1 Definition and Models of Incidence Geometry

(1.1) Definition (geometry)

A geometry is a set S of points and a set L of lines together with relationships between the points
and lines.
√
1. Find four points which belong to set M = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = 5}.
2. Let M = {(x, y) | x, y ∈ R, x < 0}. √
(i) Find three points which belong to set N = {(x, y) ∈ M | x = 2}.
(ii) Are points P (3, 3), Q(6, 4) and R(−2, 34 ) belong to set L = {(x, y) ∈ M | y = 13 x + 2}?

(1.2) Definition (Cartesian Plane)

Let LE be the set of all vertical and non-vertical lines,
La and Lk,n where
vertical lines:
La = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = a, a is fixed real number},
non-vertical lines:
Lk,n = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = kx + n, k and n are fixed real numbers}.
The model C = {R2 , LE } is called the Cartesian Plane.

3. Let C = {R2 , LE } denote Cartesian Plane.

(i) Find three different points which belong to Cartesian vertical line L7 .
(ii) Find three different points which belong to Cartesian non-vertical line L15,√2 .

4. Let P be some point in Cartesian Plane C = {R2 , LE }. Show that point P cannot lie
simultaneously on both La and La0 (where a , a0 ).
(1.3) Definition (Poincaré Plane)
Let LH be the set of all type I and type II lines, a L and pLr
where
type I lines:
aL = {(x, y) ∈ H | x = a, a is a fixed real number},
type II lines:
2 2 2
pLr = {(x, y) ∈ H | (x − p) + y = r , p and r are fixed ∈ R, r > 0},
H = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y > 0}.
The model H = {H, LH } will be called the Poincaré Plane.

5. Find the Poincaré line through 6. Let P and Q denote two different points in
(i) points P (1, 2) and Q(3, 4); Cartesian Plane C = {R2 , LE }. Show that it is not
possible for P and Q to lie simultaneously on
(ii) points M(1, 2) and N (3, 4). two distinct lines La and Lk,n .

(1.4) Definition (unit sphere, plane)

The unit sphere in R3 is S 2 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x2 + y 2 + z2 = 1}. A plane in R3 is a set of the form
{(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | ax + by + cz = d, where a, b, c, d are fixed real numbers, and not all of a, b, c are zero}.
[GeoGebra: x∧ 2 + y ∧ 2 + z∧ 2 = 1, x + y − (1/2) ∗ z = 0, find intersection]

(1.5) Definition (collinear set of points)

A set of points P is collinear if there is a line ` such that ` ⊆ P . P is non-collinear if P is not a
collinear set.

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(1.6) Definition (great circle)
A great circle, G, of the sphere S 2 is the intersection of S 2
with a plane through the origin. Thus G is a great circle if there
are a, b, c ∈ R not all zero, with

G = {(x, y, z) ∈ S 2 | ax + by + cz = 0}.

7. Find a spherical line q (great circle) through 10. Let P and Q denote two different points in
(i) points P ( 12 , 12 , 12 ) and Q(1, 0, 0); Cartesian Plane C = {R2 , LE } which do not
√ belong to the same vertical line. Show that P
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(ii) points M(0, 12 , 2 ) and N (0, −1, 0). and Q cannot lie simultaneously on both Lk,n
and Lm,b .
8. Show by example that there are (at least)
three non-collinear points in the Cartesian Plane. 11. Prove that if P and Q are distinct points
9. Verify that P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) do lie on in H then they cannot lie simultaneously on
pLr , where p and r are given by
both aL and pLr .

y22 −y12 +x22 −x12

q 12. Show by example that there are (at least)
p= 2(x2 −x1 )
, r = (x1 − p)2 + y12 . three non-collinear points in the Poincaré Plane.

(1.7) Definition (Riemann Sphere)

Let LR be the set of great circles on S 2 . The model R = {S 2 , LR } is called the Riemann Sphere.

13. Explain, is it possible and are there two points on Riemann Sphere which lie simultaneously
on two different spherical lines (great circles). If such two points exist, write them down, and find
what are spherical lines which goes through that two points.

(1.8) Definition (abstract geometry)

An abstract geometry A consists of a set S, whose elements are called points, together with a
collection L of non-empty subsets of S, called lines, such that:
(i) For every two points A, B ∈ S there is a line ` ∈ L with A ∈ ` and B ∈ `.
(ii) Every line has at least two points.

14. Show that the Cartesian Plane of the Euclidean perpendicular bisector of the
C = {R2 , LE } is an abstract geometry. Euclidean line segment from P to Q with x-axis.
15. Show that the Poincaré Plane H = {H, LH } 18. Let P , Q ∈ H denote two different points,
is an abstract geometry. and let p(P , Q) = cLr (points P and Q lie on
Poincaré line cLr ). Use your knowledge of
16. Show that the Riemann Sphere Euclidean geometry to prove that c is the
R = {S 2 , LR } is an abstract geometry.
x-coordinate of the intersection of the Euclidean
17. Let P and Q be two points in H which perpendicular bisector of the Euclidean line
don’t lie on same vertical line. Use your segment from P to Q with x-axis.
knowledge from high school and find intersection

(1.9) Definition (incidence geometry)

An abstract geometry {S, L} is an incidence geometry if
(i) Every two distinct points in S lie on a unique line.
(ii) There exists a set of three non-collinear points.

Notation. If {S, L} is an incidence geometry and P , Q ∈ S then the unique line p on which both P
and Q lie will be written p = p(P , Q).

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19. Show that the Cartesian Plane C = {R2, LE } is an incidence geometry.
20. Show that the Poincaré Plane H = {H, LH } is an incidence geometry.
21. Let S = {P , Q, R} and L = {p(P , Q), p(P , R), p(Q, R)}. Show that {S, L}
is an incidence geometry. Note that this example has only finitely many
(in fact, three) points. It may be pictured as in figure on right side. It is
called the 3-point geometry. The dotted lines indicate which points lie on
the same line.

22. Let S = R2 − {(0, 0)} and L be the set of all Cartesian lines which lie in S. Show that {S, L} is
not an incidence geometry.
23. Some finite geometries are defined pictorially (as in the 3-point geometry of Problem 21) by
figure below.

(i) In each example list the set of lines.

(ii) Which of these geometries are abstract geometries?
(iii) Which of these geometries are incidence geometries?

”Prove” may mean ”find a counterexample”.

24. Let {S 1 , L1 } and {S 2 , L2 } be abstract geometries. Let S = S 1 ∪ S 2 and L = L1 ∪ L2 . Prove

that {S, L} is an abstract geometry.
25. Let {S 1 , L1 } and {S 2 , L2 } be abstract geometries. Let S = S 1 ∩ S 2 and L = L1 ∩ L2 . Prove
that {S, L} is an abstract geometry.

(1.10) Definition (parallel lines)

If `1 and `2 are lines in an abstract geometry then `1 is parallel to `2 (written `1 k `2 ) if either
`1 = `2 or `1 ∩ `2 = ∅.

26. Let `1 and `2 be lines in an incidence 28. Find all lines in the Poincaré Plane
geometry. Show that if `1 ∩ `2 has two or more H = {H, LH } through P (0, 1) which are parallel to
points then it `1 = `2 . the type I line 6L.

27. Find all lines through P (0, 1) which are

29. Find all lines of Riemann Sphere
R = {S 2 , LR } through N (0, 0, 1) which are
parallel to the vertical line L6 in the Cartesian
parallel to the spherical line (great circle)
Plane C = {R2 , LE }.
G = {(x, y, z) ∈ S 2 | z = 0}.

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(1.11) Definition (equivalence relation)
An equivalence relation on a set X is a relation R ⊆ X × X such that
(i) (x, x) ∈ R for all x ∈ X (reflexive property),
(ii) (x, y) ∈ R implies (y, x) ∈ R (symmetric property),
(iii) (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R imply (x, z) ∈ R (transitive property).
Given an equivalence relation R on a set X, we usually write x ∼ y instead of (x, y) ∈ R. If the
equivalence relation already has an associated notation such as =, ≡, or , we will use that notation.

30. Let {S, L} be an abstract geometry. If `1 and `2 are lines in L we write `1 ∼ `2 if `1 is parallel
to `2 . Prove that ∼ is an equivalence relation. If {S, L} is the Cartesian Plane then each equivalence
class can be characterized by a real number or infinity. What is this number?
31. There is a finite geometry with 7 points such that each line has exactly 3 points on it. Find
this geometry. How many lines are there?
32. Let S = R2 and, for a given choice of a, b, and c, let

Ja,b,c = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | ax + by = c}.

Let LJ be the set of all Ja,b,c with at least one of a and b nonzero. Prove that {R2 , LJ } is an incidence
geometry. (Note that this incidence geometry gives the same family of lines as the Cartesian Plane.
The point here is that there are different ways to describe the set of lines of this geometry.)
33. Define a relation ∼ on S 2 as follows. If A = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) then A ∼ B if either
A = B or A = −B = (−x2 , −y2 , −z2 ). Prove ∼ is an equivalence relation.
34. Let {S, L} be an abstract geometry and assume that S 1 ⊆ S. We define an S 1 -line to be any
subset of S 1 of the form ` ∩ S 1 where ` is a line of S and where ` ∩ S 1 has at least two points. Let
L1 be the collection of all S 1 -lines. Prove that {S 1 , L1 } is an abstract geometry. {S 1 , L1 } is called
the geometry induced from {S, L}.

√ √ √ √ √ −3
Solutions: 1. [for examle P ( 5, 0), Q( 5, √ 7), R( 5,
√ 5), M(√ 5, 2 )]. 2. [N = ∅; P , Q < L, R ∈ L] 3. [for
example A(7, 23 ), B(7, −4), C(7, 0); P (1, 15 + 2), Q(0, 2), R(− 2/15, 0)] 4. [suppose the contrary,
P ∈ La , P ∈ La0 ⇒ a = a0 , contradiction] 5.(i) [5 L2√5 ; 5 L√10 ] (ii) [GeoGebra: (x − 5)∧ 2 + y ∧ 2 = (2 ∗ sqrt(5))∧ 2,
√
x = 1, x = 3...] 6. [suppose the contrary] 7.(i) [G = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x2 + y 2 + z2 = 1, − 2y + z = 0}] (ii)
[G = {(0, y, z) ∈ R3 | y 2 + z2 = 1}] [GeoGebra: x∧ 2 + y ∧ 2 + z∧ 2 = 1, (1/2,1/2,sqrt(1/2)), (1,0,0),
-sqrt(2)*y+z=0] 8. [for example P (7, 3), Q(7, −2) ∈ L7 , R(−1, 0) < L7 , P , Q < non-vertical line] 9.
y −y
[(x1 − p)2 + y1 = r 2 , (x2 − p)2 + y2 = r 2 ] 10. [suppose the contrary, P , Q ∈ Lk,n ⇒ k = x2 −x1 , n = y1 − kx1 ...] 11.
2 1
[suppose the contrary, P , Q ∈ aL ⇒ x1 = x2 = a; P , Q ∈ pLr ⇒ y1 = y2 ...] 12. [for example
P (7, 1), Q(7, −2) ∈ 7L, R(8, 1) < 7L, P , Q < pLr ] 13. [N (0, 0, 1), S(0, 0, −1), {(x, y, z) ∈ S 2 | y = 0},
{(x, y, z) ∈ S 2 | x = 0}] 14. [1◦ x1 = x2 ; 2◦ x1 , x2 ] 15. [1◦ x1 = x2 ; 2◦ x1 , x2 ] 16. [ax1 + by1 + cz1 = 0...] 17.
y−y1 y2 −y1 y22 −y12 +x22 −x12
[ xx−x1
−x = y2 −y1 , k= x2 −x1 , s : y = ks x + n, ks = − 1k , s : y = − xy2 −x 1
−y x + 2(y2 −y1 )
] 18. [P (x1 , y1 ), Q(x2 , y2 ), S
2 1 2 1

midpoint of P Q, R(c, 0), we want to show that R belong to the Euclidean perpendicular bisector of P Q,
4P SR  4QSR] 19. [1◦ P , Q ∈ La , P , Q ∈ La0 ; 2◦ P , Q ∈ La , P , Q ∈ Lm,b ; 3◦ P , Q ∈ Lm,b , P , Q ∈ Ln,c ] 20.
[1◦ P , Q ∈ aL, P , Q ∈ a0L; 2◦ P , Q ∈ aL, P , Q ∈ cLr ; 3◦ P , Q ∈ cLr , P , Q ∈ dLs ] 21. [we need to show that two
properties from definition of incidence geometry are satisfied] 22. [property (i) from definition of incidence
geometry is not satisfied] 23.(i) [(d) p(P , Q, R), p(P , T , V ), p(P , S, U )...] (ii) [(d), (e), (f )] (iii) [(d), (f )] 24.
[A ∈ S 1 , B ∈ S 2 , A, B < S 1 ∩ S 2 ] 25. [look at figures (e) and (f ) from Problem 23] 26.
[P ∈ `1 ∧ Q ∈ `1 ⇒ `1 = p(P , Q), P ∈ `2 ∧ Q ∈ `2 ⇒ `2 = p(P , Q)] 27. [L0 , L6 ∩ Lk,1 = ∅] 28. [aL ⇒ a = 0,
2 2 2 ∧ ∧ ∧
cLr ⇒ c + 1 = r , c < 35/12; GeoGebra: r = sqrt(c 2 + 1), y = sqrt(r 2 − (x − c) 2)] 29. [c = 0, ax + by = 0,
such line does not exist] 30. [`1 ∩ `2 = ∅, `2 ∩ `3 = ∅, p(P , R) k p(S, Q), p(P , R) k p(T , Q), ∼ is not an
equivalence relation] 31. [Fano plane] 32. [1◦ x1 = x2 , 2◦ y1 = y2 , 3◦ x1 , x2 and y1 , y2 ]