Section 6.

7
Difference Equations
to Hyperbolic Functions
Differential Equations

The final class of functions we will consider are the hyperbolic functions. In a sense these
functions are not new to us since they may all be expressed in terms of the exponential
function and its inverse, the natural logarithm function. However, we will see that they
have many interesting and useful properties.
Definition For any real number x, the hyperbolic sine of x, denoted sinh(x), is defined
by
1 x
sinh(x) = (e − e−x ) (6.7.1)
2
and the hyperbolic cosine of x, denoted cosh(x), is defined by
1 x
cosh(x) = (e + e−x ). (6.7.2)
2

Note that, for any real number t,

1 t 1
cosh2 (t) − sinh2 (t) = (e + e−t )2 − (et − e−t )2
4 4
1 2t 1
= (e + 2et e−t + e−2t ) − (e2t − 2et e−t + e−2t )
4 4
1
= (2 + 2)
4
= 1.
Thus we have the useful identity

cosh2 (t) − sinh2 (t) = 1 (6.7.3)

for any real number t. Put another way, (cosh(t), sinh(t)) is a point on the hyperbola
x2 −y 2 = 1. Hence we see an analogy between the hyperbolic cosine and sine functions and
the cosine and sine functions: Whereas (cos(t), sin(t)) is a point on the circle x2 + y 2 = 1,
(cosh(t), sinh(t)) is a point on the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 1. In fact, the cosine and sine
functions are sometimes referred to as the circular cosine and sine functions. We shall see
many more similarities between the hyperbolic trigonometric functions and their circular
counterparts as we proceed with our discussion.
To understand the graphs of the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions, we first note
that, for any value of x,
1 −x
sinh(−x) = (e − ex ) = − sinh(x), (6.7.4)
2

1 Copyright
c by Dan Sloughter 2000
2 Hyperbolic Functions Section 6.7
10

7.5

2.5

-4 -2 2 4
-2.5

-5

-7.5

-10
Figure 6.7.1 Graph of y = sinh(x)

and
1 −x
cosh(−x) = (e + ex ) = cosh(x). (6.7.5)
2
Now for large values of x, e−x ≈ 0, in which case

1 x 1
sinh(x) = (e − e−x ) ≈= ex
2 2

and
1
sinh(−x) = − sinh(x) ≈ − ex .
2
Thus the graph of y = sinh(x) appears as in Figure 6.7.1. Similarly, for large values of x,

1 x 1
cosh(x) = (e + e−x ) ≈ ex
2 2

and
1 x
cosh(−x) = cosh(x) ≈ e .
2
The graph of y = cosh(x) is shown in Figure 6.7.2.
The derivatives of the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions follow immediately from
their definitions. Namely,

d d 1 x 1
sinh(x) = (e − e−x ) = (ex + e−x ) = cosh(x)
dx dx 2 2

and
d d 1 x 1
cosh(x) = (e + e−x ) = (ex − e−x ) = sinh(x).
dx dx 2 2
Here again we see similarities between the circular and hyperbolic sine and cosine functions.
Section 6.7 Hyperbolic Functions 3
10

-4 -2 2 4
Figure 6.7.2 Graph of y = cosh(x)

Proposition
d
sinh(x) = cosh(x). (6.7.6)
dx
d
cosh(x) = sinh(x). (6.7.7)
dx

As a consequence of this proposition, we also have

Z
sinh(x)dx = cosh(x) + c (6.7.8)

and Z
cosh(x)dx = sinh(x) + c. (6.7.9)

Example Using the chain rule, we have

d d
sinh2 (3x) = 2 sinh(3x) sinh(3x) = 6 sinh(3x) cosh(3x).
dx dx

Example Using the chain and product rules, we have

d
sinh(2x) cosh(2x) = sinh(2x)(2 sinh(2x)) + cosh(2x)(2 cosh(2x))
dx
= 2 sinh2 (2x) + 2 cosh2 (2x).

Example Analogous to
Z
1
sin(3x)dx = − cos(3x) + c,
3
4 Hyperbolic Functions Section 6.7

-10 -5 5 10

-2

-4

Figure 6.7.3 Graph of y = sinh−1 (x)

we have Z
1
sinh(3x)dx = cosh(3x) + c.
3

Example It is tempting to evaluate

Z
e−x sinh(x)dx

using integration by parts in the same manner that we would evaluate

Z
e−x sin(x)dx.

However, this integral is much easier if we notice that

 
−x −x 1 x 1
e sinh(x) = e (e − e ) = (1 − e−2x ).
−x
2 2

Hence Z Z
−x 1 x 1 −2x
e sinh(x)dx = (1 − e−2x )dx = + e + c.
2 2 4
d
Since dx sinh(x) = cosh(x) > 0 for all x, the hyperbolic sine function is increasing
on the interval (−∞, ∞). Thus it has an inverse function, called the inverse hyperbolic
sine function, with value at x denoted by sinh−1 (x). Since the domain and range of the
hyperbolic sine function are both (−∞, ∞), the domain and range of the inverse hyperbolic
sine function are also both (−∞, ∞). As usual with inverse functions,

y = sinh−1 (x) if and only if sinh(y) = x. (6.7.10)

The graph of y = sinh−1 (x) is shown in Figure 6.7.3.

Section 6.7 Hyperbolic Functions 5

Example The hyperbolic sine function and its inverse provide an alternative method
for evaluating Z
1
√ dx.
1 + x2
Namely, if we make the substitution

x = sinh(u), −∞ < u < ∞,

dx = cosh(u)du,

then p q q
2
1+ x2 = 1 + sinh (u) = cosh2 (u) = cosh(u),

where the second equality follows from the identity cosh2 (u) − sinh2 (u) = 1 and the last
equality from the fact that cosh(u) > 0 for all u. Hence
Z Z Z
1 cosh(u)
√ dx = du = du = u + c = sinh−1 (x) + c.
1+x 2 cosh(u)

The following proposition is a consequence of the previous example.

Proposition
d 1
sinh−1 (x) = √ . (6.7.11)
dx 1 + x2

In Section 6.6 we saw, using the substitution x = tan(u), − π2 < u < π

2, that
Z
1  p 
√ 2
dx = log x + 1 + x  + c.
 
1+x 2

Since two antiderivatives of a function can differ at most by a constant, there must exist
a constant k such that  p 
−1 2
sinh (x) = log x + 1 + x  + k
 

for all x. Evaluating both sides of this equality at x = 0, we have

0 = sinh−1 (0) = log(1) + k = k.

Thus k = 0 and  p 
−1 2
sinh (x) = log x + 1 + x  (6.7.12)
 

for all x. Since the hyperbolic sine function is defined in terms of the exponential function,
we should not find it surprising that the inverse hyperbolic sine function may be expressed
in terms of the natural logarithm function.
d
Similarly, since dx cosh(x) = sinh(x) > 0 for all x > 0, the hyperbolic cosine function
is increasing on the interval [0, ∞), and so has an inverse if we restrict its domain to [0, ∞).
That is, we define the inverse hyperbolic cosine function by the relationship

y = cosh−1 (x) if and only if x = cosh(y), (6.7.13)

6 Hyperbolic Functions Section 6.7
5

2 4 6 8 10

Figure 6.7.4 Graph of y = cosh−1 (x)

where we require y ≥ 0. Note that since cosh(x) ≥ 1 for all x, the domain of of the inverse
hyperbolic cosine function is [1, ∞). The graph of y = cosh−1 (x) is shown in Figure 6.7.4.
In Problem 3 at the end of this section you are asked to show that
Z
1
√ dx = cosh−1 (x) + c
x2 −1

for x > 1, from which the following proposition follows.

Proposition
d 1
cosh−1 (x) = √ . (6.7.14)
dx x2 − 1

In the same problem you are asked to show that, for x ≥ 1,

 p 
cosh−1 (x) = log x + x2 − 1 (6.7.15)
 

Example In Section 6.6 we evaluated the integral

Z
1
√ dx,
x2 − 9

π
for x > 3, using the substitution x = 3 sec(u), 0 < u < 2. The substitution

x = 3 cosh(u), u > 0,
dx = 3 sinh(u)du
Section 6.7 Hyperbolic Functions 7

provides a somewhat simpler approach. Namely,

Z Z
1 3 sinh(u)
√ dx = q du
x2 − 9 2
9 cosh (u) − 9
Z
3 sinh(u)
= q du
2
3 cosh (u) − 1
Z
sinh(u)
= q du
sinh2 (u)
Z
sinh(u)
= du
sinh(u)
Z
= du

=u+c
x
= cosh−1 + c,
3
where we have used the fact that sinh(u) > 0 when u > 0.
Having defined the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions, it is possible to define four
more hyperbolic trigonometric functions in analogy with the circular trigonometric func-
tions. Namely, the hyperbolic tangent function is given by
sinh(x)
tanh(x) = , (6.7.16)
cosh(x)
where −∞ < x < ∞; the hyperbolic cotangent function by
cosh(x)
coth(x) = , (6.7.17)
sinh(x)
where x 6= 0; the hyperbolic secant function by
1
sech(x) = , (6.7.18)
cosh(x)
where −∞ < x < ∞; and the hyperbolic cosecant function by
1
csch(x) = , (6.7.19)
sinh(x)
where x 6= 0. In Problem 5 at the end of this section you are asked to verify the following
results.
Proposition
d
tanh(x) = sech2 (x). (6.7.20)
dx
8 Hyperbolic Functions Section 6.7

Proposition
d
coth(x) = −csch2 (x) (6.7.21)
dx
Proposition
d
sech(x) = −sech(x) tanh(x). (6.7.22)
dx
Proposition
d
csch(x) = −csch(x) coth(x). (6.7.23)
dx
Since
sinh(x) ex − e−x
tanh(x) = = x ,
cosh(x) e + e−x
we have
ex − e−x
lim tanh(x) = lim
x→∞ x→∞ ex + e−x
ex (1 − e−2x )
= lim x
x→∞ e (1 + e−2x )

1 − e−2x
= lim
x→∞ 1 + e−2x

=1
and
ex − e−x
lim tanh(x) = lim x
x→−∞ x→−∞ e + e−x
e−x (e2x − 1)
= lim −x 2x
x→−∞ e (e + 1)
2x
e −1
= lim 2x
x→−∞ e +1
= −1.
Hence y = 1 and y = −1 are both horizontal asymptotes for the graph of y = tanh(x).
Combining this information with tanh(0) = 0 and
d
tanh(x) = sech2 (x) > 0
dx
for all x, we can see why the graph of y = tanh(x) looks as it does in Figure 6.7.5.
Since the hyperbolic tangent function is increasing on (−∞, ∞), it has an inverse, called
the inverse hyperbolic tangent function, with value at x denoted by tanh−1 (x). That is, as
usual,
y = tanh−1 (x) if and only if tanh(y) = x. (6.7.24)
The domain of the inverse hyperbolic tangent function is (−1, 1) the range of the hyper-
bolic tangent function, and its range is (−∞, ∞), the domain of the hyperbolic tangent
Section 6.7 Hyperbolic Functions 9
1.5

0.5

-4 -2 2 4

-0.5

-1

-1.5
Figure 6.7.5 Graph of y = tanh(x)

function. Corresponding to the horizontal asymptotes of the graph of the hyperbolic tan-
gent function, the graph of the inverse hyperbolic tangent function has vertical asymptotes
x = −1 and x = 1, as shown in Figure 6.7.6.
Example As an alternative to using partial fractions, we may evaluate the integral
Z
1
dx
1 − x2

for −1 < x < 1 using the substitution

x = tanh(u), −∞ < u < ∞,

dx = sech2 (u)du.

Then
sech2 (u)
Z Z
1
dx = du.
1 − x2 1 − tanh2 (u)
Now from the identity
cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1
we obtain
cosh2 (x) sinh2 (x) 1
2 − 2 = .
cosh (x) cosh (x) cosh2 (x)
In other words,
1 − tanh2 (x) = sech2 (x). (6.7.25)
Hence
sech2 (u)
Z Z Z
1
dx = du = du = u + c = tanh−1 (x) + c.
1 − x2 sech2 (u)
10 Hyperbolic Functions Section 6.7

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5

-2

-4

Figure 6.7.6 Graph of y = tanh−1 (x)

Note that (6.7.25) gives us the useful identity

tanh2 (x) + sech2 (x) = 1 (6.7.26)

for all x. Moreover, we have the following proposition as a consequence of this example.
Proposition
d 1
tanh−1 (x) = . (6.7.27)
dx 1 − x2
If we were to use partial fractions to evaluate the integral of the previous example, we
would obtain, for −1 < x < 1,
Z  
1 1 1 1 1+x
2
dx = log(1 + x) − log(1 − x) + c = log + c.
1−x 2 2 2 1−x

It follows that  
−1 1 1+x
tanh (x) = log +k
2 1−x

for some constant k. Evaluating at 0, we have

0 = 0 + k.

Thus k = 0 and we have  

−1 1 1+x
tanh (x) = log (6.7.28)
2 1−x

for 1 < x < 1.

Section 6.7 Hyperbolic Functions 11

Problems

1. Differentiate each of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = sinh(3x) (b) g(t) = 3t cosh(4t)
(c) f (t) = 3t sinh(t) cosh(2t) (d) g(x) = 4x sinh(3x2 − 1)
(e) y(t) = 5t2 cosh2 (4t) (f) f (t) = 3 cosh2 (2t) − 13 sinh(3t2 )
2. Evaluate each of the following integrals.
Z Z
(a) sinh(3x)dx (b) cosh(4t − 3)dt
Z Z
(c) sinh(z) cosh(z)dz (d) 3x sinh(2x)dx
Z Z
(e) e−2t cosh(2t)dt (f) cosh2 (x) sinh(x)dx
Z Z
sinh(t)
(g) 5t2 cosh(2t)dt (h) dt
cosh2 (t)
3. (a) Use the substitution x = cosh(u), u > 0, to show that
Z
1
√ dx = cosh−1 (x) + c
2
x −1

for x > 1.
π
(b) Use the substitution x = sec(u), 0 < u < 2 , to show that
Z
1  p 
√ 2
dx = log x + x − 1 + c
 
x2 − 1

for x > 1.
(c) Using (a) and (b), show that
 p 
−1 2
cosh (x) = log x + x − 1
 

for x > 1.
4. Evaluate the following integrals.
Z Z
1 1
(a) √ dx (b) √ dx, x > 2
4 + x2 x2 − 4
Z Z
3 1
(c) √ dt (d) √ dx, x < −1
9 + 3t2 x2 − 1
5. Verify the following derivatives.
d d
(a) tanh(x) = sech2 (x) (b) coth(x) = −csch2 (x)
dx dx
12 Hyperbolic Functions Section 6.7

d d
(c) sech(x) = −sech(x) tanh(x) (d) csch(x) = −csch(x) coth(x)
dx dx
6. Differentiate each of the following functions.
(a) f (x) = 3x tanh(4x) (b) g(t) = sech2 (3t)
(c) h(θ) = 4 tanh2 (θ)sech(θ) (d) f (x) = 5xsech(4x) − 21 tanh3 (4x)
7. Evaluate each of the following integrals.
Z Z
(a) tanh(x)dx (b) tanh(2x)sech(2x)dx
Z Z
1 5
(c) dx (d) dt
4 − x2 9 − 3t2
8. Graph each of the following functions on an appropriate interval.
(a) y = sech(x) (b) y = coth(x)
(c) y = csch(x) (d) y = 3 tanh(4x)