Energy in kilowatt hours (kWh)

The number of kilowatt hours consumed by

an electrical devices is equal to the product of
the power in kilowatts and the time in hours
over which it is consumed.

Mathematically, we have

E(kilowatt hours) = P(kilowatts) ✖ t(hours)

Example: For an electric rate of 7
cents/kilowatt hour, what does it cost for a
60W light bulb on for 8h.
Given:

60W
8h
Resistance is the property of a material that
opposes or resists the flow of electric current
and makes it necessary to apply a voltage to
cause current to flow.

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω)

The quantity symbol is R
Ohm’s Law
In metallic conductor and some other
conductors, the current is directly
proportional to the applied voltage, that is
I∝V
V∝I
V=IR
Resistivity(⍴)
For a conductor of uniform cross section, we
have
R∝l/A R = ρ I/A

where
ρ is the constant of proportionality of resistance in ohm∙meter (Ω ∙m)
I is the length of the conductors in meter (m)
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor
 Material Resistivity at 20˚C (Ω-m)
Table 1.4
Silver 1.64×10-8

Copper (annealed) 1.72×10-8

Aluminum 2.83×10-8

Iron 12.3×10-8

Constantan 49×10-8

Nichrome 100×10-8

Silicon 2500

Paper 1010

Mica 5×1011

Quartz 1017
NOTE:
1. A good conductor has a resistivity close to
1x10-8 Ω-m. Silver is the best conductor but
too expensive for most uses. Copper is a
common conductor as aluminum.
2. Materials with resistivity greater than
1010Ω-m are called insulators. They provide
physical support without significant current
losses.
3. Materials with resistivity in the range from
103 to 109 are semiconductors from which
transistors are made.
Example: If an oven has a 240-V heating
element with a resistance of 24Ω, what is the
minimum rating of a fuse that can be used
in the lines to the heating element?
Given:
Example: Find the resistance of an
aluminum wire that has a length of 1000m
and a diameter of 1.626mm. The wire is at 20°
C.
Given:
Seatwork:
The resistance of a wire is 15Ω. Another wire
of the same material and of the same
temperature has a diameter one-third as
great and a length twice as great. Find the
resistance of the second wire.
Conductance is the property of materials that
aids the flow of electric current.
The SI unit of conductance is the siemens (S).
The quantity symbol is G.

NOTE: Resistance and conductance are

reciprocal.

That is
Conductivity
For a conductor of uniform cross section, we
have

where σ is the constant of proportionality of

conductance in 5m-1
And

Ohm’s Law
Conductance Concept
Temperature effect

The resistance of most conducting material

increases almost linear by over the range of
normal operating temperature.
 R(Ω)

R2
R1

T(°C)
T0 T1 T2
where T0 is the Inferred Zero Resistance Temperature.
The Actual Zero Resistance Temperature is at -273.13°
Using theorems on similar triangles, we have

1
And
But

2
Table 1.4 Materials Inferred Zero Temp.
(T0) coefficient
Resistance resistance at
Temp. (°C) 20°C (°C-1)
Tungsten -202 0.0045
Copper -234.5 0.00393
Aluminum -236 0.00391
Silver -243 0.0038
Constantan -125000 0.000 0008
Carbon -0.0005
Example: Find the conductance of 100ft, no.
14 AWG iron wire which has a diameter of 64
mils. The temperature is at 20°C.
Given:
Example: The resistance of a certain copper
power line is 100Ω at 20°C. What is the
resistance when the sun’s heat hits the line
up to 38°C?
Example: A certain unenergized copper transformer
has a resistance of 30Ω at 20°C under rated operation,
however, the resistance increases to 35Ω. Find the
temperature of the unenergized winding.
Given:
Color Code
The most popular resistance color coding has
a nominal resistance values and tolerance
indicated by the color of either three or four
bands around the resistor casings.
 Nominal Resistance Value
Refers to the
manufacturer’s resistance
value on the resistor
1st casing either in numerical
digit
form or color coding.
2nd
digit

of the nominal resistance value

Tolerance is the possible variation of
resistance about the nominal value.

NOTE:
1. Each color has a corresponding value as
shown in Table 6.
2. The color of the first and second band
corresponds to the first and second digit
of the nominal resistance value.
3. Because the first digit is never zero, the
first band is never black.
4. The color of the third band refers to the
number of zeroes that follows the first two
digits of the nominal resistance value.
5. A third band of a silver corresponds to a
multiplier of 10-2 and a third band gold
corresponds to a multiplier of 10-1.
6. The fourth band indicates the tolerance
and is either gold or silver-colored, or
missing.
7. Gold corresponds to a tolerance of 5%,
silver to a tolerance 10% and a missing color
to 20%.
Table 1.4

COLOR VALUE COLOR VALUE

black 0 blue 6

brown 1 violet 7

red 2 gray 8

orange 3 white 9

yellow 4 gold 0.1

green 5 silver 0.01

Open circuit has an infinite value of
resistance means that it has zero current
flowing through but with a finite value of
voltage across it.

+ -

V (of finite value)

Short circuit has a zero voltage across it for a
finite value of current flowing through it.

I (of finite value)

+ -
V=0
Two Types of Resistors
1. Linear resistor is a resistor that follows
Ohm’s Law and has a voltage current relation