Tikrit University Calculus Lectures

College of Engineering 1 st class

Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

CHAPTER 8
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
The Fundamental Theorem tells us how to evaluate a definite integral once we have
an antiderivative for the integrand function. Table 8.1 summarizes the forms of
antiderivatives for many of the functions we have studied so far, and the
substitution method helps us use the table to evaluate more complicated functions
involving these basic ones.
In this chapter we study a number of other important techniques for finding
antiderivatives (or indefinite integrals) for many combinations of functions whose
antiderivatives cannot be found using the methods presented before.

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
College of Engineering 1 st class
Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

8.1 basic Integration Methods

1. Substitution Method

Example 1: Evaluate ∫ √
Solution:
∫√ ∫√

Let u = 1 + x2 → du = 2x dx → dx = du /2

x2= u – 1 → x4 = (x2)2 = (u – 1)2

∫√ ( ) ∫ ( )

∫( )

( ) ( ) ( )

2. Completing the Square

To write the function (ax2 + bx + c) in the form (a u2 + k)

a. Factor out a from first two terms → ( )
b. Add and subtract the square of half coefficient of x

*( ) +

( )

c. Bring out the

( ) ( )

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

where: ,

Example 2: Evaluate ∫
Solution:
ax2 + 2x + 2 = au2 + k; , ( )

( ) ( )
a = 1, b = 2, c = 2
( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

∫ ∫
( )

Let u = x + 1 → du = dx → ∫ ( )

3. Expanding a Power and using Trigonometric Identity

Example 3: Evaluate ∫( )

Solution:
∫( )

∫( ( ))

∫( )

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

4. Reducing an improper fraction

Improper fraction is the fraction with degree of numerator equals or greater than the
degree of denominator. The long division is used to integrate this fraction.

Example 4: Evaluate ∫
√ √
Solution: let x = u → dx = 6 u5 → √
6
( )
√ ( )
∫ ∫ ∫
( )
∫ ∫
( )
∫( )

[ | |]

[ √ √ √ |√ |]

5. Separating a Fraction

Example 5: Evaluate ∫
Solution:
∫ ∫( )

| |

6. Sequences of Substitutions

Example 6: Evaluate ∫ √ ( ) ( ) ( )
Solution:
Let u = sin (x – 1) → du = cos (x – 1) dx
∫√

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
College of Engineering 1 st class
Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

Let v = 1 + u2 → dv = 2 u du → u du = dv/2
∫√ ∫ ( )

( ) ( )

8.2 Integration by Parts

Integration by parts is a technique for simplifying integrals of the form

∫ ( ) ( )

It is useful when ƒ can be differentiated repeatedly and g can be integrated

repeatedly without difficulty.

If u = f(x) and v = g(x) → ( )

In general d (uv) = u dv + v du
u dv = d (uv) - v du → ∫ u dv =∫ d (uv) - ∫ v du

∫ ∫
Formula for integrating by parts

Note:
1. (u) is chosen in which can b differentiated repeatedly to become zero, or
chosen in which can be appear repeatedly after differentiation.
2. (dv) is chosen in which can be integrated repeatedly without difficulty.

Example 7: Find
∫
Solution:
We use the formula ∫ ∫

u = x, dv = cos x dx,
du = dx, v = sin x,

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
College of Engineering 1 st class
Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

Then
∫ ∫

Example 8: Find
∫
Solution:
Since ∫ can be written as ∫ , we use the formula ∫
∫

u = ln x (simplifies when differentiated) dv = dx (easy to integrate)

du = (1/x) dx v = x (simplest integration)

Then ∫ ∫ will be:

∫ ∫ ∫

Example 9: Evaluate
∫
Solution: ∫ ∫
u = x2, dv = ex dx,
du = 2x dx and v = ex
then :
∫ ∫
We need to repeat the integration by parts for the right term (∫ ) with:
u = x, dv = ex dx,
du = dx and v = ex
then:
∫ ∫

Using this last evaluation, we then obtain:

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

∫ ∫

Example 10: Evaluate

∫
Solution:
Let u = ex and dv = cos x dx
Then du = ex dx, v =sin x,
∫ ∫
The second integral is like the first except that it has sin x in place of cos x. To
evaluate it, we use integration by parts with
u = ex, dv = sin x dx, du = ex dx, v = - cos x,

∫ ( ∫ ( )( ))

The unknown integral now appears on both sides of the equation. Adding the
integral to both sides and adding the constant of integration give:

Dividing by 2 and renaming the constant of integration give

∫

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

8.3 Tabular Integration

This integration is used when the integration by parts required many repititions

Example 11: Evaluate

∫ x2 ex dx
Solution:
With f(x) = x2 and g(x) = ex, we list:

f(x) and its derivatives g(x) and its integrals

x2 ex
2x ex
2 ex
0 ex

We combine the products of the functions connected by the arrows according to the
operation signs above the arrows to obtain

∫ x2 ex dx = x2 ex – 2 x ex+ 2 ex + c

Example 12: Evaluate

∫ x3 sin x dx
Solution:
With f(x) = x3 and g(x) = sin x, we list:

f(x) and its derivatives g(x) and its integrals

x3 sin x
3x2 – cos x
6x – sin x
6 cos x
0 sin x

∫ x3 sin x dx = – x3 cos x + 3x2 sin x + 6x cos x – 6 sin x + c

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
College of Engineering 1 st class
Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

8.4 Trigonometric Integrals

Trigonometric integrals involve algebraic combinations of the six basic
trigonometric functions. In principle, we can always express such integrals in terms
of sines and cosines, but it is often simpler to work with other functions, as in the
integral
∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + c

The general idea is to use identities to transform the integrals we have to find into
integrals that are easier to work with.

8.4.1 Products of Powers of Sines and Cosines

We begin with integrals of the form:

∫ sinm x cosn x dx,

where m and n are nonnegative integers (positive or zero)

Case 1: m is odd
Save one sine factor and use sin2 x = 1 – cos2 x. Then substitute u = cos x

Example 13: Evaluate

∫ sin5 x cos2 x dx

Solution:
∫ sin5 x . cos2 x dx = ∫ sin x . sin4 x . cos2 x dx

= ∫ sin x . (1 – cos2 x)2 . cos2 x dx

Let u = cos x → du = – sin x dx → sin x dx = - du

= – ∫ (1 – u2)2. u2du = – ∫ (1 – 2u2 + u4). u2 du

= – ∫ (u2 – 2u4 + u6) du = – [(1/3) u3 – (2/5) u5 + (1/7) u7] + c

= – (1/3) cos3 x – (2/5) cos5 x – (1/7) cos7 x + c

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

Case 2: n is odd
Save one cosine factor and use (cos2 x = 1 – sin2 x). Then substitute u = sin x

Example 14: Evaluate

∫ cos5 x dx

Solution:
∫ cos5 x dx = ∫ cos x . cos4 x dx = ∫ cos x (1 – sin2 x)2 dx

Let u = sin x → du = cos x dx

∫ (1 – u2)2. du = – ∫ (1 – 2u2 + u4 ) du = u – (2/3) u3 + (1/5) u5 + c

= sin x – (2/3) sin3 x + (1/5) sin5 x + c

Case 3: m and n are even

Use:

Example 15: Evaluate ∫ sin2 x cos4 x dx

Solution: ∫ sin2 x cos4 x dx = ( ) ( )

= 1/8 ∫ (1 – cos 2x) . (1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x). dx

= 1/8 ∫ (1 + cos 2x – cos2 2x – cos3 2x). dx

Now: ∫ cos2 2x dx = (1/2) ∫ (1 + cos 4x) dx = (½) [x + (1/4) sin 4x]

∫ cos3 2x dx = ∫ (1 – sin2 2x) cos 2x dx

Let u = sin 2x → du = 2 cos 2x dx → cos 2x dx = du/2

= (1/2) ∫ (1 - u2) du = ½ [u – (1/3) u3] = ½ [sin 2x – (1/3) sin3 2x]

∫ sin2 x cos4 x dx = (1/8) [ x + (1/2) sin 2x – (1/2) (x + (1/4) sin 4x) – (1/2) (sin 2x –
(1/3) sin3 2x] + c
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

= (1/8) [ x + (1/2) sin 2x – (1/2) x – (1/8) sin 4x – (1/2) sin 2x + (1/6) sin3 2x] + c

= (1/16) [ x – (1/4) sin 4x + (1/3) sin3 2x + c

Note: if both m and n are odd, use either Case 1 or Case 2.

8.4.2 Products of Sines and Cosines

The integrals

∫sin mx sin nx dx, ∫sin mx cos nx dx, and ∫cos mx sin nx dx

arise in many applications involving periodic functions. We can evaluate these

integrals through integration by parts, but two such integrations are required in each
case. It is simpler to use the identities

sin mx sin nx = ½ [cos (m – n) x – cos (m + n) x],

sin mx cos nx = ½ [sin (m – n) x + sin (m + n) x],

cos mx cos nx = ½ [cos (m – n) x + cos (m + n) x],

Example 16: Evaluate ∫ sin 2x sin x dx

Solution: m = 2, n = 1

∫ sin 2x sin x dx = ∫ ½ [cos x – cos 3x] dx

= ½ ∫ cos x dx – ½ ∫ cos 3x dx = ½ sin x – 1/6 sin 3x + c

Example 17: Evaluate ∫ sin 3x cos 5x dx

Solution:
m = 3, n = 5
∫ sin 3x cos 5x dx = ½ ∫ [sin (3 – 5) x + sin (3 + 5) x] dx
= ½ ∫ [sin (–2x) + sin (8x)] dx

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= ½ ∫ [sin 8x – sin 2x] dx (sin (- x) = - sin x)

= ½ [(- 1/8) cos 8 x + (1/2) cos 2x] + C
= ¼ cos 2x – (1/16) cos 8x + C

8.4.3 Integrals of Powers of tan x and sec x

Case 1: Odd Power of Secant

Use integration by parts and the identity (tan2 x = sec2 x – 1)

Example 18: Evaluate

∫ sec3 x dx
Solution:
∫ sec3 x dx = ∫ sec x sec2 x dx
Let u = sec x → du =sec x tan x dx
dv = sec2 x dx → v = tan x
∫ sec3 x dx = sec x tan x – ∫ tan x .sec x .tan x dx
= sec x tan x – ∫ tan2 x .sec x dx
= sec x tan x – ∫ (sec2 x – 1) .sec x dx
= sec x tan x – ∫ (sec3 x – sec x) dx
= sec x tan x – ∫ sec3 x dx + ∫sec x dx

2∫ sec3 x dx = sec x tan x+ ln │sec x tan x│

∫ sec3 x dx = ½ [sec x tan x+ ln │sec x tan x│] + C

Case 2: Even Power of Secant

Save sec2 x and use (sec2 x = tan2 x + 1)

Example 19: Evaluate

∫ sec4 x dx
Solution:

∫ sec4 x dx = ∫ sec2 x. sec2 x dx = ∫ (tan2 x+ 1) . sec2 x dx

= ∫ [tan2 x . sec2 x + sec2 x] dx = (1/3) tan3 x + tan x + C

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Case 3: Odd and Even Power of Tangent

Save tan2 x and use (tan2 x = sec2 x – 1)

Example 20: Evaluate

∫ tan5 3x dx
Solution:
∫ tan5 3x dx = ∫ tan2 3x. tan3 3x dx = ∫ (sec2 3x – 1) tan3 3x dx
= ∫ tan3 3x sec2 3x dx – ∫ tan3 3x dx
= (1/3) ∫ (tan 3x)3 . 3 sec2 3x dx – ∫ tan3 3x dx
= (1/3) ∫ (tan 3x)3 . 3 sec2 3x dx – ∫ tan3 3x dx
= (1/3) (tan4 3x)/4 – ∫ (sec2 3x – 1) tan 3x dx
= (1/12) tan4 3x – ∫ tan 3x sec2 3x dx – ∫ tan 3x dx
= (1/12) tan4 3x – (1/3) ∫ tan 3x. 3 sec2 3x dx – ∫ tan 3x dx
= (1/12) tan4 3x – (1/3) (tan2 3x)/2 – (1/3) ln │sec 3x│+ C
= (1/12) tan4 3x – (1/6) (tan2 3x) – (1/3) ln │sec 3x│+ C

8.4.4 Power Products of tangent and secant

∫ secm x . tann x . dx , m, n are positive

Case 1: m is even
Save sec2 x and use (sec2 x = tan2 x + 1), then substitute u = tan x.

Example 21: Evaluate

∫ sec4 x . tan x dx
Solution:

∫ sec4 x . tan x dx = ∫ sec2 x . sec2 x . tan x dx

= ∫ (tan2 x + 1) . sec2 x . tan x dx
Let u = tan x → du = sec2 x dx
∫ ( u2 + 1) . u du = ∫ ( u3 + u) du = (1/4) u4 + (1/2) u2 + C
= (1/4) tan4 x + (1/2) tan2 x+ C

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Case 2: m and n is odd

Save sec x tan x and use (tan2 x = sec2 x – 1) for remaining factor, then substitute u
= sec x.

Example 22: Evaluate

∫ sec3 x . tan3 x dx
Solution:

∫ sec3 x . tan3 x dx = ∫ (sec x tan x) . sec2 x . tan2 x dx

= ∫ (sec x tan x) . sec2 x . (sec2 x – 1) dx
Let u = sec x → du = sec x tan x dx
∫ u2 . (u2 – 1) du = ∫ (u4 – u2) du = (1/5) u5 – (1/3) u3 + C
= (1/5) sec5 x – (1/3) sec3 x + C

Case 3: m is odd and n is even

Use (tan2 x = sec2 x – 1)

Example 23: Evaluate

∫ sec x . tan2 x dx

∫ sec x . tan2 x dx = ∫ sec x . (sec2 x – 1) dx =∫ (sec3 x – sec x) dx

∫ sec3 x dx = ½ [sec x tan x+ ln │sec x tan x│] [ from last example]

∫ sec x . tan2 x dx =½ [sec x tan x+ ln │sec x tan x│] – ln │sec x tan x│+ C

8.5 Trigonometric Substitutions

Trigonometric substitutions occur when we replace the variable of integration by a

trigonometric function. The most common substitutions are x = a tan θ, x = a sin θ
and x = a sec θ. These substitutions are effective in transforming integrals
involving√ ,√ and √ into integrals we can evaluate directly
since they come from the reference right triangles in Figure 1.

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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With x = a tan θ,
a2 + x2 = a2 + a2 tan2 θ = a2 (1 + tan2 θ) = a2 sec2 θ

With x = a sin θ,
a2 – x2 = a2 – a2 sin2 θ = a2 (1 – sin2 θ) = a2 cos2 θ

With x = a sec θ,
x2 – a2 = a2 sec2 θ – a2 = a2 ( sec2 θ – 1) = a2 tan2 θ

For a2 – u2 use u = a sin θ, – π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2

For a2 + u2 use u = a tan θ, – π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2

For u2 – a2 use u = a sec θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, θ ≠ π/2

Example 24: Evaluate

∫
√
Solution:
1 – 4x2 = a2 – u2, a = 1, u = 2x
Use u = a sin θ → 2 x = 1 sin θ,
θ = sin-1 2x – π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
2 dx = cos θ dθ → dx = ½ cos θ dθ

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
√ √ √

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But cos θ is + ve for – π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2

∫ ∫ ∫
√

Example 24: Evaluate

∫
Solution:

25 + 16 y2 = a2 + u2, a = 5, u = 4y
Use u = a tan θ → 4y = 5 tan θ
θ = tan-1 4y/5 – π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
4 y = 5 tan θ → 4 dy = 5 sec2 θ dθ → dy = (5/4) sec2 θ dθ

∫ ∫ ∫

= (1/20) ∫ dθ = (1/20) θ + C = (1/20) tan-1 (4y/5) + C

Example 25: Evaluate

( )
∫
Solution:
4 x2 + 4x + 5 = a x2 + bx + c = a u2 + k , a = 4, b = 4, c = 5
u = x + b/2a = x + u/ 2*u
u=x+½
k = c – (b2/4a) = 5 – (42/4*4) = 5 – 1 = 4
4 x2 + 4x + 5 = 4 (x + ½)2 + 4 = 4 [(x + ½)2 + 1]
( ) ( ) ( )
∫ ∫ ∫
( ) ( )
2 2 2
(x + ½) + 1 = u + a , u = x + ½ , a = 1

Use u = a tan θ → x + ½ = 1 tan θ → dx = sec2 θ dθ

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x + ½ = tan θ → θ = tan-1 (2x +1)/2 – π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2

2x = 2 tan θ – 1

( ) ( )
∫ ∫
( )

( )
∫ ∫ ( ) ∫ ∫

= ½ ln │sec θ│+ ½ θ + C

√
| | ( )

8.6 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

This section shows how to express a rational function (a quotient of polynomials)

as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, which are easily integrated.
For instance, the rational function (5x – 3)/(x2 – 2x – 3) can be rewritten as:

The method for rewriting rational functions as a sum of simpler fractions is called
the method of partial fractions. In the case of the preceding example, it consists
of finding constants A and B such that

Case 1: Distinct Linear Factors of g (x):

( )
( )

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

Example 26: Evaluate

( )
∫

Solution:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )

Multiplying both sides with (x – 1) (x + 5)

6x + 1 = A (x + 5) + B (x – 1) → 6x + 1 = A x + 5 A + B x – B

6x + 1 = (A + B) x + (5A – B)

A + B = 6, 5A – B = 1

A =6 – B → 5 (6 – B) – B = 1 → 30 – 5B – B = 1 → 6 B = 29 → B = 29/6

A =6 – (29/6) = 7/6

( )
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

= (7/6) ln │x – 1│+ (29/6) ln │x – 1│+ C

Example 27: Evaluate

∫
Solution:

Use long division:

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

( )( )

( )( )

Multiplying both sides by (x + 2) (x – 4)

x + 5 = A (x – 4) + B (x + 2)
x + 5 = Ax – 4A + Bx + 2B
x + 5 = (A+ B)x – 4A + 2B
A + B = 1 ( × –2) → – 2A – 2B = – 2

– 4A + 2B = 5
– 2A – 2B = –2
By adding:
–6A=3

A = – ½ , B = 1 – (– ½) = 3/2

∫ ∫[ ]

= x2 – ½ ln │x + 2│+ (3/2) ln │x + 2│ + k

Case 2: Repeated Linear Factors of g (x):

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Example 28: Evaluate

∫

Solution:

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

x = A (x + 1) + B → x = Ax + (A + B)

A = 1, A + B = 0 → A = - B → B = - A = -1

( )
∫ ∫ ∫ | |
( )

| |

Example 29: Evaluate

∫
Solution:

( ) ( )

( )
(both case 1 and case 2)
( )

Multiply both sides with x (x + 1)2:

5 x2 + 20 x + 6 = A (x + 1)2 + Bx (x +1) + Cx

5 x2 + 20 x + 6 = A (x2 +2 x + 1) + Bx2 + Bx + Cx

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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5 x2 + 20 x + 6 = Ax2 +2A x + A + Bx2 + Bx + Cx

5 x2 + 20 x + 6 = (A +B) x2 + (2A +B + C) x +A

A = 6, A + B = 5 → B = -1, 2A + B + C = 20 → C = 9

∫ ∫[ ]
( )

| | | |

Case 3: Distinct Irreducible Quadratic Factors of g (x):

( )
( )

Example 30: Evaluate

∫
( )( )

Solution:

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Multiply both sides with (x2 + 1) (x – 1)2

x – 3 = A x + B (x – 1)2 + C (x – 1) (x2+1) + D (x2 +1)

x – 3 = A x + B (x2 – 2x +1)+ C x – C (x2+1) + D (x2 +1)

x – 3 = A x3 – 2Ax2 + Ax + B x2 – 2Bx + B + C x3 + Cx – C + D x2 +D

x – 3 = (A+C) x3 + (– 2A + B – C + D) x2 + (A – 2B + C) x + (B – C +D)

A + C = 0 ………(1)
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–2A + B – C + D = 0 ……..(2)

A – 2B + C = 1 ……….(3)

B – C + D = – 3 ……….(4)

Equ. 2 & 4 : → – 2A + (– 3) = 0 → – 2A = 0 – (– 3) → – 2A = 3 → A = – 3/2

From Equ 1: C = – A = 3/2

From Equ. 3: A – 2B + C = 1 → –(3/2) – 2B +(3/2) = 1 → 2B = – 1 → B = – ½

From Equ. 3 : – ½ - (3/2) + D = – 3 → (– 4/2) + D = – 3 → D = – 3 + 2 = –1

( ) ( )
∫ ∫ ∫
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
( ) ( )

| | | |
( )

Case 4: Repeated Irreducible Quadratic Factors of g (x):

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

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Tikrit University Calculus Lectures
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Civil Engineering Department Ch.8 Techniques of Integration

Example 31: Evaluate

∫

Solution:

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Multiply both sides with x (x2 + 1)2

1 – x + 2x2 – x3 = A (x2 + 1)2 + (B x + C) (x) (x2 + 1) + (D x + E) (x)

1 – x + 2x2 – x3 = A (x4 +2x2 + 1) + (B x2 + C x) (x2 + 1) + Dx2 + Ex

1 – x + 2x2 – x3 = Ax4 +2Ax2 + A + B x4 +B x2 + C x3 + C x + Dx2 + Ex

1 – x + 2x2 – x3 = (A+B) x4 +C x3 +(2A + B +D) x2 + (C+ E) x + A

A = 1 , A + B = 0 → B = – 1, C = – 1

2A + B + D = 2 → D = 1

C+E=–1→E=0

( )
∫ ∫[ ]
( )

∫[ ]
( )
| | | |
( )

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8.7 The Substitution Z = tan (x/2)

The substitution z = tan (x/2) reduces the problem of integrating any rational
function of sin x and cos x to a problem involving a rational function of z

z = tan (x/2), cos2 θ = ½ (1 + cos θ), cos2 (x/2) = ½ (1 + cos x)

2 cos2 (x/2) = 1 + cos x → cos x = 2 cos2 (x/2) – 1

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ, sin x = 2 sin (x/2) cos (x/2)

z = tan (x/2) → dz = ½ sec2 (x/2) dx → →

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Example 32: Evaluate

∫

Solution:

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

∫
( ) ( )

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