2 5

- 27 -
 x+a − a−x 1
23. lim [Ans. ( )]
x →0 4x 4 a

x 2 + x + 6 − 12 37
24. lim [Ans. ( )]
x →3 x2 − 9 36

x 2 + x + 2 − 10 49
25. lim [Ans. ( )]
x→2 x2 − 4 16

4) Discuss the continuity, in the domain of the following

functions:
 x 2 − 3x + 2
 ; 0 x4
1) f (x) =  x2 − 3
 x +1 ; 4  x  6
 x−2
[Ans.: f(x) is on [0,6] except at x = 3 & x = 4]

x 2 − 4 ; 0  x  2

2) f (x) =  3 x + 2 ; 2  x  4
 x 2 − 1; 4  x  6


[Ans.: It's on [0,6] except at x = 2 & x = 4]

3) If f (x) is continuous on it's domain where
 x 2 + ax + b ; 0  x  2

f (x) =  4 x − 1; 2  x  4 find a & b
 ax 2 + 17b ; 4  x  6


- 28 -
 Ans.:  f(x) is continuous on it's domain it's continuous
at x = 2 & x = 4, since f (x) is continuous at x = 2.

 lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(2)

x→2+ x→2−

 lim (4x - 1) = lim (x2 + ax + b)

x→2+ x→2−

 8 – 1 + 4 + 2a + b  2a = b = 3 → (1)
f(x) is continuous at x = 4

 lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(4)

x→4+ x→4−

 lim (ax2+17b) = lim (4x - 1)

x→4+ x→4−

 16a + 17b = 16 – 1  16a + 17b = 15 → (2)

From (1) we get b = 3 – 2a
Substitute in (2), we get 16a + 17 (3 – 2a) = 15
 16a + 51 – 34a = 15  18a = 36
a=2 b = -1

4) If f(x) is continuous on [0, 8], where

 x 2 + ax + b ; 0  x  2

f(x) =  3x + 2 ; 2  x  4
 2ax + 5b ; 4  x  8

Find a & b. [Ans.: a = 3b , b = -2]

- 29 -
5) If f(x) is continuous on it's domain, where
b − 3ax ; − 4  x  −2

f(x) =  4 x + 1; − 2  x  2
 ax 2 + 17b ; 2  x  4

Find a & b. [Ans. A = -2, b = 1 ]

6) Discuss the continuity of the following function at the

point indicated against them
f(x) = x2 – 1 ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
= x2 + 1; 2 < x ≤ 4 at x = 2 [Ans.: continuous]

7) f(x) x2 + x + 2 ; 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
= 3x + 4 ; 4 < x ≤ 6 at x = 4 [Ans.: discontinuous]

x+6 −3
8) f(x) = ;x≠3
x2 − 9
1
= ; x = 3 at x = 3 [Ans.: discontinuous]
12

Prove that:
3x 3 − 4 x 2 + 1 3
1) lim =
x → 5x 3 + 2 x 5

5x 2 − 1
2) lim =0
x → 8x 3 + 4

- 30 -
 8x 3 + 1
3) lim =
x → 7x 2 + 1

3x 2 + 4 − x 2 − 1 3 −1
4) lim =
x → 3x + 2 3

5
5) lim x( x + 5 − x) =
x → 2

1
6) lim x( x +1 − x) =
x → 2

7) lim ( x 2 + 4 x + 5 − x 2 = 1) = 2
x →

- 31 -
(1 - 4) Differentiation
If y = f(x) be a function, and changes by ∆x i.e x
becomes x + ∆x, then y must be changed by ∆y, and ∆y =f
(x + ∆x) - ∆x.

y
The ratio called the average rate of change of
x

y
y = f (x) with respect to x. and lim (if it exists) is
x →0 x

called The rate of chance of y with respect to x ,or The first

derivative of y, with respect to x , and we denote to the first

dy
derivative by , y' , Dy or f ‘(x).
dx

If the function y = f(x) has a first derivative at x = a,

then we say that the function is differentiable at a.

Definition:
If f(x) is a function and a and a + h belong to the
domain of f(x), then the limit given by:

f ( a + h) − f ( a )
lim
h →0 h

- 32 -
 if it exists is called the derivative of f(x) w.r.to x at
x = a and is denoted.

f (a + h) − f (a)
by: f ' (a) = lim
h →0 h

The general derivative of f(x) w.r.to x is given by

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ' ( x) = lim
h→0 h

The process of finding derivative is called

differentiation.
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (11):
Find: f'(2) if f (x) = x2 + 3x – 4
Answer:
f (2 + h) − f (2)
Since f'(2) = lim
h→0 h

h 2 + 7h + 6 − 6
= lim
h→0 h

= lim (h + 7) = 7
h→0

- 33 -
Example (12):
Find:
f'(x) if f(x) = x
Answer:
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Since f'(x) = lim
h →0 h
x+h− x
 f'(x) = lim
h →0 h

x+h − x x+h + x
= lim .
h →0 h x+h + x
h
= lim h(
h→0 x + h + x)

1 1
f'(x) = lim =
h →0 x+h + x 2 x

Some basic differentiation formulas

The following results will be assumed without proof.
We assume all functions are differentiable.
d
1) [c] = 0 where c is a constant.
dx

d
2) [ xn] = nxn-1; for any n.
dx

- 34 -
 d df
3) [cf (x)] = c , when c is a constant.
dx dx

d df dg
4) [f(x)  g(x)] =  .
dx dx dx

d df dg
5) [f(x). g(x)] g +f .
dx dx dx

df dg
g −f
d f ( x) dx dx .
6) [ ]= 2
dx g ( x) ( g ( x))

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (13):
df
a) If y = f ( x ) = x4 – x3 + x2 – x + 1, find = y'.
dx

y' = 4x3 – 3x2 + 2x - 1

b) y = 5x7 + 3 x - 9
3
y' = 35x6 +
2 x

3t + 1 du (1 − 4t )(3) − (3t + 1)(−4)

c) u =  =
1 − 4t dt (1 − 4t ) 2
3 − 12t + 12t − 4
=
(1 − 4t ) 2
1
= .
(1 − 4t ) 2

- 35 -
 1
d) If y = (1 + ) (x4 + x3) (3x2 – 5)
x
1 1
 y' = (1+ ) (x4 + x3)(6x) + (1+ ) (3x2 – 5) (4x3 + 3x2)
x x
1
+ (x4 + x3) (3x2 – 5) ( − )
x2

= (6x + 6) (x4 + x3) + (3x2 – 5)(4x2 + 3x) (x + 1)

– (x2 + x) (3x2 – 5)
= 6x5 + 12x4 + 6x3 + (3x2 – 5)(4x3 + 7x2 + 3x)
– 3x4 – 3x3 + 5x2 +5x
= 6x5 + 9x4 + 3x3 + 5x2 + 5x + 12x5 + 12x4 + 9x3
– 20x3 – 35x2 – 15x
= 17x5 + 30x4 – 8x3 – 30x2 – 10x

7) The derivative of composite functions:

If y = f [g(x)], u = g(x)
dy dy du
Then = .
dx du dx

Example (14):
If y = (x3 + 5x2 – 1)10 find y'

Answer:
Put u = x3 + 5x2 – 1 → (1)
 y = u10 → (2)

- 36 -
 dy dy du
Since = . = 10u9. (3x2 + 10x)
dx du dx

= 10 (x3 + 5x2 – 1) (3x2 + 10x)

8) Implicit differentiation:
The method of implicit differentiation provides the
derivative of any differentiable function determined by an
equation in two variables.

Example (15):
Find y' if 4x3 – x2y + x3 = 5x - 6

Answer:
Put by differentiation both sides w. r. to x
 4y3 + 12xy2y' – x2y' – 2xy + 3x2 = 5
 y' (12xy2 – x2) = 5 + 2xy – 3x2 – 4y3
5 + 2 xy − 3x 2 − 4 y 2
 y' = , provided that
12 xy 2 − x 2
12xy2 – x2 ≠ 0

9) Differentiation of Parametric Functions:

dy
Let us now consider how to find when x and y are
dx

given in terms of a parameter, say, "t" i.e x = x(t) and

y = y(t), we can find

- 37 -
 dx dy
and
dt dt
dy
dy dy dt y .
Then we can find by using = =
dx dx dx x .
dt
This method is used in the following examples:
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (16):
1− t 2 2t dy
If x = , y = find
1+ t 2 1+ t 2 dx

Answer:

. (1 + t 2 )(−2t ) − (2t )(1 − t 2 )

x =
(1 + t 2 ) 2

− 2t[1 + t 2 + 1 − t 2 ] − 4t
=  x. = → (1)
(1 + t )2 2
(1 + t 2 ) 2

2(1 + t 2 ) − 2t * 2t 2 − 2t 2
and y. = = → (2)
(1 + t 2 ) 2 (1 + t 2 ) 2

dy 2(1 − t ) (1 + t ) t −1
2 2 2 2

 = . = as required
dx (1 + t 2 ) 2 − 4t 2t

- 38 -
Example (17):
dy
Find if x = (t + 1)3 and y = (t + 2)2
dx

Answer:
 x = (t + 1)3  x = 3(t + 1)2
•

And y = (t + 2)2  y • = 2(t + 2)

dy y• 2(t + 2)
And = •=
dx x 3(t + 1) 2

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (18):
1 dy
If y = t3 + t and x = t + find
t dx
Answer:

1 1 t −1 2

x = t +  x = 1 - 2 =
•

t t t2

6t 2 t + 1 1
And  y = t + t  y = 3t + 3
= • 2
2 t 2 t

 52  3
t 6t + 1 2
y• 6t 2 t + 1 t 2
And y' = = . 2 =  2 
x• 2 t t −1 2(t − 1)

- 39 -
10) Higher Order Derivatives:
df
If f(x) is a function of x then y' = is also a function
dx
of x. Hence we can find the derivative of f'(x) w. r. to x, if it
exists
d dy d
i.e [ ] = [f'] is known as the 2nd order derivative
dx dx dx
y = f (x) w.r. to,

x and is denoted by fn (x) and so on.

Example (19):

If y = (x + x 2 + 1 )m

Prove that (x2 -1) yn + xy' = m2y

Answer:

 y = (x + x 2 + 1 )m

 1 
 y' = m ( x + x 2 + 1 )m-1 * 1 + * 2 x 
 2 x 2
− 1 

 x2 −1 + x 
 y' = m ( x + x 2 + 1 )m-1  
 x − 1 
2

 x 2 − 1 y' = my → (1)

- 40 -
Diff – both sides of (1) w.r. to x
xy'
 x 2 − 1 y" + = my'
x2 −1

 (x2 – 1)y" + xy' = m x 2 − 1 y'

 (x2 – 1)y" + xy' = m2y (from (1)).
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
Example (20):
If x = at2, y = 2at where t is a parameter, show that
xyy" + a = 0

Answer:
 x = at2  x • = 2at

And  y = 2at  y • = 2a
d dy d y• d y • dt
 [ ]= [ • ]= [ • ].
dx dx dx x dt x dx

1 d 1 1 −1 −1
* y" = •
[ ]= [ 2 ]=
x dt t 2at t 2at 3

 2at3y" = -1, but xy = 2a2t3

xy
Then = 2at3
a

xy
And y" = -1  xyy" + a = 0
a

- 41 -
‫‪Example (21):‬‬
‫?""‪If y = x5 – 10x3 + 20x + 1; y‬‬

‫‪Answer:‬‬
‫‪y' = 5x4 – 30x2 + 20‬‬
‫‪y" = 20 x3 – 60x‬‬
‫‪y"' = 60x2 - 60‬‬
‫‪y"" = 120x‬‬
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫)‪Exercise (2‬‬

‫?'‪1) If y = (3x5 + 4)3 ; y‬‬

‫? '‪2) If y = (2x – 1)2 (3x2 + 2x)3 ; y‬‬

‫‪1− x2 ‬‬
‫‪3) If y =  2‬‬ ‫? '‪ ; y‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪x‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫? '‪4) If x2 y3 + x2 = xy + 5; y‬‬

‫? ''‪5) If x = 2t – t2 , y = 3t – t3; y‬‬

‫‪2t + t 2‬‬ ‫‪2t − t 2‬‬

‫= ‪6) If x‬‬ ‫=‪,y‬‬ ‫? '‪; y‬‬
‫‪1+ t3‬‬ ‫‪1+ t3‬‬

‫= ‪7) If y‬‬ ‫? '‪x(1 − x) prove that yy" + y'2; y‬‬

‫‪- 42 -‬‬
 2
8) If 3x2 y2 + = 5yx + 6; y' ?
x3

 
2

, y = 
1
9) If x =  ; y'' ?
 +1  +1

- 43 -