RESEARCH METHODS

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. It can also be defined
as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of
Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or
inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.” It is
a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of
discovery.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge

making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through
objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study
has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic
research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

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2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake
research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people
to perform research operations.

DIMENSIONS OF RESEARCH

1. The purpose of doing it

2. Its intended use

3. How it treats time

4. The research technique used

THE PURPOSE

The purpose of social research maybe organized into three groups based on what the
researcher is trying to accomplish – explore a new topic, describe a social
phenomenon, or explain why something occurs. However some studies might have
multiple purpose e.g both to explore and describe, but one purpose is usually dominant.

Exploratory or Formulative Research

You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If the issue was
new or the researcher has written little on it, you began at the beginning. This is called
exploratory research. The researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise questions
that future research can answer. Exploratory research may be the first stage in a
sequence of studies. A researcher may need to know enough to design and execute a
second, more systematic and extensive study.

Initial research conducted to clarify the nature of the problem.

When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or knowledge about a
research issue, exploratory research is useful preliminary step that helps ensure that a
more rigorous, more conclusive future study will not begin with an inadequate

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understanding of the nature of the management problem. The findings discovered
through exploratory research would the researchers to emphasize learning more about
the particulars of the findings in subsequent conclusive studies. Exploratory research
rarely yields definitive answers. It addresses the “what” question: “what is this social
activity really about?” It is difficult to conduct because there are few guidelines to follow.
Specifically there could be a number of goals of exploratory research.

Exploratory researchers are creative, open minded and flexible; adopt an

investigative stance and search all sources of information in the quest to find
answers. Researchers take advantage of serendipity (chance /fate) – unexpected or
chance factors that have larger implications. Exploratory researchers frequently use
qualitative data which tends to be more open to using a range of evidence and
discovery of new issues. This research yields definitive answers for it addresses the
“what” question. However most of the studies often go unpublished, instead researchers
incorporate them into more systematic research that they publish later.

Its aim is to:

- Become familiar with the basic facts, people and concerns involved
- formulate more precise questions that future research can answer
- develop a well grounded mental picture of what is occurring
- A researcher may need to conduct an exploratory study in order to know enough
to design and execute a second more systematic and extensive study
- to develop various ideas, tentative theories and postulations (assumptions)
- to determine the feasibility and desirability of doing additional research
- To develop techniques and determine the direction of further investigations

Descriptive research
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social
setting, or relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies,
is to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive research
seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when, where, and how questions. Labor
Force Surveys, and Population Census, are examples of such research. Descriptive
study offers to the researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of the
phenomena of interest. Look at the class in research methods and try to give its profile
– the characteristics of the students. When we start to look at the relationship of the
variables, then it may help in diagnosis analysis.

GOALS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

 . provide an accurate profile of a group;

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  Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
 Create a set of categories or classify the information;
 Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
 Focus on ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘how’ but not why?
A great deal of social research is descriptive. Descriptive researchers use most data –
gathering techniques – surveys, field research, and content analysis

Explanatory research
When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of it, we
might begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know “why,”
to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and
descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons for something that occurs.
Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons. For example, a descriptive
research may discover that 10 percent of the parents abuse their children, whereas the
explanatory researcher is more interested in learning why parents abuse their children.

Goals of Explanatory Research

 Elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation.
 Determine which of several explanations is best.
 Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory’s predictions or principle.
 Advance knowledge about underlying process.
 Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory’s predictions or
principle.
 Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, new topics:
 Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.

USE OF RESEARCH

Research can be used for different purposes. Some people focus on using research to
advance general knowledge, whereas others use it to solve specific problems.
Those who seek an understanding of the fundamental nature of social reality are
engaging in basic research (sometimes called academic research or pure research). On
the other hand those who want to apply and tailor knowledge to address a specific
practical issue are known to be engaging in applied research. They normally want to
answer or solve a pressing social problem

i. Basic Research

This type of research attempts to enhance fundamental knowledge about social

reality. It supports or rejects theories by explaining social reality as well as interpreting
changes in communities in order to enhance new ideas/knowledge about the world. It is

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the source of most ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory,
descriptive or explanatory. At times basic research is criticized on the grounds that it is
a waste of time and financial resources because it does not have direct help in
resolving immediate problems. It is true that knowledge produced by basic research
often lacks practical application in the short term; however, it provides a foundation for
knowledge and understanding that can be generalized to many policy areas, problems
and study areas. It is the source of most methods, theories and ideas that applied
researchers also use.

- Breakthroughs in understanding and significant advances in knowledge usually come

from basic research. In contrast to applied researchers who want quick answers to
questions for use within the next month or year, basic researchers seek answers to
questions that could have an impact on thinking for over a century. Questions asked by
basic research may seem impractical “now” but become very useful later.e.g. Today’s
computers would not exist without the pure research in mathematics conducted over a
century ago, for which there was no known practical application at the time. However,
new ideas or fundamental knowledge is not generated by basic research only, applied
research can also build new knowledge.

ii. Applied research

Solves specific problems or helps practitioners accomplish tasks. Theory is less central
to them than seeking a solution to a specific problem for a limited setting. Applied
research is frequently descriptive and its main strength is its immediate practical use.
Because applied research has immediate implications or involves controversial issues it
often generates conflict. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business.

Types of applied research

(a) Action research

It treats knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the line between research and
social action. Those who are being studied participate in the research process. The
research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge; focuses on power with a goal of
empowerment; seeks to revise conscious or increased awareness and is tied directly to
political action.

Action researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by expanding public

awareness. They are explicitly political, not value free. Because their goal is to improve
the conditions and lives of humans, formal reports, books or articles become secondary.
They assume that knowledge develops from experience particularly the experience of
socio-political action. They further assume that ordinary people can become aware of
conditions and learn to take actions that can bring about improvements in their lives.

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 (b) Impact assessment
Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequence of planned change. Areas
assessed in social impact studies include:

- community service (school enrollment)

- social conditions
- economic impact (changes in incomes)
- Demographic consequences (changes in the mix of old and young people)
- Environment (noise level or air quality with the minimization of air pollution)
- Health outcomes
- Psychological well being (changes in stress, fear or self-esteem)

(c) Evaluation research

Addresses the question “Did it work?”. It is the processes of establishing value
judgments based on evidence. It measures the effectiveness of a program e.g. does
participatory teaching technique improve learning over lecturing? It is frequently
descriptive but can be exploratory or explanatory. Ethical and political conflicts often
arise in evaluation research as people have opposing interests in the findings about a
program. Two types of evaluation research are formative and summative

Formative evaluation is built-in monitoring and continuous feedback on a program (part

of program management) – evaluating progress. Summative evaluation looks at final
program outcomes/result. It is therefore a reflective process – evaluates end result.

TIME DIMENSION IN RESEARCH

In any research project it is necessary to determine beforehand how much time will be
required to obtain the necessary information

Cross sectional research

All information on a specific topic is collected at the same time and no identical project
will be done after a specific period of time

Longitudinal research

Is conducted over a longer period of time. Longitudinal research comes in three forms:
Panel studies, cohort research and time series research.

- Panel studies: the same group or organization is investigated again over various
periods of time
- Cohort research: uses a category of people who had the same experiences in life
over a specific period of time. In other words a category of people is investigated
as a whole in order to determine its most important characteristics

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 - Time series research: the researcher studies what happened to certain people
over a long period of time. Information is collected at a specific point in time e.g.
10 years after these people were released from prison
Case study research

The researcher attempts to make an in-depth investigation into various characteristics

of a small number of characteristics of a small number of cases over a specific period of
time. Data collected are more detailed, varied and comprehensive in nature.

RESEARCH APPROACH

There are two main approaches in research – Qualitative and qualitative research.
Qualitative methods are best understood as data enhancers. When data is enhanced it
is possible to see key aspects of cases more clearly. Quantitative methods on the other
hand are data condensers

i. Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Quantitative
research identifies problems based on testing a theory, measured in numbers
and analyzed using statistical techniques. Quantitative studies emphasize the
measurement and analysis of casual relationships between variables, not
processes. Proponents of such studies claim that their work is done from within a
value free framework. By definition, measurement must be objective, quantitative
and statistically valid. Simply put it is about numbers and objective hard data.
The goal of quantitative methods is to determine whether the predictive
generalizations of a theory hold true. Quantitative researchers seek explanations
and predictions that will generalize to other persons and places. Quantitative
researcher looks at phenomena from a distance and the disadvantage is that
they have challenges accommodating behavioral manifestations that were not
part of the research.
ii. Qualitative research

Is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or

involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the
reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite
often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This
type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in
depth interviews for the purpose. Qualitative research involves the use and
collection of a variety of empirical materials that describe routine and problematic
moments and meanings in individual’s lives. It is an umbrella term that covers a

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 variety of styles of social research. Accordingly the researchers deploy a wide
range of interconnected interpretive practices, hoping always to get a
better understanding of the subject matter at hand (Denzin and Lincoln,
2000:3). Qualitative inquiry has the goal of understanding social or human
problems from multiple perspectives. Whereas quantitative research refers to
counts and measurements of things, qualitative refers to meanings, concepts,
definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols and description of things. Hence
qualitative research is much more subjective than quantitative research.

Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences
where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate
people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in
practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one
should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

Characteristics of qualitative research

- Holistic investigation: the researcher tries to study all the elements that are
present within that particular set-up/situation. The set-up is studied as a whole in
order to understand the realities involved
- Humans are primary data collecting instruments: the qualitative researcher relies
on the human being as an observer, rather than relying on measuring
instruments. Additional data are obtained by instruments such as documents or
questionnaires. Qualitative researchers are more involved
- Subjects are selected in a purposeful rather than random manner
- Design of research develops as the research develops
Hand out the table for distinguishing characteristics

Triangulation / Mixed Methods

It is important however to note that these are two different philosophies but not
necessarily polar opposites. In fact elements of both designs can be used together in
mixed method studies, sometimes known as triangulation. Because of the complexity of
reality, it is difficult to study and investigate a phenomenon in its totality using one
method. Thus multiple/mixed methods (called Triangulation) afford partial solution.

In order for quantitative data to play a more expanded role, it has to be seen to have a
potentially complementary rather than a merely supplementary part to play in the

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emergence of theoretical ideas. “In this sense quantitative components can be
understood as satellites around the central axis of qualitative fieldwork, filling out and
suggesting concepts and theoretical ideas as they emerge from the research” (Layder,
1993:111).

Quantitative data or statistics can give a sense of the whole body of data from which
such examples are drawn and provide a check on the accuracy of the researcher’s
impressions of the data. “Although this kind of crude quantitative data does not allow for
any real taste of claims, it does provide a useful check on over enthusiastic claims as
well as providing evidence of the direction of the difference” (Layder,1993:100). Hence
quantitative data can be used as an essential way of verifying impressions that have
been formed on an intuitive basis or on the basis of what “seems” to be. Without doubt
this is an important role for quantitative analysis in the context of research that is
primarily qualitative.

However, it must be made clear that while quantitative data may act as a check control
in most instances, it is essential to note that this is an unnecessarily restricted role. In
this respect, quantitative data can be more positively harnessed to the goal of theory
generation in field work. It does not have to be confined simply to the confirmation or
disconfirmation of findings or hypotheses that have already emerged through qualitative
analysis

Characteristics of Triangulation

- Research designs are based on assumptions that include both quantitative and
qualitative approaches to research.
- Style of research includes both quantitative qualitative methods and techniques
Data is used in a complementary manner

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Adapted from Denscombe, 2003

Surveys

Generally, the word survey means to view comprehensively and in detail or the act of
obtaining data for mapping. The definition is derived from the classical geographical
surveys or ordinance surveys which map out the landscape of the construction of roads
and buildings (Denscombe, 2003:6). The principle has been shared in mapping out the
social world.

Characteristics

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 - Wide and inclusive coverage ( a breadth and depth of views). In principle, a
survey should take a landscape/scenic view and “take it all in”. covers a large
number of instances
- At a specific time: surveys usually give the present state of affairs and involve an
attempt to give a snap shot of how things are at the specific time at which the
data was collected. “bring things up to date” Though there maybe times
researchers wish to do a retrospective study of how things used to be – these
remain more of an exception than the rule.
- Empirical research: it involves the idea of practical research. One basically
leaves the office and goes “out there” – the field.

Case studies
The use of case studies has become extremely widespread in social science research
particularly with small scale research. When one opts for a case study approach they
buy into a set of related ideas and preferences which when combined, give the
approach a distinctive character. Case studies focus on one instance (or a few
instances) of a particular phenomenon with a view of providing an in-depth
account of events, relationships or processes occurring in that particular
instance.

Characteristics

- spotlight is on one instance: the defining characteristic of the case study is its focus on
just one instance of the thing that is being investigated. Occasionally researchers use
two or more instances, but in principle, the idea of a case study is that a spotlight is
focused on individual instances rather than a wide spectrum. The case study approach
thus is quite the opposite of any mass study.

- in-depth study: what a case study can do that a survey cannot do is to study things in
detail and discover things that might not have been so apparent

- Focuses on relationships and processes: relationships and processes within social

settings tend to be interconnected and interrelated. To understand one thing, it is
necessary to understand many others and crucially how the various parts are linked.
Case studies can thus with the case as a whole, in its entirety and thus has a chance of
being able to discover how many parts affect one another. In this case, case studies
tend to be holistic rather than deal with isolated factors. The real value of a case study
is that it offers the opportunity to explain WHY certain outcomes might happen – more
than just find out what those outcomes are.

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- natural setting: “the case” that forms the basis of the investigation is normally
something that already exists. It is not a situation that is artificially generated for the
purpose of the research.

- multiple sources and multiple methods: one of the strengths of the case study
approach is that it allows the researcher to use variety of sources, a variety of types of
data and a variety of methods as part of the investigation. Observations of events can
be combined with the collection of documents from official meetings and informal
interviews with people involved. Whatever is appropriate can be used for investigating
the relationships and processes that are of interest.

Action research

(See section above notes)

Characteristics

 practical: it is aimed at dealing with real world problems and issues

 change: both as a way of dealing with practical problems and as a means of
discovering more about phenomena, change is regarded as an integral part of
research
 cyclical process: research involves a feedback loop in which initial findings
generate possibilities for change which are then implemented and evaluated as
a prelude to further investigation
 participation: people and practitioners are active and not passive agents of
change.

Experiments

The idea of an experiment tends to be linked with pure scientists working in a

laboratory, possibly using highly sophisticated equipment, but this is very relevant in
social sciences. The point of conducting an experiment is to isolate individual factors
and observe their effect in detail. The purpose is to discover new relationships or
properties associated with the materials being investigated or to test existing theories.
Three aspects lie at the heart of conducting an experiment.

- Controls : Experiments involve the manipulation of circumstances. The researcher

needs to identify factors which are significant and then introduce them to or exclude
them from the situation so that their effect can be observed

- The identification of causual factors: The introduction or exclusion of factors from the
situation enables the researcher to pinpoint which factor actually causes the observed
outcome to occur

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- Observation and measurement: experiments rely on precise and detailed observation
of outcomes and changes occur following the introduction or exclusion of potentially
relevant factors. They also involve close attention to the measurement of what is
observed.

Ethnography

Ethnography means a description of people or cultures. It provides a detailed and

permanent account of cultures and lives. One of the first conditions is that it should deal
with the totality of all social, cultural and psychological aspects of a community, for they
are so interwoven that not one can be understood without taking into consideration all
the others.

Characteristics

- requires the researcher to spend considerable time in the field among the people
whose lives and culture are being studied. The ethnographer needs to share in their
lives rather than observe from a distance. Extended fieldwork allows for a journey of
discovery in which the explanations for what is being witnessed emerge over a period of
time

- routine and normal aspects of everyday life are regarded as worthy of consideration as
research data

- there is special attention given to the way the people being studied see their world.
Quite distinct from the researcher’s analysis of the situation, the ethnographer is
generally concerned to find out how the members of the group/culture being studied
understand things, the meanings they attach to happenings, the way they perceive
reality

- Ethnography generally prefers a holistic approach which stresses processes,

relationships, connections and interdependency among the many different parts in
society.

Historical/desk research

The approach does not interfere with the subjects and typically does not observe them
directly, but describes, analyses and interprets those which have already taken place. It
sometimes explores the past in order to gain a better understanding of the events and
motivations, which precede the current state of affairs. Such explorations often help
them in identifying a pattern of behavior of which the present merely represents a point
on a continuum of development.

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In contrast to exploratory, experiments or surveys, no new material needs to be
collected. The approach is not so much concerned with the collection of new or raw
data, but with the explanation or the interpretations of information already known. What
is of paramount importance is that only relevant data is utilized in order to achieve as
rich an analysis as possible. This approach uses information and empirical examples as
evidence to support its point.

It uses both primary and secondary sources as evidence to support the issue in
discussion. Primary sources are items that are original to the problem under study.
Secondary sources do not bear a direct physical relationship to the event being studied,
but they are related to the event through some intermediate process. “They are called
“secondary” because they are not primarily developed for the study in which they are
used” (Sotirios, 1998:274). Through this approach, the belief is that the discourse under
discussion will at the end ensure that there is a better understanding of the issue at
stake.

RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the data. It is a strategy or blueprint that plans the action for
carrying through the research project data. A research design involves a series of
rational decision-making choices depending upon the various options available to the
researchers. Broadly it is composed of different elements like: the purpose of the study,
the unit of analysis, time dimension, and mode of observation, sampling design,
observation tools, data processing, and data analysis.

Purpose of the Study

From the perspective of purpose of the study, a research can be exploratory,
descriptive, and explanatory. The essential difference between descriptive and
explanatory studies lies in their objectives. If the research is concerned with finding out
who, what, where, when, or how much, then the study is descriptive. If it is concerned
with learning why – that is how one variable produces changes in another – it is causal.
Research on crime as such is descriptive when it measures the types of crimes
committed, how often, when, where, and by whom. In a explanatory study, we try to
explain relationships among variables – for instance, why the crime rate is higher in
locality A than in locality B. Every explanatory study in the beginning is likely to be
descriptive as well.

Methodological rigor increases as one moves from exploratory study to explanatory

study, which may encompass hypothesis testing involving multiple methods of data

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collection, sophistications in sampling designs, formulation of instruments of data
collection, data processing, and data analysis. Within the explanatory study, researcher
may further decide about the type of investigation i.e. causal versus correlational. The
researcher must decide whether a causal or correlational study is needed to find an
answer to the issue at hand. The former is done when it is necessary to establish a
definitive cause-and-effect relationship. If the researcher just wants a mere identification
of important factors “associated with” the problem, then a correlational study is called
for. Whether the study is basically a correlational or causal will help in deciding about
the mode of observation – survey study or an experimental study.

Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the
subsequent data analysis stage. If, for instance, the problem statement focuses on how
to raise the motivational levels of employees in general, then we are interested in
individual employees in the organization and would have to find out what we can do to
raise their motivation. Here the unit of analysis is the individual. We will be looking at
the data gathered from each individual and treating each employee’s response as an
individual data source. If the researcher is interested in studying two-person
interactions, then several two-person groups will become the unit of analysis. If the
problem statement is related to group effectiveness, the unit of analysis would be at
group level.

The research question determines the unit of analysis. Keeping the research question in
view, it is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis since the data collection methods,
sample size, and even the variables included in the framework may sometimes be
determined or guided by the level at which the data are aggregated for analysis. Units of
analysis in a study are typically also the units of observation.

Thus, to study voting intentions, we would interview (observe) individual voters.

Sometimes, however, we “observe” our units of analysis indirectly. For example, we
might ask husbands and wives their individual voting intentions, for purpose of
distinguishing couples who agree and disagree politically. We might want to find out
whether political disagreements tend to cause family disharmony, perhaps. In this case,
our unit of analysis would be families, though the unit of observation would be the
individual wives and husbands.

Time Dimension
Do we make the observations more or less at one time or over a long period, former
called as cross sectional studies and the latter as longitudinal studies. While planning
the strategy for data collection the time dimension may be an important component.
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Cross-Sectional Studies are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in
time. Data are collected just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in
order to answer the research question.
Longitudinal Studies are repeated over an extended period. The advantage of
longitudinal studies is that it can track changes over time. For example, the researcher
might want to study employees’ behavior before and after a change in the top
management, so as to know what effects the change accomplished. Here, because
data are gathered at two different points in time, the study is not cross-sectional or of
the one-shot kind, but is carried longitudinally across a period of time. Such studies, as
when data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to
answer the research question, are called longitudinal. Longitudinal studies can be panel
studies and cohort studies which were discussed earlier.

Research (data collection) Techniques Used

Researchers collect data using one or more techniques. The techniques may be
grouped into two categories: quantitative, collecting data in the form of numbers, and
qualitative, collecting data in the form of words or pictures.

Quantitative
The main quantitative techniques are:
i. Experiments
ii. Surveys
iii. Content Analysis
iv. Using Existing Statistics
v. Qualitative
The major qualitative techniques of research are:
i. Field Research
ii. Case Study
iii. Focus Group Discussion

Observation Method
The observation method is used in studies relating to behavioural sciences. In a way we
all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation.
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned
and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under
the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to

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consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by
the respondent, may himself look at the watch.

The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is
done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what
is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of
respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e.,
respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one
reason or the other.
Observation method has various limitations. Firstly, the information provided by this
method is very limited. Secondly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be

observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is
called as structured observation. But when observation is to take place without these
characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies,
whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be
relatively unstructured.

We often talk about participant and non-participant types of observation in the context of
studies, particularly of social sciences. This distinction depends upon the observer’s
sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing. If the observer observes by
making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can
experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation. But when the observer observes as a detached emissary
without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the
observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation. (When the
observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the
people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.)

There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) the researcher is
enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group. (ii) The researcher can even
gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested
fashion. (iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants
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in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule. But there are also certain demerits of
this type of observation viz., the observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he
participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not solved; and it may
narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.

Sometimes we talk of controlled and uncontrolled observation. If the observation takes

place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when
observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental
procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation. In non-controlled
observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments.

The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and
persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour,
allowing sufficient time for observing it. But in controlled observation, we use
mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and standardisation. Such
observation has a tendency to supply formalised data upon which generalisations can
be built with some degree of assurance. The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is
that of subjective interpretation. There is also the danger of having the feeling that we
know more about the observed phenomena than we actually do. Generally, controlled
observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or
under controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of
exploratory researches.

QUESTIONNAIRES
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on
a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to
read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on
their own.

The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most

extensively employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on
behalf of this method are as follows:
 It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more
dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

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  Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is
often indeterminate.
 It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
 The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
 There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach
once questionnaires have been dispatched.
 There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether
to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
 It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
 This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Questionnaire design is one of the most critical stages in the survey research process.
While commonsense and good grammars are important in question writing, more is
required in the art of questionnaire design. To assume that people will understand the
questions is common error. People may not simply know what is being asked. They
may be unaware of topic of interest, they may confuse the subject with something else,
or the question may not mean the same thing to every respondent. Respondents may
simply refuse to answer personal questions. Further, properly wording the questionnaire
is crucial, as some problems may be minimized or avoided altogether if a skilled
researcher composes the questions. A good questionnaire forms an integrated whole.
The researcher weaves questions together so they flow smoothly. He or she includes
introductory remarks and instructions for clarification and measures each variable with
one or more survey questions.

What should be asked?

The problem definition will indicate which type of information must be collected to
answer the research question; different types of questions may be better at obtaining
certain type of information than others.

1. Questionnaire Relevancy
A questionnaire is relevant if no unnecessary information is collected and if the
information that is needed to solve the problem is obtained. If the task is to pinpoint
compensation problems, for example, questions asking for general information about
morale may be inappropriate.
2. Questionnaire Accuracy
Accuracy means that the information is reliable and valid. While experienced
researchers believe that one should use simple, understandable, unbiased,
unambiguous, and nonirritating words. Therefore avoid jargon, slang, and
abbreviations. The respondents may not understand some basic terminology.

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Respondents can probably tell the interviewer whether they are married, single,
divorced, separated, or widowed, but providing their “marital status” may present a
problem. Therefore, asking somebody about his/her marital status while the person may
not understand the meaning of marital status is likely to mess up the information. Words
used in the questionnaire should be readily understandable to all respondents.
3. Avoid Ambiguity, Confusion, and Vagueness.
Ambiguity and vagueness plague most question writers. A researcher might make
implicit assumptions without thinking of respondents’ perspectives. For example, the
question, “what is your income?” could mean weekly, monthly, or annual: family or
personal; before taxes or after taxes; for this year or last year; from salary or from all
sources. The confusion causes inconsistencies in how different respondents assign
meaning to and answer the question.
Another source of ambiguity is the use indefinite words or response categories.
Consider the words such as often, occasionally, usually, regularly, frequently, many,
good, fair, and poor. Each of these words has many meanings.
4. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
Make each question about one and only one. A double barreled question consists of
two or more questions joined together. It makes the respondent’s answer ambiguous.
For example, if asked, “Does this company have pension and health insurance
benefits?” a respondent at the company with health insurance benefits only might
answer either yes or no. The response has an ambiguous meaning and the researcher
cannot be certain of the respondent’s intentions. When multiple questions are asked in
one question, thee results may be exceedingly difficult to interpret.
5. Avoid Leading Questions
Make respondents feel that all responses are legitimate. Do not let them aware of an
answer that the researcher wants. A leading question is the one that leads the
respondent to choose one response over another by its wording. For example, the
question, “you don’t smoke, do you?” leads respondents to state that they do not
smoke. “Don’t you think that women should be empowered?” In most the cases the
respondent is likely to agree with the statement.
6. Avoid Loaded Questions
Loaded questions suggest a socially desirable answer or are emotionally charged.
“Should the city government repair all the broken streets?” Most of the people are going
to agree with this question simply because this is highly socially desirable. A question
which may be challenging the traditionally set patterns of behavior may be considered
as emotionally charged i.e. it is loaded with such material which may hit the emotions of
the people. Look at some behaviors associated with masculinity in
7. Avoid Burdensome Questions that may Tax the Respondent’s Memory
A simple fact of human life is that people forget. Researchers writing questions about
past behavior or events should recognize that certain questions may make serious
demand on the respondent’s memory.
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 “How did you feel about your brother when you were 6 years old?” It may very difficult
to recall something from the childhood.
8. Arrange Questions in a Proper Sequence
The order of question, or the question sequence, may serve several functions for the
researcher. If the opening questions are interesting, simple to comprehend, and easy to
answer, respondent’s cooperation and involvement can be maintained throughout the
questionnaire. If respondent’s curiosity is not aroused at the outset, they can become
disinterested and terminate the interview. In some situations it may be advisable to ask
general question before specific question to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent.
This procedure, known as funnel technique, allows the researcher to understand the
respondent’s frame of reference before asking specific questions about the level of
respondent’s information and intensity of his or her opinions.
9. Use Filter Question, if Needed
Asking a question that doesn’t apply to the respondent or that the respondent is not
qualified to answer may be irritating or may cause a biased response. Including filter
question minimizes the chance of asking questions that are inapplicable. Filter question
is that question which screens out respondents not qualified to answer a second
question. For example the researcher wants to know about the bringing up of one’s
children. “How much time do you spend playing games with your oldest child?” What if
the respondent is unmarried? Even if the respondent is married but does not have the
child. In both these situations the question is inapplicable to him/her. Before this
question the person may put a filter question whether or not the respondent is married.

Interview Method

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

Personal interviews:
Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the
interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but
usually the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.) This sort of
interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral
investigation.

Structured interviews.
Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardised techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview

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follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed. As
against it, the unstructured interviews are characterised by a flexibility of approach to
questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined
questions and standardised techniques of recording information. In a non-structured
interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively greater
freedom while recording the responses to include some aspects and exclude others.
But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with another
and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and time-
consuming than that of the structured responses obtained in case of structured
interviews. Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on
the part of the interviewer. Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the central
technique of collecting information in case of exploratory or formulative research
studies. But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of
structured interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for
generalisation and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer. We may
as well talk about focused interview, clinical interview and the non-directive interview.
The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents;
the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general
population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure
questions is always there, especially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv)Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various
questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi)Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This
is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may
also be held.
(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
(ix) The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be
avoided.
(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting
results.
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But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important
weaknesses, mention may be made of the following:
(i) It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread geographical
sample is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in
high income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that
extent the data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is large
and recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent,
sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the
interview interesting.
(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and
supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would
facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

In research, focus group discussions (FGD) are a more formal way of getting groups of
people to discuss selected issues. A focus group discussion is a group discussion of 6-
12 persons guided by a facilitator, during which group members talk freely and
spontaneously about a certain topic. The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth
information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group. An FGD aims to be more
than a question-answer interaction (Focus group interview is different). Here the idea is
that group members discuss the topic among themselves.
Formal Focus Groups

Formal groups are formally constituted, that is these are organized in advance by
inviting the selected individuals to participate in the discussion on a specific issue. They
are structured groups brought together in which the participants are expected to have
similar background, age, sex, education, religion, or similar experiences. Similarity in
background is likely to make them comfortable where they could express their viewpoint
frankly and freely. If the big boss and his junior officer working in an organization
together participate in an FGD, the junior officer may not be able to express his or her
opinion freely in the presence of his/her boss. Similarly, in some situations the children
may experience some inhibitions in expressing their views on a sensitive issue in the
presence of their parents. A lot depends on the kind of issue that is to be discussed.

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The group is guided by a moderator/facilitator. The participants address a specific issue
(talk freely, agree or disagree among them) within a specified time in accordance with
clearly spelled out rules of procedure.

Designing a Focus group Study

As with other approaches to studying social phenomena, designing a focus group study
requires careful thought and reflection. Given that focus groups can be used for a
variety of purposes within social research, the design of focus group study will depend
on its purpose. At one extreme, FGD is used at the exploratory stage of the study (FGD
may help in the identification of variables, formulation of questions and response
categories) and at the other extreme, when qualitative information is needed on issues
about which the researchers have substantial background knowledge and a reasonable
grasp of the issues. Here we are focusing on the latter type of design.
How to conduct FGD?
The following guideline may be provided for conducting FGD.
1. Preparation:
• Selection of topic, questions to be discussed. It is appropriate to define and clarify the
concepts to be discussed. The basic idea is to lay out a set of issues for the group to
discuss. It is important to bear in mind that the moderator will mostly be improvising
comments and questions within the framework set by the guidelines. By keeping the
questions open-ended, the moderator ca stimulates useful trains of thought in the
participants that were not anticipated.
• Selecting the study participants: Given a clear idea of the issues to be discussed, the
next critical step in designing a focus group study is to decide on the characteristics of
the individuals who are to be targeted for sessions. It is often important to ensure that
the groups all share some common characteristics in relation to the issue under
investigation. If you need to obtain information on a topic from several different
categories of informants who are likely to discuss the issue from different perspectives,
you should organize a focus group for each major category. For example a group for
men and a group for women, or a group for older women and group for younger women.
The selection of the participants can be on the basis of purposive or convenience
sampling. The participants should receive the invitations at least one or two days before
the exercise. The invitations should explain the general purpose of the FGD.
• Physical arrangements: Communication and interaction during the FGD should be
encouraged in every way possible. Arrange the chairs in a circle. Make sure the area
will be quite, adequately lighted, etc., and that there will be no disturbances. Try to hold
the FGD in a neutral setting that encourages participants to freely express their views. A
health center, for example, is not a good place to discuss traditional medical beliefs or
preferences for other types of treatment. Neutral setting could also be from the
perspective of a place where the participants feel comfortable to come over and above
their party factions.
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Conducting the session:
One of the members of the research team should act as a “facilitator” or “moderator” for
the focus group. One should serve as “recorder.”
Functions of the Facilitator: The facilitator should not act as an expert on the topic.
His or her role is to stimulate and support discussion. He should perform the following
functions:
 Introduce the session: He or she should introduce himself/herself as facilitator
and intro duce the recorder. Introduce the participants by name or ask them to
introduce themselves (or develop some new interesting way of introduction). Put
the participants at ease and explain the purpose of the FGD, the kind of
information needed, and how the information will be used (e.g., for planning of a
health program, an education program, etc.).
 Encourage discussion: The facilitator should be enthusiastic, lively, and
humorous and show his/her interest in the group’s ideas. Formulate questions
and encourage as many participants as possible to express their views.
Remember there are no “right” or “wrong” answers. Facilitator should react
neutrally to both verbal and nonverbal responses.
 Encourage involvement: Avoid a question and answer session. Some useful
techniques include: asking for clarification (can you tell me more?); reorienting
the discussion when it goes off the track (saying: wait, how does this relate to the
issue? Using one participant’s remarks to direct a question to another); bringing
in reluctant participants (Using person’s name, requesting his/her opinion,
making more frequent eye contact to encourage his participation); dealing with
dominant participants (avoiding eye contact or turning slightly away to discourage
the person from speaking, or thanking the person and changing the subject).
 Avoid being placed in the role of expert: When the facilitator is asked for
his/her opinion by a respondent, remember that he or she is not there to educate
of inform. Direct the question back to the group by saying: “What do you think?”
“What would you do?” Set aside time, if necessary, after the session to give
participants the information they have asked. Do not try to give comments on
everything that is being said. Do not feel you have to say something during
every pause in the discussion. Wait a little and see what happens.
 Control the timing of the meeting but unobtrusively: Listen carefully and
move the discussion from topic to topic. Subtly control the time allocated to
various topics so as to maintain interest. If the participants spontaneously jump
from one topic to the other, let the discussion continue for a while because useful
additional information may surface and then summarize the points brought up
and reorient the discussion.
 Take time at the end of the meeting to summarize, check for agreement and
thank the participants: Summarize the main issues brought up, check whether
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 all agree and ask for additional comments. Thank the participants and let them
know that their ideas had been valuable contribution and will be used for
planning the proposed research/intervention/or whatever the purpose of FGD
was. Listen to the additional comments made after the meeting. Sometime some
valuable information surfaces, which otherwise may remain hidden.
Functions of the Recorder
The recorder should keep a record of the content of the discussion as well as emotional
reactions and important aspects of group interaction. Assessment of the emotional tone
of the meeting and the group process will enable the researcher to judge the validity of
the information collected during the FGD.
Record the following:
 Date, time, and place:
 Names and characteristics of participants:
 General description of the group dynamics (level of participation, presence of a
dominant participant, level of interest):
 Opinions of participants, recorded as much as possible in their own words,
especially for key statements: and
 Vocabulary used, particularly in focus group discussions that are intended to
assist in developing questionnaire or other material as stipulated under the topic.
It is highly recommended that a tape/video recorder (with permission) be used to assist
capturing information. Even if a tape/video recorder is used, notes should be taken as
well, in case the machine malfunctions and so that information will be available
immediately after the session.
A supplementary role for the recorder could be to assist the facilitator (if necessary) by
drawing his/her attention to:
 Missed comments from participants, and
 Missed topics (the recorder should have a copy of the discussion guide, key
probe questions during the FGD).
If necessary, the recorder could also help resolve conflict situations that facilitator may
have difficulty handling.
Number and duration of sessions: The number of focus group sessions to be
conducted depends upon project needs, resources, and whether new information is still
coming from the sessions (that is, whether contrasting views from various groups in the
community are still emerging).
One should plan to conduct at least two different focus group discussions for each
subgroup (for example two for males and two for females).
For duration, a focus group session typically lasts up to an hour and a half. Generally
the first session with a particular type of group is longer than the following ones because
all of the information is new.

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Thereafter, if it becomes clear that all the groups have the same opinion on particular
topics, the facilitator may be able to move the discussion along more quickly to other
topics that still elicit new points of view.
3. Analysis of Results
 After each focus group session, the facilitator and the recorder should meet to
review and complete the notes taken during the meeting. This is also the right
moment to evaluate how the focus group went and what changes might be made
when facilitating future groups.
 A full report of the discussion should be prepared that reflects the discussion as
completely as possible using the participants’ own words. List the key
statements, ideas, and attitudes expressed for each topic of discussion.
 After the transcript of the discussion is prepared, code the statements right away,
using the left margin? Write comments in the right margin. Formulate additional
questions if certain issues are still unclear or controversial and include them in
the next FGD.
Further categorize the statements for each topic, if required. Compare answers of
different subgroups (e.g., answers of young mothers and answers of mothers of above
childbearing age in the FGD on changes in weaning practices). The findings must be
recorded in coherent manner. For example, if young women in all focus group
discussions state that they start weaning some 3-6 months earlier than their mothers did
and the women above childbearing age confirm this statement, one is likely to have a
solid finding. If findings contradict each other, one may need to conduct some more
focus group discussions or bring together representatives from two different subgroups
to discuss and clarify the differences.
 Summarize the data in a matrix, diagram, flowchart, or narrative, if appropriate,
and interpret the findings.
 Select the most useful quotations that emerged from the discussions to illustrate
the main ideas

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

When doing research there are rules and responsibilities; standards and behavior that
have to be followed. Behavior has far greater significance as we are dealing with people
and what we do or not do may have detrimental effects on others. So what do we need
to keep in mind when doing research? What ethical requirements must be kept?

Ethics are code of conduct – set of principles and attitudes that justify behavior Smith
(1988: 284-285)

Research has to be regulated by the following six behavioral norms:

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 1. Universalism – this norm requires that research must pass peer evaluation; peers
must be allowed to judge whether the research is in line with previously accepted
methods and knowledge on the subject
2. Communality – researchers should accurately report the methods, purpose,
motives and consequences. This principle compels all researchers to share their
research findings freely, honestly with all members of the research community.
3. Disinterestedness – personal gain should not be a researchers’ main or only
reason for doing research
4. Organized skepticism/doubt – researchers should be critical of their own and
others’ research and to be honest when they spot errors, omissions and
subjective biases.
5. Honesty – Researchers should be honest with themselves, with the participants
involved in the research and with the research community
6. Respect – researchers should protect participants’ basic human and civil rights
ethical issues relating to human rights:
- Do no harm: the meaning of harm should be treated in the broadest possible way
to include anything from physical discomfort to emotional stress, humiliation or
embarrassment. Very young children, the elderly, individuals with disabilities and
people who are institutionalized (e.g. Prisoners) are particularly vulnerable and
nay agree to participate in the research for wrong reasons. E.g. they may agree
to participate because they seek approval for good behaviour or because they
believe that their participation will help someone else irrespective of the potential
harm the research may inflict on them as individuals.
- Obtaining consent: there is need to make sure that the participants in the
research understand what the research involves. Direct consent must be
obtained from the people who will be involved in the research personally.
Substitute consent (or third party consent) is obtained from someone who is
not personally involved. This type of consent is usually required when the actual
person/persons concerned do not have the cognitive or emotional capacity to
give consent such as young children or people who are mentally challenged. This
kind of consent also raises legal challenges with regards to respecting
participants and acknowledging their rights.
To be ethically justifiable consent also has to meet three requirements.

1. Persons’ ability – the person must have the ability and the capacity to understand
and evaluate the information about the intended research, in order to make an
informed decision. Competency or incompetency is usually linked age (legally
children under the age of 18 are regarded as minors and require permission from
a legal guardian or parent. However deciding whether an adult is competent or
not to make decisions is not easy. Even where adults do appear to have the legal

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 competency to make decisions, there is need to let them know that they are free
to stop participating anytime if they feel like.
2. Voluntariness – consent must be voluntary: individuals must be able to choose
whether or not to participate in research. Nobody must be forced, deceived,
threatened or subjected to any form of coercion/force
3. Information – both the content and the way in which the information is conveyed
to potential researchers will determine whether or not consent will be obtained.
Other important ethical issues include:

 Privacy (of information and place)

 Confidentiality
 some information maybe sensitive
 Place
 Confidentiality implies not publicly linking or publishing a specific response or
behaviour from a participant
 Anonymity (especially where findings will be published)

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