Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22 Sai Vidya Institute of Technology
Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22 Sai Vidya Institute of Technology
MODULE 4
Environmental Pollution and Water Chemistry
Environmental Pollution: Air pollutants: Sources, effects and control of primary air pollutants:
Carbon monoxide, Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, hydrocarbons, Particulate matter, Carbon
monoxide, Mercury and Lead. Secondary air pollutant: Ozone, Ozone depletion.
Waste Management: Solid waste, e-waste & biomedical waste: Sources, characteristics &
disposal methods (Scientific land filling, composting, recycling and reuse).
Water Chemistry: Introduction, sources and impurities of water; boiler feed water, boiler
troubles with disadvantages -scale and sludge formation, boiler corrosion (due to dissolved O2,
CO2 and MgCl2). Sources of water pollution, Sewage, Definitions of Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), determination of COD, numerical problems on
COD. Chemical analysis of water: Sulphates (gravimetry) and Fluorides (colorimetry). Sewage
treatment: Primary, secondary (activated sludge) and tertiary methods. Softening of water by ion
exchange process. Desalination of sea water by reverse osmosis.
(RBT Levels: L3)
Course outcome: Environmental pollution, waste management and water chemistry.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Air pollution:-
Air is colourless & odourless. But various pollutants from natural & ma made sources are
entering the atmosphere daily & disturb the dynamic equilibrium in the atmosphere. Which cause
the pollution. Change [or] disturb in the normal properties of air are called air pollution. [or]
The excessive discharge of undesirable foreign substances in to the atmospheric air, which
affects the quality of air & cause the damage to human, plants & animal lives, called as Air
pollution.
Air pollutants are classified in to two major categories.
1. Primary air pollutants.
2. Secondary air pollutants.
1. Primary air pollutants:- Pollutants exit directly in nature & emitted directly to the atmosphere
called as primary air pollutants. Ex: - CO, SO2, NO2, etc….
2. Secondary air pollutants:- Pollutants which derived from primary pollutants & do not emitted
directly to the atmosphere called as secondary air pollutants.
Ex: - ozone, PAN [Peroxy acetlyl nitrate], Photo-chemical smog, H2SO4, HNO3, etc….
These pollutants do not have any identified sources & they are formed in the atmosphere
by some chemical [or] photochemical reactions.
Primary air pollutants:-
There are five primary air pollutants which cause air pollution.
1. Carbon Monoxide.
2. Oxides of nitrogen.
3. Oxides of sulphur.
4. Hydrocarbons.
5. Particulate Matter.
1. Carbon Monoxide:-
It is a colourless, odourless & tasteless gas which is injurious to our health. It is a one of the toxic
air pollutant.
Source:-
• Natural Source: - natural source such as forest fire, natural gas emission, volcanic actions
produces carbon monoxide in the atmosphere.
• Anthropogenic:-
(1) Incomplete combustion of fuel [or] carbonaceous compounds.
2C + O2 2CO
CO2 CO + C
(4) CO formed during the decomposition of Chlorophyll.
(5) Cigarette & Beedi smoke & domestic heat appliances are the other sources of CO.
Effects:-
• Causes headache, visual difficulty, paralysis & even death.
• Causes Chromic effects include weakness, fatigue, increased red blood cells [polycythemia]
in blood.
• It reacts with hemoglobin to from carboxy-haemoglobin.
HbO2 + CO COHb + O2
• In the presence of CO reduces the oxygen carrying of blood.
• Causes serious effects on the cardio vascular system, there by causing heart diseases.
• High concentration of CO [100-1000PPM] can affect leaf drop, leaf curling, and reduction in the
leaf size in plants.
Control:-
• Modification of internal combustion engines.
• Development ofexhaust system reactors, which will complete the combustion process.
• Development of substitute fuels for gasoline which will yield low concentration of pollutants
upon combustion.
• Development of popllution free sources such as fuel cells to replace the internal combustion
engine.
2. Oxides of Nitrogen:-
Nitric oxide [NO], Nitrogen dioxide[NO2], and Nitrous oxide[N2O] are referred as oxides
of nitrogen. NOx are formed at two stages during combustion.
1. The reaction of O2 with nitrogen compounds in the fuel, this is termed as Fuel NOx.
2. The reaction of N2 with N2 in combustion air, this is termed Thermal NOx.
Source:-
• Produced naturally by lighting, volcano & bacterial decay process.
• Produced by automobile exhaust, combustion of coal, oil, natural gas & gasoline.
• Other sources like acid manufacture, power plants, fertilizer industry, explosive industries, etc…
• Basic reactions are
N2 + O2 2NO
2NO + O2 2 NO2
NO2 + O3 NO3 + O2
NO3 + NO2 N2O5
• Nitrous oxide produced by the denitrification bacteria in the soil. [N2O].
Effects:-
• High concentration of NO2 causes inflammation of lung tissue, respiratory illness.
• NO2 reacts with H2O & O3 to form, HNO3, & N2O5, which cause acid rain.
• A use chromic effects like, cell membrane damage, stress on the heart.
4. The carbon based radicals inturn, combines with molecular oxygen combining peroxy radicals.
5. The peroxy radical oxidizes NO to NO2 thus bulding up a high concentration of NO2 in the
atmosphere.
6. The hydrocarbon may also combine with ozone & NO2 by a series of reaction ultimately forming
PAN.
5. Particulate:
The term particulate refers to solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in air.
Particulates are also referred as aerosols. They include smoke, dust, mist & spray. The size of
particulate matter may vary from 0.002 to 500mm.
Sources:
Dust:
• Main dust sources are mines, quarries, furnaces, power houses, automobiles, domestic dust,
natural winds etc…
• Crushing, grinding, and blasting of solid materials.
• Processing of materials like coal, cement, asbestos.
Smoke:
• Incomplete combustion of carbonaceous material.
• Emission sources like from exhausts of trains, roads, wood, coal, graters, power plants, open fire,
diesel engines, automobile gasoline engines etc…
Mist:
• Condensation of vapours.
• Dispersion of liquids,
• Chemical reactions forming liquid droplets.
Spray:
• Automization of liquid droplets.
Ash:
• Burning of coal which leaves behind a mixture of non combustible inorganic oxides.
Effects:
• Atmospheric dust causes allergic & respiratory diseases.
• Smoke causes cancer, coughing, nose blocking, heavy breathing.
• Lead as particulate affects children brain.
• Particulate of small size causes the damages in lung tissue.
• The acid & aldehyde particulates cause eye, noise & throat irritation.
• In plants absorption of CO2 is restricted.
• Deposition of toxic metals on soil makes it unsuitable for plant growth.
Control:- the principle of control is based on the density, stickiness & electrical property of the
particulate matter. Some of the techniques used are
• Control of smoke during combustion:-
a. Use of suitable fuels which do not produce much smoke. Eg:- coke
b. By maintain proper fuel air ratio.
c. Sufficient mixing of air & fuel.
d. Maintain sufficient ignition temperature.
Composting:-
WATER CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION:
Water is one of the most basic and essential component of all life. It covers nearly 72% of the
earth’s surface. It is the second most important substance required to sustain human, animal, and
plant lives. Water is essential resource for living system, industrial processes, agricultural
production, and domestic use.
Pure water is a clear, colorless, and odorless liquid that is made up of one oxygen and two
hydrogen atoms. The chemical formula of the water molecule, H20, was defined in 1860 by the
Italian scientist Stanislao Cannizzarro. Water is a very powerful substance that acts as a
medium for many reactions, which is why it is often referred to as the "universal solvent."
Although pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, impurities that occur naturally in water
transform it into a relatively good conductor. Water has unusually high boiling (100° C/212° F)
and freezing (0° C/32° F) points. It also shows unusual volume changes with temperature. As
water cools, it contracts to a maximum density of 1 grain per cubic centimeter at 4° C (39° F).
Further cooling actually causes it to expand, especially when it reaches the freezing point. The
fact that water is denser in the liquid form than the solid form explains why an ice cube floats in
a beverage, or why a body of water freezes from the top down. While the density property of
water is of little importance to the beverage example, it has a tremendous impact on the survival
of aquatic life inhabiting a body of water. Water exists in many forms in the nature. i.e. in the
form of clouds, rain, snow, ice and fog. The distribution of water on the earth is as follows.
Sources of water:
1. Surface water: It is available on the surface of the earth either still form or in flowing from.
Example: rain water, river water, lake water and sea water.
2. Under ground water: It is developed by any type of well or spring from beneath the surface of
the ground whether the water flows from the well or spring by natural force or is withdrawn by
pumping, other mechanical device, or artificial process. Example: Springs, well and tube wells.
Impurities in water:
1. Dissolved impurities: Dissolved gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide etc.,.
2. Suspended impurities: These are mostly insoluble minerals such as clay, sand etc. These cause
turbidity to water.
3. Microscopic matter: These consist of mainly bacterial and other micro organisms like algae
and fungi.
4. Dissolved impurities: Dissolved salts are mainly the carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulphates of Ca, Mg, Fe, Na and K. The presence of these salts imparts a sort of hardness in
water.
5.Organic matter: It includes vegetable and animal matter.
6. Colloidal impurities: It consist of proteins, amino acids, ferric hydroxide, clay etc.
Prof. RAVEENDRA.R.S/Prof. SATHYANARAYANI. S/Prof. BHAGYA.N.P Page 13
Dept of Chemistry 18CHE12/22
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Boiler Troubles:
Water used to generate steam is contaminated; it brings problem to boiler and reduces its
efficiency. The major boiler troubles are
1. Scale and sludge formation
2. Boiler corrosion
1. Scale formation:
During the production of steam, water evaporates continuously leaving behind the
dissolved salts in the boiler. Concentration of the salt increases and reaches saturation level to get
precipitated. If the precipitate is hard and strongly adhering on the inner walls of the boiler is
known as scale.
Causes for scale formation:
The various dissolved salts of water are responsible for scale formation
1. Decomposition of bicarbonates: bicarbonates undergo decomposition and forms insoluble
carbonates. i.e.
2. Presence of silica: Impurities like calcium silicates, magnesium silicates are highly insoluble in
hot water, they precipitate and deposit as scale
3. Hydrolysis of salts of magnesium: Magnesium salts are precipitated as their hydroxides at high
temperature.i.e
Sludge formation:
During the production of steam, water evaporates continuously leaving behind the dissolved salts
in the boiler. Concentration of the salt increases and reaches saturation level to get precipitated.
If the precipitate is soft, loose and suspended in boiler feed water is called as sludge.
Causes for sludge formation:
The impurities of water which causes sludge formation are MgCO3, MgSO4, and MgCl2 etc. If
the sludge is not removed periodically, then it will form scale.
Prevention of sludge formation:
Sludge formation can be prevented by using softened water, more over sludge can be removed
by flowing off technique ie. by drawing off some of the concentrated water from the bottom of
the boiler through a tap.
Disadvantages of scale and sludge formation:
1. The sludge is bad conductor of heat. So it requires more heating of boiler to produce steam
which results in wastage of fuel.
2. Because of more and more heating of boiler, there is a chance of explosion of the boiler
3. It reduces the efficiency of boiler.
4. Sludge’s need to be removed regularly and this cleaning process is expensive.
2. Boiler corrosion
The decay of boiler material due to the presence of impurities in boiler feed water is
called boiler corrosion.
Causes for Boiler corrosion:
1. Corrosion due to dissolved Oxygen:
When water containing dissolved oxygen is heated in the boiler, the free gas is evolved under
high pressure of the boiler and attacks the boiler material and forms the rust.
2. Underground water
Spring & Well water is forming the underground water sources. In general, clearer in appearance
due to the filtering action of the soil, but contains more of the dissolved salts.
Impurities of water:-
Impurities in natural water broadly classified in to four categories.
1. Dissolved Impurities.
2. Suspended Impurities.
3. Dissolved Gases.
4. Organic matter.
1. Dissolved Impurities:-
A dissolved impurity mainly consists of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium,
magnesium and sodium. In addition, small amounts of nitrates, nitrites, silicates, ammonium and
ferrous salts are also present.
2. Suspended Matter:-
The Suspended matter may be inorganic (or) organic in nature. The inorganic materials
include small particles of sand, Clay, silica, hydroxides of Iron. Some of these have large particle
Definition of BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand is an important measure of water quality. BOD
is defined as “The amount of oxygen required by microorganism to oxidize the organic matter in
a water sample over a period of 5 days under aerobic condition at 20 0C”.
Definition of COD: It is defined as “The amount of oxygen required for the complete oxidation
of both organic & inorganic matter present in 1 litre of waste water using strong oxidizing
agent”.
DETERMINATION OF COD OF WASTE WATER:
Definition of COD: It is defined as “The amount of oxygen required for the complete oxidation
of both organic & inorganic matter present in 1 litre of waste water using strong oxidizing
agent”.
Characteristics of COD:
1) The unit of COD is mg/dm3 or ppm.
2) In general COD > BOD since both biodegradable and non biodegradable organic load are
completely oxidized.
Principle: In this method, the given samples of water containing organic and inorganic
impurities are oxidized by K2Cr2O7 in acidic media in the presence of catalyst Ag2SO4 and
HgSO4.(Added to prevent the interference the chloride and silver ions). The unreacted K2Cr2O7 is
titrated against FAS solution in the presence of a redox indicator, ferroin which shows its color
change in the oxidized (bluish green) and reduced states (reddish brown).
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O + 3(O)
The precipitate of BaSO4 is filtered through a quantitative filter paper and is washed with hot
water. The precipitate is ignited in silica crucible and weighed as BaSO4.
Procedure:
1. Take 1000 ml of water in large beaker, heat it on a hot plate and evaporate to reduce the
volume to 100 ml.
2. Add half test tube of dilute HCl and heat the solution nearly to boiling.
3. To the hot solution add 1 test tube of BaCl2 solution slowly with constant stirring. Digest
the solution on water bath for about 30 min.
4. Filter the solution using No.40 quantitative filter paper through a funnel & wash the
precipitate with hot water several times to remove chloride ions.
5. Heat the funnel in an aluminium cone till filter is dry. Transfer the filter paper into a
previously dried & weighed silica crucible and heat.
6. Transfer the hot silica crucible into desiccators and cool it. Weigh the crucible along with
the precipitate of BaSO4.
7. Repeat the process of heating, cooling and drying till a constant weight is obtained.
Calculation:
SEWAGE: Water containing any one of the waste is called as effluent or sewage.
SEWAGE TREATMENT: The water containing heavy load of BOD, pathogenic bacteria,
colour and annoying smell can’t be directly discharged into the rivers as they mainly affect the
aquatic life and causes many water borne diseases. The domestic sewage therefore needs proper
treatment which is carried out in 3 stages
• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Tertiary treatment
Advantages:
1. The ion exchange apparatus, once set up, is easy to operate and control.
2. Both acidic and alkaline water can be softened.
3. Water of very low hardness is produced.
4. Water produced by this method is used as boiler feed water.
Disadvantages:
1. Equipment and process is costly.
2. Turbid water needs to be filtered first before softening.
POTABLE WATER-Water that is fit for human consumption and free from pathogenic bacteria
and toxic chemicals is called potable water.
DESALINATION-The process of removal of dissolved salts from sea water to the extent that
water becomes usable is described as desalination. The important methods of desalination are a)
Reverse Osmosis. B) Electrodialysis.
REVERSE OSMOSIS:
Principle: - The principle of osmosis is that
water flows from lower concentration to
higher concentration side through semi
permeable membrane. If the pressure is
applied on solution side, the solvent will flow
in the reverse direction. This is called reverse
osmosis.
It is studied that sea water exerts an osmotic
pressure of about 4500-5500 KPa. In reverse
osmosis, hydrostatic pressure which is
greater than osmotic pressure is applied on
the salt solution side then water flows from
salt solution to fresh water side. This water can be used for human consumption.
Application:
1. It is economical, simple and continuous.
2. The process needs extremely low energy.
3. It has long life and membrane is easily replaceable.
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