Fundamental Operations on Fraction,

Decimal and Percent

Lesson One: Fractions
Definition 1. Fractions
A fraction represents a part of a whole. It consists of a numerator and a denominator. The
numerator is the number above the fraction bar; the denominator is the number below
the fraction bar. The fraction bar is called the vinculum which indicates division.

As such, the denominator is the divisor; hence, it shows into how many parts a whole
is divided. The numerator is the dividend; hence it shows how many parts of a whole are
called for. Whole here is not limited to a unit as one. Rather, it also refers to a group as a
whole, say, a class, a family, a team, or any other group taken as a unit. For example, if a
class consists of 30 students and we have 20 boys and 10 girls, we say that 2030
or 32 are boys
10 1
and 30 or 3 are girls.

Common fractions, also called vulgar fractions, have three types:

1. Proper fractions. These are fractions that express amounts which are less than a
unit. As such, the numerator is always less than the denominator. The following are
proper fractions:
1 1 3 2 5 11
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
4 2 4 3 8 12

2. Improper fractions. These are fractions that express amounts which are equal to
or greater than a unit. Hence, the numerator is either equal to or greater than the
denominator.
3 6 7 11 18 11
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
3 5 4 6 11 3

These fractions can be reduced to whole numbers or to mixed numbers.

3. Mixed numbers. These are numbers that consist of a whole number and a fraction.
The following are mixed numbers:
1 3
(a) 1 (read as one and one-third) (c) 5 (read as five and three-fourths)
3 4
3 1
(b) 2 (read as two and three-fifths) (d) 8 (read as eight and one-fourth)
5 3

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Exercise 1. Let’s share ideas:

1. How is finding part of a whole similar to finding part of a set? How is it different?

2. What do you need to know to name a fraction? How do you name a fraction?

3. Andy has five tools he uses in his carpentry shop. Two of the tools are hammers. What
fraction of the tools are hammers?

4. Write a list of things at home that are separated into fractions. Compare your list with
your classmates.

5. The high school club members spent P820.00 for their party. This is 32 of the money
they collected. How much money did they collect? What part of the total collection
was left? How much is it?

Exercise 2. Practice your skills:

1. Abigail sells rice to stores. She has a total of 125 cavans that she plans to distribute
to three stores. If she gives 15 of what she has to store A, can she divide the remaining
equally to stores B and C ? How many will store A and store B get?

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 2. Bobby cuts a piece of wood into 3 pieces of the same length. After he cuts off 2 feet
from one of the pieces, he is left with a piece that is 5 feet long. What is the length of
the piece of wood he started with?

3. Cezar used nails, screws, and pegs to build a model house. He has twice as many
screws as pegs and 3 fewer nails than screws. He used 15 nails. How many pegs did
he use?

4. A three-storey mansion has two more windows on the second floor than on the first
floor and twice as many windows on the second floor as on the third floor. There are
nine windows on the third floor. How many windows are there on the first floor?

Lesson Summary
• A fraction represents a part of a whole. It consists of a numerator and a denominator.
The numerator is the number above the line; the denominator is the number below the
line. This line is called the vinculum which indicates division.
• Common fractions are also called vulgar fractions. There are three types of common
fractions. These are proper fractions, improper fractions, and mixed numbers.
• Proper fractions are fractions that express amounts which are less than a unit. As
such, the numerator is always less than the denominator.
• Improper fractions are fractions that express amounts which are equal to or greater
than a unit. Hence, the numerator is either equal to or greater than the denominator.
• Mixed numbers are numbers that consist of a whole number and a fraction.

Lesson Two: Addition of Fractions

Addition of Similar Fractions
Similar fractions are fractions with the same denominator. The fractions 18 , 82 , and 58 are
similar fractions. To add similar fractions, we add all the numerators and retain the denom-
inator. We, generally, always reduce fractions to the lowest terms.

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 1 2 5 1+2+5
+ + = =1 Add the numerators (we get 8) and retain
8 8 8 8
the denominator (8) to arrive at 88 which will
give us 1 (a number divided by itself gives us 1).

Other examples:
2 3 1
(a) + + =
4 4 4

1 5 4
(b) + + =
16 16 16

Addition of Similar Fractions with Mixed Numbers

To add similar fractions with mixed numbers, we add the whole numbers separately and
then add the similar fractions as the first example or change the mixed numbers to improper
fractions and proceed as in addition of similar fractions:

Method A Method B

 
1 2 1 1+2+1 1 2 1 10 2 7
3 + +2 = 3+2 + 3 + +2 = + +
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 (10 + 2 + 7)
= 5 + =
3 3
1 19
= 5 + 1 =
3 3
1 1
= 6 = 6
3 3

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 Addition of Dissimilar Fractions
Dissimilar fractions, that is, fractions whose denominators are not the same such as 56 and
1
4
, cannot be added together unless they are expressed in terms of a common denominator.

To convert dissimilar fractions into similar fractions, we have to express their denomi-
nators in terms of their least common denominator (LCD). Then, we divide the LCD by
the denominators of the concerned fractions and multiply the quotient thus obtained by the
numerators of the concerned fractions.
Definition 2. Least Common Denominator
The Least Common Denominator or LCD is the least or smallest number which can be
exactly divided by the different denominators.
Example:
5 5 ? 5 10
= = 10 3 13
6 6 12 6 12 + =
+ + + 12 12 12
1 ⇒ 1 ? ⇒ 1 3 ⇒
= = 1
4 4 12 4 12 = 1
12

Other examples:

1 1 1 3 5 6
1. + + = 2. + + =
2 3 4 14 18 15

Addition of Mixed Numbers with Dissimilar Fractions

A mixed number is a whole number and a fraction. 1 21 , 2 34 , and 10 18 are mixed numbers.
To add mixed numbers, we have two methods:

Exercise 3. Let’s share ideas:

1. Ramon worked in the hardware store for 7 12 hours while Raul worked 8 34 hours. How
many total hours did the two work? Express your answer as an improper.

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2. Janine and Jella are owners of small textile stores. Janine sold 8
of her stock yesterday.
Jella sold 56 of hers.

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 (a) Assume a total of 400 yards for Janine and 300 yards for Jella in stock. Who sold
the more?

(b) Assume that Janine and Jella own only one store, what part of their total stock
did Janine sell and what part of their total stock did Jella sell?

(c) Of the total stock of their stores combined, add the part that Janine sold and the
part that Jella sold. Find the part of the total stock sold.

Exercise 4. Practice your skills:

1. A bale of cloth contained 96 12 meters. The following were cut and sold: 4 14 , 2 43 , 7 41 , 5 38 , and 10 25 .

(a) How many meters of cloth were sold?

(b) If a meter was sold for P55.00, how much is the total sales?

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(c) If gross profit represents 4
of the sales, how much is the cost of sales.

2. James and Gabriela bought a farm measuring 78 35 meters on one side, 63 10

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meters on
5 1
the second side, 132 9 meters on the third side, and 130 4 meters on the fourth side.
The couple wants to fence the farm with barbed wires. They have 2 rolls of barbed
wire of 500 meters per roll on hand. How many more meters of barbed wire would
they have to buy if they want to fence the farm four times?

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 3. Olive is preparing for the baptism of Gabrielle Anne. She bought five dressed chicken
weighing 1 41 , 2 18 , 1 32 , 1 25 , and 2 21 kilograms each respectively.

(a) What is the total weight of the chicken?

(b) At P75.00 a kilogram, how much will she have to pay for the five dressed chicken?

(c) If she gave the seller two P500 bills, how much change is due her?

Lesson Summary

• Similar fractions are fractions with the same denominators. The fractions 18 , 28 , and 58
are similar fractions. To add similar fractions, we add the numerators and retain the
same denominator. We, generally, always reduce fractions to lowest terms.

• Dissimilar fractions are fractions whose denominators are not the same. We cannot
add dissimilar fractions unless we express them in terms of a common denominator.

• To convert dissimilar fractions into similar fractions, we have to express their de-
nominators in terms of their least common denominator (LCD). The Least Common
Denominator or LCD is the least or smallest number which can be exactly divided by
the different denominators.

• To add dissimilar fractions, we:

– look for the LCD;

– solve for the numerators and
– add the fractions.

• To add mixed numbers, add the whole numbers and then add the fractional parts.

Lesson Three: Subtraction of Fractions

Subtraction of Similar Fractions
As in addition, we simply deal with the numerators and then copy the denominator.

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Hence, to subtract, we subtract the numerators and copy the denominator and reduce the
fraction to lowest term, if needed.

15 8 (15 − 8) 5 3 (5 − 3)
(a) − = (b) − =
16 16 16 8 8 8

7 2
= =
16 8
1
=
4

Subtraction of Dissimilar Fractions

Again, as in addition, it is necessary that dissimilar fractions be converted into similar
fractions first. Then, we proceed to subtraction of similar fractions.
2 1 8 3 5 5 1 20 3 17
(a) − = − = (b) − = − =
3 4 12 12 12 6 8 24 24 24

Subtraction of Mixed Numbers

To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number, we follow the following rules:

(a) If the mixed numbers have similar fractional parts, we subtract the whole numbers and
then subtract the fractional parts following our rule for subtraction of similar fractions.
 
2 1 2 1
8 −3 = (8 − 3) + −
3 3 3 3

1
= 5 +
3
1
= 5
3

(b) If the mixed numbers have fractional parts which are not similar, then, we change the
fractional parts into similar fractions and then proceed as in (a) above.
2 8
12 = 12
3 12
−
1 3
8 = 8
4 12

5
4
12

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(c) If the fraction in the subtrahend is greater than the fraction in the minuend, convert
one unit of the minuend into an improper fraction with the correct denominator and
add this unit to the existing fraction in the minuend. Then, the whole number in the
minuend is reduced by one. After that, we can proceed with the subtraction.
1 1 9 3 9 33
23 = 23 = 22 14 = 14 = 13
8 8 8 8 24 24
− −
3 6 6 5 20 20
15 = 15 = 15 8 = 8 = 8
(c.1) 4 8 8 (c.2) 6 24 24

3 13
7 5
8 24

Subtraction of Mixed Numbers and Whole Numbers

To subtract a mixed number from a whole number, we convert one unit of the minuend
into an improper fraction with the same denominator as the fraction in the subtrahend thus
reducing the whole number in the minuend by one. Then, we subtract.
4 8
14 = 13 25 = 24
4 8
3 3 3 3
− 3 = 3 − 6 = 6
(a) 4 4 (b) 8 8

1 5
10 18
4 8
To subtract a whole number from a mixed number, we simply subtract the whole numbers
and copy the fraction.
2 1 11
18 65 104
5 3 12

− 7 − 42 − 97
(a) (b) (c)

2 1 11
11 23 7
5 3 12

Exercise 5. Let’s share ideas:

1. Gabriela, Corazon, and Remedios formed a partnership. Gabriela contributed 21 of the

capital. Corazon contributed 14 of what Gabriela contributed. Remedios contributed
the remainder.

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 (a) How much more did Gabriela contribute than Corazon? Than Remedios?

(b) Show the capital contributions of the partners in terms of fractional parts.

(c) Prove your answer in (b) using subtraction.

(d) If the total capitalization of the partnership was P30,000.00, how much did each
of the partners contribute?

Exercise 6. Practice your skills:

1. The Fernando family decided to hike to Dream Lake, approximately 9 58 miles away.
After an hour, the lake was still 5 13 miles away. How far did the group hike so far?

2. For track practice, runners were supposed to walk or jog twenty laps. Sara jogged 34
of the laps. Jacob jogged 53 . Sierra jogged 12 . List the runners in order from least to
greates number of laps jogged.

Lesson Summary

• To subtract similar fractions, we subtract the numerators and copy the denominator
and reduce the fraction to lowest term, if needed.

• To subtract dissimilar fractions, we convert the dissimilar fractions into similar frac-
tions and proceed to subtraction of similar fractions.

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 • To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number, we follow the following rules:

– If the mixed numbers have similar fractional parts, we subtract the whole numbers
and then subtract the fractional parts following our rule for the subtraction of
similar fractions.
– If the mixed numbers have fractional parts which are dissimilar, we change the
fractional parts into similar fractions and then proceed as in (a) above.

• If the fraction in the subtrahend is greater than the fraction in the minuend, convert
one unit in the minuend into an improper fraction with the correct denominator and
add this unit to the existing fraction in the minuend. The whole number in the minuend
is then reduced by one. We can then proceed with the subtraction.

• To subtract a mixed number from a whole number, we convert one unit of the minuend
into an improper fraction with the same denominator as the fraction in the subtrahend,
thus reducing the whole number in the minuend by one. Then, we subtract.

Lesson Four: Multiplication of Fractions

Multiplication of Fraction by Another Fraction
To multiply a fraction by another fraction, we multiply their numerators to obtain the
numerator of the product; then multiply the denominators to obtain the denominator of the
product and reduce the product to lowest term, if necessary.

1 4 (1 × 4) 4 1 1 2 3 (1 × 2 × 3) 6 1
(a) × = = = (b) × × = = =
8 7 (8 × 7) 56 14 2 3 4 (2 × 3 × 4) 24 4

To simplify the process, we can cancel or factor out common factors between numerator(s)
and denominator(s). This will reduce the fraction(s) to lowest term. Remember, however, we
can only cancel a numerator against a denominator and never a numerator against another
numerator or a denominator against another denominator. When we cancel a numerator
against a denominator, we are really reducing it to lowest term. Then, if we divide both the
numerator and the denominator of a fraction by the same number, we do not change the
value of the fraction.
1 1 1
1
4 (1 × 1) 1 1
2
3 (1 × 1 × 1) 1
(a) × = = (b) × × = =

8 7 (2 × 7) 14
2
3 4 (1 × 1 × 4) 4
2 1 1

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 Multiplication of a Whole Number by a Mixed Number
To multiply a whole number by a mixed number, change the mixed number into an im-
proper fraction and then multiply.

1 13 26 2 1 1 41 697 1
(a) 2 × 3 = 2 × = =6 =6 (b) 17 × 5 = 17 × = = 87
4 4 4 4 2 8 8 8 8

When either the whole number or the mixed number or both are large, the following
method are deemed better. For example:
3
122 × 25
4
(a) Multiply the whole number by the integral part(whole number portion) of the mixed
number.
122 × 25 = 3 − 50

(b) Multiply the whole number by the fractional part of the mixed number.
3 366 2 1
122 × = = 91 = 91
4 4 4 2
(c) Add the products.
1 1
3050 + 91 = 3141
2 2

Multiplication of a Mixed Number by a Mixed Number

Like in multiplication of whole numbers by mixed numbers, we also have to options when
we multiply a mixed number by another mixed number.

1. Change the mixed numbers into improper fractions and then multiply.
3 1 11 3 17 1
2 ×1 = × = =4
4 2 4 2 4 4
 
3 1
2. Follow the second method. Let us use the example above 2 × 1 .
4 2
(a) Multiply the integral parts (whole numbers) of the mixed numbers.
3 1
2 × 1 2×1=2
4 2
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 (b) Multiply the whole number of the multiplicand by the fraction of the multiplier.

3 1 1 2
2 ×1 2× = =1
4 2 2 2

(c) Multiply the fraction of the multiplicand by the whole number of the multiplier.

3 1 3 3
2 × 1 ×1=
4 2 4 4

(d) Multiply the fraction of the multiplicand by the fraction of the multiplier.

3 1 3 1 3
2 ×1 × =
4 2 4 2 8

(e) Add the products.

 
3 3 6 3 9 1 1
2 + 1 + + = (2 + 1) + =3+ =3+1 =4
4 8 8 8 8 8 8

Exercise 7. Let’s share ideas:

1. Find five sets of equivalent fractions. Look at the numerators and the denominators
in each set. What patterns do you see?

2. Use the pattern you found in (1) above and predict what equivalent fraction you could
show for 18 .

3. The agreed capitalization of the partnership of Gabrielle, Honesto, and Ilustre was
P100,000.00. They agreed that Gabrielle will contribute 12 of the capital; Honesto, 18 ;
and Ilustre, the remainder. What will be the capital contribution of each partner.

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Exercise 8. Practice your skills:
1. Audrey needs 95 kilograms of potatoes. She buys 12 bags. There are three 5-kilogram
bags. The rest are 10-kilogram bags. How many 10-kilogram bags are there/ What
part of the 95 kilograms of potatoes are 5-kilogram bags? 10-kilogram bags?

2. You are given the following tables. For the Underwater Gift Shop Sale, how much is
the large shark poster more expensive than the small shark poster? What part of the
price of the larger shark poster is the difference in price?

Items Unit Price

Small P25.00
Shark Poster
Large P40.00
Small P25.00
Whale Poster
Large P40.00
Sea Lion Key Chain P30.00

3. For the Spring Garden Club, how much was the increase in height of each of the plants?
List the plants in the order of increase in height starting from the highest to the lowest
increase in height. Get the difference in increase in heights of the plants.

Seeds Height in Height in

planted 1 week 2 weeks

3
Tomato inch 1 inch
4

1
Eggplant inch 1 inch
2

1 3
Petchay inch inch
2 4

Lesson Summary
• To multiply a fraction by another fraction, we multiply their numerators to obtain the
numerator of the product; then, multiply the denominators to obtain the denominator
of the product and reduce the product to lowest terms, if necessary.
• A whole number can be expressed as a fraction with denominator of 1. To multiply
a whole number by a fraction, we multiply the whole number by the numerator of

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 the fraction and multiply the denominator of the fraction by 1. If the answer is an
improper fraction, change it into a whole number or a mixed number.

• To multiply a whole number by a mixed number, change the mixed number into an
improper fraction and then multiply.

• When we multiply a mixed number by another mixed number, there are two options:

(a) Change the mixed numbers into improper fractions and then multiply.
7 7

2 1 14 21 49 1
4 ×5 = × = = 24
3 4 3 4 2 2
1 2

(b) Follow the following steps:

– Multiply the integral parts (whole numbers) of the mixed numbers.
2 1
4 × 5 4 × 5 = 20
3 4
– Multiply the whole number of the multiplicand by the fraction of the multi-
plier.
2 1 1 4
4 ×5 4× = =1
3 4 4 4
– Multiply the fraction of the multiplicand by the whole number of the multi-
plier.
2 1 2 10
4 × 5 ×5=
3 4 3 3
– Multiply the fraction of the multiplicand by the fraction of the multiplier.

2 1 2 1 2 1
4 ×5 × = =
3 4 3 4 12 6

– Add the products.

 
10 1 20 1 21 3 3 1
20 + 1 + + = (20 + 1) + = 21 + = 21 + 3 = 24 = 24
3 6 6 6 6 6 6 2

Lesson Five: Division of Fractions

Division of a Fraction by Another Fraction
To divide a fraction by another fraction, invert the divisor (change the divisor to its
reciprocal) and multiply.

2 3 2 4 8
(a) ÷ = × =
3 4 3 3 9
15
 1

12 5 12 17 12 2
(b) ÷ = × = =2
17 17 17 5 5 5
1

2
2
6 3 6 10 4 1
(c) ÷ × = =1
15 = 15 3 3 3
1
3

Division of Whole Numbers and Fractions

To divide whole numbers and fractions, the whole numbers are always treated as fractions
with denominator of 1. Then, we proceed as in division of common fractions–inverting the
divisor (change the divisor to its reciprocal) and then multiply.

2 5 3 15 1
(a) 5 ÷ = × = =7
3 1 2 2 2

1 6 4 24
(b) 6 ÷ = × = = 24
4 1 1 1

7 7 1 7
(c) ÷3= × =
8 8 3 24

3 3 1 3
(d) ÷2= × =
4 4 2 8

Division of Mixed Numbers

To divide mixed numbers, we always change the mixed numbes into improper fractions
and proceed as in division of common fractions:

1 1 33 17 33 8 264 66 15
(a) 8 ÷ 2 = ÷ = ÷ = = =3
4 8 4 8 4 17 68 17 17

16
 63

1 1 126 16 126 3 189 29

(b) 25 ÷ 5 = ÷ = ÷ = =4
5 3 5 3 5 16 40 40
8

1
3 1 323 9 323 4 323 17
(c) 40 ÷ 2 = ÷ = ÷ = = 17
8 4 8 4 8 9 18 18
2

3 3 1 3
(d) ÷2= × =
4 4 2 8

Exercise 9. Let’s share ideas:

1. The plastic cups at the school cafeteria each holds 32 cup of orange juice. The orange
juice bowl holds 24 cups of orange juice. How many plastic cups can be filled from one
bowl of orange juice?

2. Aaron’s meat shop sells 34 of 100 kilograms of pork each day. How many days will it
take Aaron to sell 500 kilograms?

Exercise 10. Practice your skills:

1. A tract of land containing 62 12 acres was divided into smaller lots of 1 41 acres each.
Into how many smallers lots was the tract of land divided?

2. Mr. Dy owns a big parcel of land measuring 500 meters by 1000 meters.

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 (a) If he wishes to divide it into 500 square meters each, how many will there be?

(b) If he sells each lot for P2,500.00 per square meter, how much will Mr. Dy realize
from the sale of all the lots?

(c) If he sells only 75% of the lots, how much will Mr. Dy realize?

(d) If the land costs Mr. Dy P1,500.00 per square meter, how much profit will Mr. Dy
realize if he sells 75% of his lots? 100% of his lots?

Lesson Summary

• To divide a fraction by another fraction, invert the divisor (change the divisor to its
reciprocal) and multiply.

• To divide the whole numbers and fractions, the whole numbers are always treated as
fractions with denominator of 1. We then proceed as in division of common fractions,
changing the divisor to its reciprocal and then multiplying.

• To divide mixed numbers, we always change the mixed numbers into improper fraction
and proceed as in division of common fractions.

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