Assignment 01

Momentum Heat and Mass Transfer

Name Arslan Maqbool
Registration No. 329400
Department Chemical Engineering (SCME)

2D.1 Rolling-ball Viscometer. An approximate analysis of the rolling-ball

experiment has been given, in which the results of Problem (2B.3) are used. Read
the original paper and verify the results.
2D.2 Drainage of liquids. (Fig. 2D.2). How much liquid clings to the inside surface
of a large vessel when it is drained? As shown in the figure there is a thin film of
liquid left behind on the wall as the liquid level in the vessel falls. The local film
thickness is a function of both z (the distance down from the initial liquid level)
and t (the elapsed time).
(a) Make an unsteady-state mass balance on a portion of the film between z and z
+ ∆z to get
∂ −∂ δ
<v 2 > δ= (2D.2-1)
∂z ∂t

(b) Use Eq. 2.2-18 and a quasi-steady-assumption to obtain the following first-
order partial differential equation for ∂ (z, t):
∂ δ ρg 2 ∂ δ
+ δ =0 (2D.2-2)
∂t u ∂z

(c) Solve this equation to get

u z
δ ( z , t)=
√ ρg t
(2D.2-3)

What restrictions have to be placed on this result?

2D.1 Rolling-ball viscometer

The rolling-ball viscometer consists of an inclined tube containing a sphere whose
diameter is but slightly smaller than the internal diameter of the tube. The fluid
viscosity is determined by observing the speed with which the ball rolls down the

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Assignment 01

tube, when the latter is filled with liquid. We want to interrelate the viscosity and
the terminal velocity of the rolling ball.
The flow between the sphere and the cylinder can be treated locally as slit flow
(see Problem 2B.3) and hence the only hydro- dynamic result we need is
dp 12u ⟨ v z ⟩
= (*)
ⅆz σ2

But we must allow the slit width w to vary with 8 and z. From the figure we see
that
R2= ( R−r )2 + ( r ' +σ )2−2 ( R−r ) ( r '+σ ) cos θ

where r =√ r 2−z 2 Solving for σ we get

σ =−r ' + ( R−r ) cos θ + R 1+ [ ( R−r ) / R2 ] (−sinθ ¿)¿
√
he second term under the square-root sign will be very small for the tightly fitting
sphere-cylinder system and will hence be neglected. Furthermore we replace
√ r 2−z 2 by √ R2−z 2 nd add compensating terms
σ =( R−r ) ¿

1( z 2

σ̇ =( R−r ) [cos θ+
2
)2
R−√ R −z + R−r − R−r
(
2
)
R2
…
]
( )
R−r

R−√ R2−z 2
σ̇ =( R−r ) [(cos θ+1)+ ]
R−r
σ =( R−r ) ¿
2
z
The omission of the term containing ( ) and the higher-order terms is possible,
R
since the greatest contribution to the viscous drag occurs at the plane z = 0, and
hence less accuracy is required for regions of larger z. Note that the above result
gives correctly σ = 0 at z = 0, θ=π , and σ = 2 (R - r) at z = 0, θ = 0.
dp
Next we assert that ⅆz will be independent of θ, which is probably a good
approximation. Then according to (A) (t›,) must have the form
⟨ v z ⟩ =B ( z ) σ 2 (**)

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Assignment 01

Next, the volume rate of flow across any plane z will be

+π 3
Q= ∫ +π
−π < v z > σ (θ , z ) Rⅆθ=RB ( z ) ∫ −π σ ( θ , z ) ¿ ⅆθ

¿ 8 RB ( z ) ¿ ¿

In which α = (R - √ R2−z 2 ) / 2 (R – r).

The volume rate of flow Q at all cross-sections will be the same, and its value will
be, to a very good approximation Q = π R 2 v 0, where v 0 is the translational speed of
the rolling ball. Equating the two expressions for Q gives
π R2 v 0
B (z )= 3 (***)
4 z ( R−r ) I ( α )

Combining (*), (**), and (***), we get

dp 3 π u R2 v 0
=
ⅆz 2 ( R−r )3 I ( α )

The total pressure drop across the slit is then

dp dp dz
∆ p=∫ +−RR ⅆz=2 ∫ ∞0 ⅆα
ⅆz ⅆz ⅆα
dz
into which we have to insert ⅆα . Virtually no error is introduced by making the
upper limit infinite. From the definition of α
z 2=−4 ( R−r )2 α 2+ 4 R( R−r ) α

The first term on the right is smaller than the second, at least for small z. Then dz
ⅆα
≈ √ R( R−r) and the pressure drop expression becomes (with ξ 2 = α )
√ α
∞ dp 1 ∞ dp
∆ p=2 √ R ( R−r ) ∫ 0 ⅆα=4 √ R ( R−r ) ∫ 0 ⅆξ
ⅆz √ α ⅆz

3 π u R v0 ∞ 1 3 π u R3 /2 v 0
= 4 √ R ( R−r ) 3
∫ ⅆξ= 5 /2 .J
2 ( R−r ) 0 I (ξ 2) 2 ( R−r )

Where
∞ 1 4 1 1
J = 2 ∫0 I (ξ 2)
ⅆξ = 3 [ √ 2 −¿ √5 (√ 10+2)2 ¿ = 0.531

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Assignment 01

The pressure drop multiplied by the tube cross-section must, according to an

overall force balance, be equal to the net force acting on the sphere by gravity
and buoyancy
4
π R3¿
3

where ρ sand ρ are the densities of the sphere and fluid respectively. Combining
the last three results gives the equation for the viscosity
4
μ= R2¿ ¿
9 πJ

2D.2 Drainage of liquids

a. The unsteady mass balance is
∂
( ρ w ) = ( ρ ⟨V ⟩ w δ ) z ¿
∂t δ z |
Divide by ρwΔz and take the limit as Δz → 0, to get Eq. 2D.2-1.

b. Then use Eq. 2.2-22 to get Eq. 2D.2-1:

∂ δ ρy ∂ δ 3 −ρg δ 2 ∂ δ
= =
∂t 3u ∂z μ ∂z

which is a first-order partial differential equation.

c. First let Δ=√ ρg ∕ μ, so that the equation in (b) becomes:
∂Δ ∂Δ
=Δ
∂t ∂z

Inspection of the equation suggests that Δ=√ 2 ∕ t , which can be seen to satisfy the
differential equation exactly. Therefore Eq. 2D.2-3 follows at once. This equation
has a reasonable form, since for long times the boundary layer is thin, whereas for
short times the boundary layer is thick.

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Assignment 01

Discussion Question (Chapter 2)

Q. 3 How are the Reynolds numbers are defined for films, tubes, and spheres?
What are the dimensions of Re?
Through careful experimentation, Reynolds established that the change in the
nature of the flow occurs when a certain combination of the parameters in the
flow crosses a threshold. Later, this combination was named the “Reynolds
number.” For flow in a circular tube of diameter D at an average velocity V, the
Reynolds number Re is defined as follows.
ρV D
Re =
μ

Here, µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, and ρ is the density of the fluid. The
ratio ν = µρ is termed the kinematic viscosity.
For circular tubes, the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over a
range of Reynolds numbers from approximately 2,300 to 4,000, regardless of the
nature of the fluid or the dimensions of the pipe or the average velocity. All that
matters is that this specific combination of the parameters, known as the
Reynolds number, fall in the range indicated. So, when the Reynolds number is
below 2,300, we can expect the flow to be laminar, and when it is above
approximately 4,000, the flow will be turbulent. In between these two limits, the
flow is termed “transition flow.”
We can ascribe a certain physical significance to the Reynolds number. This is
most conveniently seen by recasting this group after multiplying both the
numerator and the denominator by the average velocity V.
ρV2
Re =
μ¿¿

In this form, we see that the denominator represents a characteristic shear stress
in the flow, because it is the product of the viscosity of the fluid and a
characteristic velocity gradient obtained by dividing the average velocity by the
diameter of the tube. The numerator, in contrast, describes an inertial stress;
recall that the larger the density, the more massive a material is, and mass is a
measure of inertia. This is the reason for calling the product ρV 2 a characteristic

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Assignment 01

inertial stress. Thus, we can think of the Reynolds number as the ratio of two
characteristic stresses in the flow.
Inertial Stress
Re = Viscous Stress

Stress is force per unit area. Therefore, it is common to express the physical
significance of the Reynolds number as follows.
Inertial Force
Re = Viscous Force

We see now that the nature of the flow in a tube, whether laminar or turbulent,
depends on the relative importance of the inertia force in comparison with the
viscous force. At relatively low values of the Reynolds number, the viscous force is
relatively more important, and disturbances in the flow are damped out by
viscosity. Thus, it is difficult for disturbances to grow and sustain themselves.
On the other hand, at relatively large values of the Reynolds number, the
damping of disturbances by viscosity is less effective, and inertia is more
important, so that disturbances can perpetuate themselves. This is the basic
reason why the Reynolds number serves as a measure for determining whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Notice that the use of the diameter in the definition of the Reynolds number is an
arbitrary choice. It is perfectly legitimate to use the radius of the tube instead of
the diameter when performing dimensional analysis, so that the resulting
Reynolds number would have been defined using the radius of the tube instead of
its diameter, but the value at which transition would occur would have to be
altered appropriately.
It is for this reason that everyone has agreed on a single convention to avoid
confusion. You might wonder why we did not use the length of the tube in
defining the Reynolds number. This is because the typical velocity variation in this
flow is across the cross-section of the tube, not along its length. Thus, if we had
used the length L, the entity µ (V/ L) would not be representative of the shear
stress in this flow.
Reynolds number for the steady motion of a sphere through a fluid

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Assignment 01

When we performed dimensional analysis on the drag experienced by a sphere of

diameter dp moving at a velocity V through a fluid with viscosity µ and density ρ,
we encountered a Reynolds number in that problem as well. It is defined as:
ρV d p
Re =
μ

We found that the drag coefficient, which is a dimensionless drag, depends on

this Reynolds number. The flow past a sphere is more involved than that in a
tube. At high Reynolds number, a boundary layer, in which viscous effects are
important, forms on the sphere, and outside of this boundary layer, viscous
effects are relatively unimportant, and the flow is dominated by inertia. We shall
learn a little more about this topic later in the course when we discuss boundary
layers.
The determination of the Reynolds number of liquid films
The value of the Reynolds number of the film was also necessary for the
evaluation of the results. The definition of the Reynolds number for liquid films is:
δ
Re = Wm . v where Wm is the average velocity of the film and b the thickness of
the film. As Wm is the velocity distribution of the integrate Centre according to y,
the integrating formula of the average making was substituted in the relationship
of the Reynolds number:
δ
wⅆy
Re =∫
0 v

Introducing the velocity distribution already known and the new variables
generally applied in the turbulent flows.
δ
Re =∫ uⅆη
0

Thus after the determination of the velocity distribution the value of the Reynolds
number can he obtained by a simple integration. This can he easily carried out in
a function given in grating points, by applying the Simpson formula.
Dimensional Formula of Reynolds Number (Re)
Reynolds Number is a Dimensionless value

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Assignment 01

Derivation:
Reynolds Number (Re) = Density × Velocity × Length × [dynamic viscosity]-1 . . . . (1)
Since, Density (ρ) = Mass × [Volume]-1
∴ The dimensional formula of density = [M1 L-3 T0] . . . . (2)
Since, Velocity = Displacement × [Time]-1
∴ The dimensions of velocity = [M0 L1 T-1] . . . . (3)
⇒ Viscosity = Distance between layers × Force × [Area × Velocity]-1
Since, the dimensional formula of Force = [M1 L1 T-2]
⇒ η = L × M1 L1 T-2 × [L2 × L1 T-1]-1
∴ the dimensional formula of viscosity = [M1 L-1 T-1] . . . . (4)
On substituting equation (2), (3) and (4) in equation (1) we get,
Reynolds Number = Density × Velocity × Length × [dynamic viscosity]-1
Or, Re = [M1 L-3 T0] × [M0 L1 T-1] × [L] × [M1 L-1 T-1]-1 = [M0 L0 T0]
Therefore, the Reynolds Number is dimensionally represented as M0 L0 T0.