MINISTRY OF HEALTH OF UKRAINE

STATE ESTABLISHMENT "DNIPROPETROVSK MEDICAL ACADEMY OF

HEALTH MINISTRY OF UKRAINE"
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL BIOLOGY, PHARMACOGNOSY AND
BOTANY

“APPROVED”
on methodical session of
Medical Biology,
Pharmacognosy and Botany
Department
№___ from _________20__.
Head of the Department
prof. V. F. Shatorna

____________________
(signature
)

METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION FOR THE LECTURE

Educational subject Medical Biology

Semester 1 Biological characteristics human vital function.
Organism level of organization of life. Basic
principles of human genetics.
Topic Biological mechanisms of homeostasis. Reproduction
at cell level. Ontogenesis violations and their place in
human pathology.
Course 1st
Faculty Medical

DNIPRO – 2017

Plan of the lecture:

  Introduction to cell division
 Asexual & Sexual Reproduction
 The Cell Cycle
 Elements of the Cell Cycle
 Uncontrolled Cell Division Cell Cycle Check Points
 Cancer and Aging

References:

1. Lazarev K.L. Medical Biology: Textbook. - Second edition. Simferopol:

IAD CSMU, 2003
2. Romanenko O. V. Medical biology: The study guide of the practical classes
course / O. V. Romanenko, O. V. Golovchenko, M. G. Kravchuk, V. M.
Grinkevych; edited by O. V. Romanenko. – K.: Medicine, 2008.
3. https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/6-2-the-cell-cycle/
4. https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cellular-division/v/cell-
cycle-phases

Lecture Thesis
 «Biological mechanisms of homeostasis. Reproduction at cell level.
Ontogenesis violations and their place in human pathology»
An evolutionary goal of all living systems is to reproduce. Since the
basic unit of life is a cell, this means that there must be a process by which to
create new cells from parental cells. We also know intuitively that multicellular
organisms must somehow increase their number of cells during their growth by
creating copies of existing cells. The process by which one cell creates one or more
new cells, for both single and multi-celled organisms, requires a parental cell to
divide and is called cell division. 
The cell must replicate its DNA so that at least two cells have a functional copy
after cell division is complete - we have discussed this process already.
The cell must make sufficient copies of the rest of the cellular content so that
daughter cells are viable or it must find a way to ensure that the copied DNA (even
without a full replica of cellular content) is viable. 
The cell must divide the replicated cell content and DNA between at least two
independently bounded compartments.  
To ensure success, the process must be happen in an evolutionarily competitive
time and be accomplished with an evolutionary selection-friendly amount of
biochemical resources. 
The coordinated process and the mechanisms of control are generally referred to as
the cell cycle. This term can be used to describe the coordinate process used by any
cell that is undergoing cell division. When we observe Nature we find that it has
evolved two major modes of reproduction: sexual and asexual. Within each of
these modes of reproduction we find several major modes of cell division that
occur frequently across all domains of life. We consider three of these modes:
binary fission (used primarily by single celled bacteria and archaea), mitosis (used
often by eukaryotes in processes of cell division NOT associated with sexual
reproduction) and meiosis (a process of cell division tightly linked to sexual
reproduction). We discuss these processes in the sections that follow. 
 In asexually reproducing eukaryotic cells, one “turn” of the cell cycle
consists of two general phases: interphase, followed by mitosis and cytokinesis.
Interphase is the period of the cell cycle during which the cell may either be living
and not dividing or in which it is preparing itself to divide. Most of the cells in a
fully-developed multicellular organisms are typically found in
interphase. Mitosis is the the point in the cell cycle associated with division or
distribution of replicated genetic material to two daughter cells. During mitosis the
cell nucleus breaks down and two new, fully functional, nuclei are
formed. Cytokinesis is the process that divides the cytoplasm into two distinctive
cells.
 Interphase
 G1 Phase
The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first gap, because little
change is visible. However, during the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the
biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal
DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating enough energy reserves
to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the nucleus. 
 S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin
configuration. In S phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication results in the
formation of two identical copies of each chromosome—sister chromatids—that
are firmly attached at the centromere region. At the end of this stage, each
chromosome has been replicated. 
In cells using the organelles called centrosomes, these structures are often
duplicated during S phase. Centrosomes consists of a pair of rod-
like centrioles composed of tubulin and other proteins that sit at right angles to one
another other. The two resulting centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle,
the apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes later during
mitosis. 
 G2 Phase
During the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy stores and
synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell
organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources
for the mitotic spindle. There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter
the first stage of mitosis.
 G0 Phase
Not all cells adhere to the classic cell-cycle pattern in which a newly formed
daughter cell immediately enters interphase, closely followed by the mitotic phase.
Cells in the G0 phase are not actively preparing to divide. The cell is in a quiescent
(inactive) stage, having exited the cell cycle. Some cells enter G0 temporarily until
an external signal triggers the onset of G1. Other cells that never or rarely divide,
such as mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells, remain in G0 permanently
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
During the mitotic phase, a cell undergoes two major processes. First, it
completes mitosis, during which the contents of the nucleus are equitably pulled
apart and distributed between its two halves. Cytokinesis then occurs, dividing the
cytoplasm and cell body into two new cells. 
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which cell
division is completed by the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components
into two daughter cells. Although the stages of mitosis are similar for most
eukaryotes, the process of cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have
cell walls, such as plant cells.
In cells such as animal cells that lack cell walls, cytokinesis begins
following the onset of anaphase. A contractile ring composed of actin filaments
forms just inside the plasma membrane at the former metaphase plate. The actin
filaments pull the equator of the cell inward, forming a fissure. This fissure, or
“crack,” is called the cleavage furrow. The furrow deepens as the actin ring
contracts, and eventually the membrane and cell are cleaved in two (see the figure
below).
Cell Cycle Check Points
It is essential that daughter cells be nearly exact duplicates of the parent
cell. Mistakes in the duplication or distribution of the chromosomes lead to
mutations that may be passed forward to every new cell produced from the
abnormal cell. To prevent a compromised cell from continuing to divide, there are
internal control mechanisms that operate at three main cell cycle checkpoints at
which the cell cycle can be stopped until conditions are favorable. These
checkpoints occur near the end of G1, at the G2–M transition, and during metaphase
G1 Checkpoint
The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions are favorable for
cell division to proceed into S phase where DNA replication occurs. The
G1 checkpoint, also called the restriction point, is the point at which the cell
irreversibly commits to the cell-division process. In addition to adequate reserves
and cell size, there is a check for damage to the genomic DNA at the
G1 checkpoint. A cell that does not meet all the requirements will not be released
into the S phase.
G2 Checkpoint
The G2 checkpoint bars the entry to the mitotic phase if certain
conditions are not met. As in the G1 checkpoint, cell size and protein reserves are
assessed. However, the most important role of the G2 checkpoint is to ensure that
all of the chromosomes have been replicated and that the replicated DNA is not
damaged.
M Checkpoint
The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of mitosis.
The M checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint because it determines if
all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules. Because
the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step, the
cycle will not proceed until the kinetochores of each pair of sister chromatids are
firmly anchored to spindle fibers arising from opposite poles of the cell.
Homeostatic Imbalances:
Cancer Arises from Homeostatic Imbalances
Cancer is an extremely complex condition, capable of arising from a
wide variety of genetic and environmental causes. Typically, mutations or
aberrations in a cell’s DNA that compromise normal cell cycle control systems
lead to cancerous tumors. Cell cycle control is an example of a homeostatic
mechanism that maintains proper cell function and health. While progressing
through the phases of the cell cycle, a large variety of intracellular molecules
provide stop and go signals to regulate movement forward to the next phase. These
signals are maintained in an intricate balance so that the cell only proceeds to the
next phase when it is ready. This homeostatic control of the cell cycle can be
thought of like a car’s cruise control. Cruise control will continually apply just the
right amount of acceleration to maintain a desired speed, unless the driver hits the
brakes, in which case the car will slow down. Similarly, the cell includes molecular
messengers, such as cyclins, that push the cell forward in its cycle.