Introduction:

Up to this point in the course on Calculus, we have been concerned exclusively

with the functions f  x  of a single independent variable x , the graph of the equation
y  f  x  in a two-dimensional coordinate system, and the notion of limit, continuity,
differentiability and integrability of such functions. As an illustration of the application of
derivatives in the calculus of functions of one variable, let us answer the following
question:

Q1. A manufacturer wants to design an open rectangular box having a square base and a
surface area of 108 square inches. What dimensions of the box should he choose so that
box has maximum volume?

Solution: Let V be the volume of the box. Since the base of the box is square shaped, we
choose the length of a side of the square base as x . Let y be the height of the box. Given
that the surface area of the open box is 108 square inches, we have 108  x 2  4 xy . The
objective is to find the values of x and y so that the volume V  x 2 y is maximum.

We model this problem as a question on a function of one variable as follows: V is a

function of two variables, which can be reduced to a function of one variable using the
108  x 2
constraint x 2  4 xy  108. From this equation, we get y  . Note that since y  0
4x
, we must have 0  x  108 . Substituting this value of y in the equation V  x 2 y , we
obtain

x3
V  27 x  , 0  x  108.
4

Now, to find the answer to the manufacturer’s problem, we have to find x  0, 108  at
 
which V is maximum. For this, we consider the function

x3
f  x   27 x  , x  0, 108  .
4

 
Now, f  x  has maximum or minimum at x  c  0, 108 provided f   c   0. This gives
us

27 
3c 2
4
 0  c  6 
 c  6  0, 108 . 
Note that f  0  0, f  
108  0 and f  6  108. Also, f   6  9  0 so that x  6

gives the maximum value of f  x  in the interval 0, 108  . Also, x  6 gives us y  3.
 
Thus, the dimensions of the box that should be chosen by the manufacturer for maximum
volume are:

Length of a side at the base of the box  6 inches; Height of the box  3 inches.

Note that using the given constraint, we could reduce the given problem involving two
independent variables to a function of one independent variable only and hence could easily
apply the method of derivatives to solve it. Now, here is a different problem which involves
two independent variables but which cannot be reduced to a problem of a function of one
variable:

Q2. A furniture dealer deals in only two items: tables and chairs. He has Rs.50,000 to
invest and has storage space of at most 60 pieces. A table costs Rs.2500 and a chair Rs.500.
He estimates that from the sale of one table, he can make a profit of Rs.250 and that from
the sale of one chair a profit of Rs.75. How many tables and chairs should he buy from the
money he has so as to maximize his total profit, assuming that he can sell all the items
which he buys?

The problem is equivalent to solving the following linear programming problem:

Maximize Z  250 x  75 y
subject to the constraints:
5 x  y  100
x  y  60
x  0, y  0,

where x denotes the number of tables and y denotes the number of chairs. We cannot
apply the method of derivatives to solve it. However, this problem can be solved by using
the graphical method of Linear Programming. In the graphical method of solving such
problems, we find the feasible region in the xy  plane and use the fact that Z has a
maximum or a minimum value (if these exist) at the “corner” points of the feasible region.
The solution obtained is: x  10 and y  50 . Thus, even though it is a problem involving
two independent variables and cannot be reduced to a function of one independent variable,
one of the techniques of solving a Linear programing problem provides us the solution.

Now, let us consider the following question which is similar to Q1:

Q3. Determine the dimensions of a rectangular box, open at the top, having a volume of
64 cubic feet and requiring the least amount of material for its construction.
Let x, y and z denote the length, width and height of the box. We have to find x , y , z so
that the surface area S  xy  2 xz  2 yz is minimum subject to the constraint that the
volume of the box xyz  32 . This problem can neither be reduced to a problem of a
function of one variable nor to a linear programming problem. Hence, graphical method of
solving a linear programming problem or the method of derivatives will not solve this
problem.

In order to solve the preceding question and to understand the behavior of such
quantities which involve functions of two or more independent variables, we need to learn
some more advanced methods in mathematics. The Calculus of functions of several
(independent) variables is one such topic in mathematics which helps us to achieve this
goal.

First, we begin with a review of the three-dimensional (3-D) Cartesian coordinate

system for space and then discuss two very useful alternative coordinate systems for a
three-dimensional space. Also, we describe a few three-dimensional surfaces which are
commonly observed in our daily life and have interesting applications.

Cartesian coordinate system in space:

Recall that in a two-dimensional coordinate system, we have two mutually

perpendicular lines, called x  axis and y  axis, meeting at a point O called origin. We
extend this to a three-dimensional coordinate system by passing a line, called z  axis,
through the origin perpendicular to both the x  axis and y  axis. The figure below on the
left shows a right handed three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, where a point P
in space, represented by ordered triple  x, y, z  , is the intersection of the planes through
P perpendicular to axes.
The axes, when taken in pairs, determine three coordinate planes, namely the xy  plane,
yz  plane and xz  plane, as shown in the figure above on the right. These three coordinate
planes separate the space into eight parts, called octants. The first octant is the one in which
x  0, y  0, z  0. Note that a point in space on or above the xy  plane has z  0 and the
point on or below the xy  plane has z  0 . A few points in a 3-D coordinate system are
shown in the figure below:

Cylindrical coordinate system in space:

The cylindrical coordinate system is an extension of the polar coordinate system in

the plane to the three-dimensional space. Here, a point P in space (not on z  axis) is
represented by an ordered triple  r, , z  , where  r,  is a polar representation of the
projection of the point P in the xy  plane and z is the directed distance from  r,  to
the point P .

As in polar coordinate system in the plane, the representation of a point in a cylindrical

coordinate system is not unique, and the point  0,0,0 is called the pole. To convert the
coordinates of a point in space from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates, we use the
equations

x  r cos , y  r sin  , z  z .
For converting from cylindrical to rectangular coordinates, the following equations are
used:

 y
r 2  x 2  y 2 ,   tan 1   , z  z .
x

 
For example, 2 3,2,3 in the rectangular coordinate system is represented in cylindrical

coordinates by the point  4,5 6,3 , and the point  2,  3,2  in cylindrical coordinate

 
system has representation 1, 3,2 in the rectangular coordinate system, as shown in the
figures below:

In a cylindrical coordinate system, the equation r  a , where a is a constant, represents a

cylinder of radius a and z  axis as its axis of symmetry; the equation z  c , where c is a
constant represents a horizontal plane at a distance c units from the xy  plane, and the
equation   c represents a vertical plane containing the z  axis.

The cylindrical coordinate systems are quite useful for representing surfaces of revolution
having one of the coordinate axes as the axis of symmetry.
Spherical Coordinate system in space:

In a spherical coordinate system, a point P in a three-dimensional space that does

not lie on z  axis is represented by an ordered triple   , ,  , where

(1)   0 is the distance of the point P from the origin O  0,0,0 ,

(2)  is the angle between the positive x  axis and the line segment OP , where P
is the projection of P on the xy  plane (that is,  is the same as in cylindrical
coordinates), 0    2 , and
(3)  is the angle between the positive z  axis and the line segment OP, 0     .

Note that spherical coordinates   , ,  in the first octant satisfy 0   ,    2 . Also,

the spherical coordinate system is similar to the latitude-longitude system that is used to
identify points on the surface of the Earth. To convert from a spherical coordinate system
to the rectangular coordinate system (or vice versa), we respectively use the following
equations:

x   sin  cos  , y   sin  sin  , z   cos  ;

z
  x 2  y 2  z 2 ,   tan 1   ,   cos 1   .
y
x 

To convert from a spherical coordinate system to the cylindrical coordinate system (or
vice versa), we respectively use the following equations:

r   sin  ,    , z   cos  ;
z
  r 2  z 2 ,    ,   cos 1  .


The spherical coordinate system is particularly useful when the surface in space has a
center of symmetry. For example, the three simple surfaces in space whose equations in
spherical coordinate system are in the simplest form ( c a constant) are shown in the figure
below:

Standard surfaces in space:

Plane: The equation of a plane passing through  x0 , y0 , z0  and having the nonzero vector
N  a, b, c as normal is

a  x  x0   b  y  y0   c  z  z0   0 .

The general form of the equation of a plane in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate

system is, therefore, given by ax  by  cz  d . The three coordinate planes are
described by the equations as follows:
xy  plane is z  0; yz  plane is x  0; xz  plane is y  0. The equation of a plane
passing through three non-collinear points  x1, y1, z1  ,  x2 , y2 , z2  ,  x3 , y3 , z3  is

 x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 
det  x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1   0 .
x x y3  y1 z3  z1 
 3 1

As a special case, the equation of plane passing through  a,0,0 ,  0, b,0 ,  0,0, c  is

x y z
  1 (Intercept Form) .
a b c

Example 1: The equation of the plane passing through  4,0,0 , 0,6,0 , 0,0,3 is
3x  2 y  4 z  12 . See figure below.
Sphere: The set of all points  x, y, z  in space whose distance from a fixed point
 x0 , y0 , z0  is a constant, say, c is called a sphere of radius c and center  x0 , y0 , z0  . Using
distance formula, the equation of this sphere in a Cartesian coordinate system is

 x  x0    y  y 0    z  z0   c 2 .
2 2 2

As a special case, the equation of the sphere with center at the origin and radius c is
x 2  y 2  z 2  c 2 . In spherical coordinates, this equation reduces to   c .

Example 2: The equation of the sphere x 2  y 2   z  1  1 is spherical coordinates is

2

obtained by substituting x   sin  cos , y   sin  sin  , z   cos in the given

equation. Thus, spherical coordinate equation of the sphere is
  2 cos  ,   2     2. (See fig.)

Cylinder: Let C be a plane curve lying in a plane  and L a line not in a plane parallel
to  . The set of all lines parallel to L and intersecting C is called a cylinder or a
cylindrical surface. The curve C is called the generating or the guiding curve and the
lines parallel to L are called rulings.
We assume, without loss of generality, that the curve C lies in one of the coordinate planes.
Further, if the rulings are perpendicular to the coordinate planes, we call the cylindrical
surfaces as right cylinders.

Example 3: The cylindrical surface obtained by the generating curve x 2  y 2  a 2 in the

xy  plane and rulings parallel to z  axis is called a right circular cylinder (see figure).
In cylindrical coordinates, this right circular cylinder has the equation r  a .

Similarly, the equations x 2  z 2  a 2 and y 2  z 2  a 2 represent right circular cylinders

with rulings parallel to y  axis and x  axis, respectively.

Example 4: The cylindrical surface having the parabola y  x 2 in the xy  plane as the
guiding curve and rulings parallel to z  axis is called a parabolic cylinder.
Similarly, the surface represented by the equation z  y 2 is a parabolic cylinder with
rulings parallel to x  axis.

Quadric Surfaces:

Recall that a second-degree equation in two variables x and y , namely

ax 2  bxy  cy 2  gx  fy  e  0 represents a conic section (possibly a degenerate conic)
in the xy  plane. Let us consider a second-degree equation in three variables x , y , z ,
namely

Ax 2  By 2  Cz 2  Dxy  Eyz  Fxz  Gx  Hy  Iz  J  0 1 .

The graphs of such equations are called quadric surfaces or simply quadrics. There are
six basic types of quadric surfaces:

1) Ellipsoid.
2) Hyperboloid of one sheet.
3) Hyperboloid of two sheets.
4) Elliptic cones.
5) Elliptic paraboloid.
6) Hyperbolic paraboloid.

The intersection of a surface with a plane is called the trace of the surface in that plane.
Traces of a surface in well-chosen planes like coordinate planes or the planes parallel to
coordinate planes are quite helpful in visualizing the surface. For quadric surfaces, the
traces in planes parallel to the coordinate planes are conic sections.

Special Cases of equation (1):

a. If A  B  C  D  E  F  0 , then equation (1) reduces to Gx  Hy  Iz  J  0 ,

which represents a plane with direction ratios of the normal to the plane as G, H , I
.
b. If A  B  C  0 , then the resulting surface given by (1) represents a sphere.

Now, we indicate the standard forms of equations of quadric surfaces along with their
graphs in the figures below. Their traces in the planes parallel to the coordinate planes have
also been indicated.

Ellipsoid:
Note that in the equation of ellipsoid there is no minus sign and constant term is 1.

Hyperboloid of one sheet:

Note that, in the equation, there is one minus sign and constant term is 1.

Hyperboloid of two sheets:

Note that, in the equation, there are two minus signs and constant term is 1.
Elliptic Cone:

Note that, in the equation, there is no linear term and constant term is 0.

Elliptic Paraboloid:

Note that, in the equation, there is one linear term and two quadratic terms with the same
sign. Also, the constant term is 0.

Hyperbolic Paraboloid:
Note that, in the equation, there is one linear term and two quadratic terms with opposite
signs. Also, the constant term is 0.

Example 5: The surface given by the equation 4 x 2  3 y 2  12 z 2  12 or equivalently the

equation

y2 x2 z2
  1
4 3 1

is a hyperboloid of two sheet with y  axis as its axis, whose graph is shown below.

Example 6: The surface given by the equation x  y 2  4 z 2  0 or equivalently the

equation

x  y2  4z2

is an elliptic paraboloid with x  axis as its axis, whose graph is shown below.
Example 7: The surfaces given by the equations

z  6  x2  y2 ..... 1
z  2 x 2  2 y 2  4 .....  2 

are elliptic paraboloid, as shown in the figures below:

Both the surfaces have z  axis as the axis of symmetry but the surface that is on the left
has vertex at  0,0,6 and is opening downwards corresponds to the graph of equation (1),
and the surface on the right has vertex at  0,0, 4 and which is opening upwards
corresponds to the graph of equation (2).

Remarks:

The technique of drawing the above standard surfaces will become clear when we learn the
methods of sketching the graph of a function of two independent variables.

Functions of several independent variables:

Definitions:

a) Suppose that x and y are two independent real numbers and

D   x, y  : x, y  . If to each element  x, y  in D , there corresponds a unique
real number f  x, y  , then f is called a function of two independent variables x
and y . The set D is called the domain of the function f and the corresponding
set of values for f  x, y  is the range of f . Note that we usually describe a
function of two independent variables by the equation z  f  x, y  , call x and y
the independent variables and z the dependent variable, and assume (unless
stated otherwise) that the domain of f is the largest set of points in the plane for
which the equation is defined and real-valued.

b) The graph of the equation z  f  x, y  is the set

S  ( x, y , z )  3
| z  f ( x, y ) and ( x, y )  D.

Geometrically, it represents a surface in space. If z  f ( x, y ) measures the vertical

distance from the point ( x, y) in the xy -plane, then z describes the points
( x, y, f ( x, y )) that lie on this surface in space. Thus, the graph of f is a surface
3
in whose projection onto the xy -plane is the domain D .

c) In an analogous manner, we define a function of three independent variables as

a rule g that assigns to each triple ( x, y, z) in a set R  3
a unique number
g ( x, y, z) . We refer to g ( x, y, z) as a function of three independent variables
x, y , z ; describe it by an equation w  g  x, y, z  and assume that its domain is the
largest set of points in space 3 for which the equation is defined and real-valued.
Note that the graph of g lies in 4 and hence cannot be visualized or drawn.
Similar definitions can be given for functions of n  variables where domain
 consists of points of n
, that is n  tuples  x1 , x2 , , xn  . In all cases, the range is
a set of real numbers.

Remarks: If x and y are related, say y    x  , then we can write f  x, y   f  x,   x  

so that f is a function of one independent variable x . Similarly, if x and y are
independent but both depend on a third variable t , say x    t  , y    t  , then again we
can write

f  x, y   f   t  ,   t   ,

so that f is a function of a single independent variable t . In both the cases, the point
 x, y  lies on a curve in the xy  plane, that is, variation of x and y is restricted, and the
graph of such functions are curves in space, called degenerate surfaces.

Example 1: Let T denote the temperature and D a metal plate in the xy -plane. The
function T ( x, y) then gives the temperature at a point ( x, y)  D . If T varies not only on
the plate but also with time t , then T is a function of three independent variables x, y, t.
Similarly, if the metal plate lies in space, then T ( x, y, z, t ) is a function of four independent
variables x, y, z , t.

Example 2: A function f  x, y   x 2  y 2 is defined for all points  x, y  in the plane.

Geometrically, it associates to each point  x, y  in the plane the real number as the square
of the distance between the origin and the point  x, y  . Note that if  x, y  lies on a circle
of radius r , then f  x, y   r 2 , that is, the values of f are constants. The graph of
z  f  x, y  is a circular paraboloid with vertex at the origin, axis as z  axis and opening
upwards.

Example 3: A polynomial function p( x, y) is a function of two independent variables x

and y. It is a sum of the functions of the form C x m y n with nonnegative integers m , n
and C a constant; for instance p( x, y )  3x5 y 3  7 x 2 y  2 x  3 y  11 . Its domain is the
entire xy  plane. A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions whose
domain is the set of all points in the plane for which the denominator is nonzero.

x2  y2
Example 4: If we define g  x, y   , then g is defined at all points of the plane
x2  y2
except at the point  0,0 , so its domain is 2
  0,0  .
Example 5: The function f  x, y, z   x 2  sin  xyz   yz 3 is defined for all points in the
3
space, so its domain is .

Example 6: Let f ( x, y )  9  x 2  4 y 2 . The domain of f is the set of all ordered pairs

( x, y) for which f is defined and real-valued. So, we must have 9  x 2  4 y 2  0 or
equivalently, x 2  4 y 2  9 in order that square root is defined and real. Since a simple
closed curve in xy -plane divides the plane into disjoint regions (inside and outside) with
curve itself as the common boundary, and the point (0,0) satisfies x 2  4 y 2  9 , we get
that the domain is the set of all points ( x, y) that is inside or on the ellipse x 2  4 y 2  9 . It
is called an elliptical region. The graph of z  f  x, y  is the upper half of the ellipsoid
z2 x2 y2
   1.
9 9 94

Operations with functions of two variables:

If f ( x, y) and g ( x, y) are functions of two variables with domain D , then

( f  g )( x, y )  f ( x, y )  g ( x, y ),
( f  g )( x, y )  f ( x, y )  g ( x, y ),
( f  g )( x, y )  f ( x, y )  g ( x, y ),
 f  f ( x, y )
  ( x, y )  , g ( x, y )  0.
 g g ( x, y )

Trace and level curve of the graph of a function:

Definitions: Consider a function z  f ( x, y) of two variables with domain D  2 and a

plane z  c parallel to xy -plane. The equation f ( x, y)  c is a curve, which represents the
intersection of the surface z  f ( x, y) with the plane z  c .

1) This cross-section of the surface z  f ( x, y) in the plane z  c is called the

trace or the contour curve of the graph of f in the plane z  c .
2) The projection of the trace of f onto the xy -plane is called a level curve of
height c . That is, the set f 1  c    x, y   D | f  x, y   c, where c is a
constant, is a level curve of f .

Remarks:
 1. As the constant c varies over the range of f , a family of level curves is generated.
If c is outside the range of f , then the trace is empty and hence no level curve is
obtained. We usually think of trace as a “slice” of the surface at a particular location
(height) and the level curve is simply the projection of this slice on to the xy -plane.
Note that the level curves lie in the domain of f .
2. Similarly, we obtain the trace of the graph of f in the plane x  d (respectively,
y  e ) and the corresponding level curve onto the yz -plane (respectively, the level
curve onto the xz -plane) by taking the intersection of the surface z  f ( x, y) in
the plane x  d (respectively, y  e ) and their projection onto yz -plane
(respectively, onto the xz -plane).
3. The level curves are used to draw a 2-dimensional “profile” of the surface
z  f ( x, y), such as a mountain range. Such a profile, called topographical or
contour map, is obtained by sketching the family of level curves in the xy -plane
and labeling each curve to show the elevation to which it corresponds.

4. Note that the regions on a topographical map where the level curves are crowded
together correspond to steeper portions of the surface. Isotherms and isobars are the
level curves used to indicate the places of same temperature and pressure,
respectively, on the weather report in the news.

Example 1: Sketch the graph of the function f ( x, y )  x 2  y 2 .

Solution: We find the traces of the surface z  x 2  y 2 in planes parallel to coordinate

planes. First, consider its trace in the plane z  k : it is x 2  y 2  k . If k  0 this equation
has no real solution, so there is no trace. If k  0 then the graph of x 2  y 2  k is a circle
of radius k centered at the point (0,0, k ) on the z -axis (figure (a) below). Thus, for
nonnegative values of k the traces parallel to the xy -plane form a family of circles, centered
on the z-axis, whose radii start at zero and increase with k. This suggests that the surface
has the form shown in figure (b) below:
To obtain more detailed information about the shape of this surface, we can examine the
traces of z  x 2  y 2 in planes parallel to yz -planes. Such planes have equations of the
form x  k so that we get z  k 2  y 2 or y 2  z  k 2 .

For k  0 this equation reduces to y 2  z which is a parabola in the plane x  0 that has
its vertex at the origin, opens in the positive z -direction and is symmetric about z -axis
(the blue parabola in figure (a)). Note that the effect of k 2 term in y 2  z  k 2 is to
translate the parabola y 2  z in the positive z -direction so its new vertex in the plane
x  k is (k , 0, k 2 ) . This is the red parabola in fig (a). Thus, the traces in planes parallel to
the yz -plane form a family of parabolas whose vertices move upward as k 2 increases
(figure (b)). Similarly, the traces in planes parallel to the xz -plane ( y  k ) have equations
of the form x2  z  k 2 , which again is a family of parabolas whose vertices move upward
as k 2 increases (figure (c)). This graph of z  f  x, y   x 2  y 2 is called a circular
paraboloid.

Example 2: Sketch the level curves of the surface z  100  x 2  y 2 .

Solution: The domain of f is the entire xy -plane and the range of f is the set of real
numbers less than or equal to 100. It’s a circular paraboloid opening downwards and vertex
at (0,0,100) . In the plane z  75 , the trace or the contour curve of f is the circle
f ( x, y)  75 or 100  x 2  y 2  75 . It is the circle in the plane z  75 with canter at
(0,0,75) and radius 5 . Therefore, the level curve is the circle x 2  y 2  25 whose center
is at the origin and radius 5.

In the xy -plane ( z  0) , the level curve f ( x, y)  0 or equivalently x 2  y 2  100 is the

circle with center at origin and radius 10. Similarly, the level curve f ( x, y)  51 is the
circle in the xy -plane of radius 7 and center at the origin:
100  x 2  y 2  51 or equivalently x 2  y 2  49. The level curve
f ( x, y )  100 or equivalently x 2  y 2  0 consists of the origin alone, i.e. it is a point circle.
The graph of the function and these few level curves of the surface z  100  x 2  y 2 are
shown in the figure above. Traces of the surface z  100  x 2  y 2 in planes parallel to yz
and zx planes, and the corresponding level curves are parabolas opening downwards and
with vertices on z -axis.

Example 3: Describe the level curves of the function f ( x, y )  x 2  y 2 .

Solution: The graph of the function f ( x, y )  x 2  y 2 is a hyperbolic paraboloid (saddle
surface) as shown in the figure (a) below:

The level curves have equations of the form y 2  x 2  k where k is a constant. For k  0
these curves are hyperbolas opening along lines parallel to y -axis; for k  0 these curves
are hyperbolas opening along lines parallel to x -axis, and for k  0 the level curves
consists of the intersecting lines y  x  0 and y  x  0 . See figure (b).

Example 4: Describe the level surfaces of the function f ( x, y, z )  x 2  y 2  z 2 .

The value of f is the distance from the origin to the point ( x, y, z) . Each level surface
x 2  y 2  z 2  c, c  0 , is a sphere of radius c centered at the origin. For c  0 , the level

surface x 2  y 2  z 2  0 consists of the origin alone. Of course, there is no level curve

for c  0. Thus, the level surfaces of the function are concentric spheres, as shown below.

Example 5: Describe the level surfaces of the function f ( x, y, z )  z 2  x 2  y 2 .

Solution: The level surfaces have equations of the form z 2  x 2  y 2  c . This equation
represents a cone if c  0 , a hyperboloid of two sheets of c  0 , and a hyperboloid of one
sheet if c  0 (see figure below).

Remarks: The level surfaces of a function of three independent variables x, y , z , defined

by

f ( x, y, z )  Ax 2  By 2  Cz 2  Dxy  Exz  Fyz  Gx  Hy  Iz  J

where A, B, C, D, E, F , G, H , I , J are all constants and at least one of A, B, C, D, E, F is

not zero, are quadric surfaces or quadrics.
 Now, we define and discuss the notion of limit, continuity and differentiability of
such functions, and see their applications to some real life problems.

Limit of a function of two variables:

The definition of the limit of a function of two variables is completely analogous to the
definition for a function of a single variable. First, we define a two dimensional analog to
an open interval and a closed interval on the real line.

Open and closed disks: Using the formula for the distance between two points ( x, y) and
( x0 , y0 ) in the plane, an open disk D centered at ( x0 , y0 ) with radius   0 is defined by


D  ( x, y )  2
| ( x  x0 ) 2  ( y  y0 ) 2    (1)

Thus, an open disk D , denoted by B   x0 , y0  ,   , where  is an arbitrary small real

number, is the set of all the points in the plane that are enclosed by the circle of positive
radius  centered at ( x0 , y0 ) but do not lie on the circle. We call this open disk D the 
-neighborhood of the point ( x0 , y0 ) . The disk D is said to be a closed disk if the strict
inequality,  in the set (1) is replaced by less than or equal to,  . Thus, the set of points
that lie on the circle together with those enclosed by the circle is called the closed disk of
radius   0 centered at ( x0 , y0 ) .
Interior and boundary points: A point ( x0 , y0 ) is an interior point of a set R in the plane
2
if there is some open disk D centered at ( x0 , y0 ) that is completely contained in R . If
the set R is empty or if every point of R is an interior point, then R is called an open
subset of 2 . A point ( x0 , y0 ) is called a boundary point of a set R in the plane 2 if
every open disk centered at ( x0 , y0 ) contains both points that belong to R and points that
do not belong to R . The collection of all boundary points of R is called the boundary of
R . The set R is said to be closed subset of 2 if it contains all of its boundary points.
See figures below.

For instance, the open unit disk, its boundary and closed unit disk as subsets of the plane
are illustrated in the figures below.

2 2
Note that the empty set and are both open and closed as subsets of .

Bounded and unbounded regions: A region (set) in the plane is bounded if it lies inside
a disk of fixed radius. A region is unbounded if it is not bounded. For example, bounded
sets in the plane include line segments, triangles, interiors of triangles, rectangles, circles,
and disks. Examples of unbounded sets in the plane include lines, coordinate axes, the
graphs of functions defined on infinite intervals, quadrants, half-planes, and the plane itself.

Definition: Let f be a function of two variables and assume that f is defined at all points
of some open disk centered at ( x0 , y0 ) , except possibly at ( x0 , y0 ) . The limit statement

lim f ( x, y)  L
( x , y )( x0 , y0 )

means that for every given number   0 , there exists a number   0 such that whenever
the distance between ( x, y) and ( x0 , y0 ) satisfies

0  ( x  x0 )2  ( y  y0 )2   ,

f ( x, y) satisfies

f ( x, y)  L   .

Note that the definition says that given any desired degree of closeness   0 , we must be
able to find another number   0 so that all the points lying within a distance  of ( x0 , y0 )
are mapped by f to the points within distance  of L on the real line.
Remarks:

When we consider the lim f ( x) of a function of one variable, we need to examine the
x c

approach of x to c from two different directions, namely the left hand side and right hand
side of c on the real line. In fact, these two are the only possible directions in which x can
approach c on the real line (corresponding to left-hand limit and right-hand limit).
However, for a function of two variables, we write that ( x, y )  ( x0 , y0 ) to mean that the
point ( x, y) is allowed to approach ( x0 , y0 ) along any of the infinitely many different
2
curves or paths in the plane passing through ( x0 , y0 ) .

Existence of limit:

The limit of a function of two variables f ( x, y) is said to exist and equal L , as

( x, y )  ( x0 , y0 ) , written symbolically as

lim f ( x, y)  L ,
( x , y )( x0 , y0 )

if the function f ( x, y) approaches L along every possible path that ( x, y) takes to

2
approach ( x0 , y0 ) in the plane within the domain of f .
Now, one obviously cannot check each path individually. This gives us a simple method
for determining that a limit does not exist.

Non-existence of limit:

If f ( x, y) approaches L1 as ( x, y) approaches ( x0 , y0 ) along a path P1 and f ( x, y)

approaches L2  L1 as ( x, y) approaches ( x0 , y0 ) along a path P2 , then the

lim f ( x, y) does not exist.

( x , y ) ( x0 , y0 )

Our first objective is, therefore, to define the limit of f ( x, y) as ( x, y )  ( x0 , y0 ) along a

path or a smooth curve C .

Limit along a curve:

2
Let C be a smooth parametric curve in that is represented by the equations

x  x(t ), y  y(t ), t [a, b] .

If x0  x(t0 ), y0  y (t0 ) for some t0  [a, b] , then the lim f ( x, y) along the curve C
( x , y ) ( x0 , y0 )

is defined by

lim f ( x, y)  lim f ( x(t ), y (t )). (2)

( x , y ) ( x0 , y0 ) t t0
(along C )

In the right hand side of the formula (2), the limit of the function of t must be treated as a
one sided limit if ( x0 , y0 ) is an end point of C . A geometric interpretation of the limit
along a curve for a function of two variables is depicted in the figure above. As the point
( x(t ), y(t )) moves along the curve C in the xy -plane towards ( x0 , y0 ) , the point
( x(t ), y(t ), f ( x(t ), y(t ))) moves directly above (or below) it along the graph of z  f ( x, y)
with f ( x(t ), y(t )) approaching the limiting value L.
Example 1: Consider a function of two variables defined by the formula

xy
f ( x, y )   , ( x, y )  (0, 0) .
x  y2
2

Find the limit of f ( x, y) as ( x, y)  (0,0) along the following paths:

(a) the x -axis,

(b) the y -axis,
(c) the line y  x ,
(d) the line y   x ,
(e) the parabola y  x 2 .

Solution: (a) The parametric equations of the x -axis are x  t , y  0, t  , with (0,0)
corresponding to t  0 . So, we have

 0
lim f ( x, y )  lim f (t , 0)  lim   2   lim  0   0.
( x , y ) (0,0)
(along x axis)
t 0 t 0
 t  t 0

(b) The y -axis has parametric equations x  0, y  t , t  , with (0,0) corresponding

to t  0 . So, we have

 0
lim f ( x, y)  lim f (0, t )  lim   2   lim  0   0.
( x , y ) (0,0)
(along y axis)
t 0 t 0
 t  t 0

(c) The line y  x has the parametric equations x  t , y  t , t  , with (0,0)

corresponding to t  0 . Thus, we get

 t2   1 1
lim f ( x, y )  lim f (t , t )  lim   2   lim      .
( x , y ) (0,0)
(along y=x )
t 0 t 0
 2t  t  0
 2 2

(d) The line y   x has the parametric equations x  t , y  t , t  , with (0,0)

corresponding to t  0 . Thus, we get

 t2  1 1
lim f ( x, y )  lim f (t , t )  lim  2   lim    .
( x , y ) (0,0)
(along y=-x )
t 0 t 0 2t
    2
t 0 2

(e) The parabola y  x 2 has parametric equations x  t , y  t 2 , t  , with (0,0)

corresponding to t  0 . Thus, we have
  t3   t 
lim f ( x, y)  lim f (t , t 2 )  lim  2 4   lim  2 
 0.
t 0 t  t
( x , y ) (0,0)
(along y  x 2 )
t 0
  t 0  1  t 

xy
We conclude therefore that the limit of the function f ( x, y )   does not exist. See
x  y2
2

figures below for geometrical view of these limits.

At (0,0) , there is a sudden dip (hole) on the surface which supports our conclusion.

Example 2: Using the definition of limit, show that lim y  b and lim x  a.
( x , y ) ( a ,b ) ( x , y )  ( a ,b )

Solution: We prove the first limit. The proof for the second limit is similar. Given any
number   0 , we must find another number   0 such that y  b   whenever

0  ( x  a)2  ( y  b)2   . Note that

( x  a)2  ( y  b)2  ( y  b)2  y  b

so that taking    , we have that

y  b  ( y  b) 2  ( x  a ) 2  ( y  b ) 2  

whenever 0  ( x  a)2  ( y  b)2   . This proves that lim y  b.

( x , y )  ( a ,b )

Algebra of limits:

Using the definition of limit, we can prove the following results:

1) lim
( x , y )( a ,b )
 f ( x, y)  g ( x, y)  ( x, ylim
)( a ,b )
 f ( x, y)  ( x, ylim
)( a ,b )
 g ( x, y).
 lim
( x , y ) ( a , b )
 f ( x, y)  g ( x, y)  ( x, ylim
) ( a ,b )
f ( x, y)   lim g ( x, y)  .
 ( x, y )( a,b) 
2)
f ( x, y ) lim f ( x, y )
( x , y )  ( a ,b )
3) lim  , provided that lim g ( x, y)  0 .
( x , y )  ( a ,b ) g ( x, y ) lim g ( x, y ) ( x , y ) ( a ,b )
( x , y )  ( a ,b )

Remark:

Using Example 2 and the algebra of limits, we can easily prove that the limit of a
polynomial function in two variables always exists and is found simply by substitution.

Example 3: Evaluate lim 5 x3 y 2  9  .

( x , y ) (1,4)

Solution: Using the preceding remark, we get

lim 5 x3 y 2  9   lim 5 x3 y 2   lim 9

( x , y ) (1,4) ( x , y ) (1,4) ( x , y ) (1,4)
3 2
 5  lim x   lim y   9
 ( x , y )(1,4)   ( x , y )(1,4) 
 5 1  4   9  80  9  71.
3 2

 2 x 2 y  3xy 
Example 4: Evaluate lim  .
 5 xy  3 y 
( x , y ) (2,1) 2

Solution: Note that it is the limit of the quotient of two polynomial functions, that is, a
rational function. Since the limit in the denominator is

lim
( x , y ) (2,1)
 5xy 2
 3 y   10  3  13  0,

 2 x 2 y  3xy  lim
( x , y ) (2,1)
 2 x y  3xy  14
2

we have that lim    .

( x , y ) (2,1)
 5 xy  3 y 
2
lim
( x , y ) (2,1)
5xy  3 y  13
2

 x 2  x  xy  y 
Example 5: Evaluate lim  .
( x , y ) (0,0)
 x y 

 x 2  x  xy  y 
Solution: Note that f  x, y     is not defined for x  y . So, the domain
 x y 
of f is 2
  x, y  | x  y . Now, for x  y , we have
  x 2  x  xy  y  ( x  1)( x  y )
f  x, y      x  1.
 x y  x y

Therefore, lim f  x, y   lim  x  1   x, ylim  x    x, ylim 1  0  1  1.

 x , y  0,0   x , y  0,0   0,0   0,0 

 2 xy 
 x , y  0,0  x  y 2 
Example 6: Show that the lim  2 does not exist by evaluating this limit along
 
the x -axis, the y -axis and along the line y  x .

2 xy
Solution: Note that the denominator in the function f  x, y   is zero at  0,0  so
x  y2
2

that f  0,0 is not defined. Therefore, the domain of f is 2

  0,0  . Now, we evaluate
the limit along the given curves.

If we approach the origin along the x -axis, whose parametric equations are
x  t , y  0, t  0 and the point  0,0  corresponds to t  0 , we find that

 2 xy   2t  0   0
lim f  x, y   lim  2   lim  2   lim  2   0.
 x , y  0,0 x  y
 x , y  0,0
 t 0  t  0  t 0  t 
2


If we approach the origin along the y -axis, whose parametric equations are
x  0, y  t , t  0 and the point  0,0  corresponds to t  0 , we find that

 2 xy   2  0 t  0
lim f  x, y   lim  2   lim    lim  2   0.
 x , y  0,0  x  y
 x , y  0,0
 t 0  0  t  t 0  t 
2 2


If we approach the origin along the x  y , whose parametric equations are

x  t , y  t , t  0 and the point  0,0  corresponds to t  0 , we find that

 2 xy   2t 2   2t 2 
f  x, y      lim 1  1.
 x , y  0,0  x  y 2  t 0  t 2  t 2  t 0  2t 2  t 0
lim lim  2 lim lim
 x , y  0,0
     

Note that since the limiting values are different when  x, y    0,0  along different curves,
it follows that the limit of f does not exist at the origin.

 x2 y 
Example 7: Show that the lim  4
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2 
does not exist.
 
 x2 y
Solution: Note that the denominator in the function f  x, y   is zero at  0,0  so
x4  y2
that f  0,0 is not defined. Therefore, the domain of f is 2
  0,0  . We prove that the
 x2 y 
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2 
limit does not exist by showing that the limit lim  4 has different values as
 
 x, y    0,0 along different curves in the plane. First, we let  x, y  approach the origin
along the line y  mx . Note that the x -axis, the y -axis and the line y  x are special cases
of the line y  mx . The line y  mx has parametric equations x  t , y  mt , t  0 and the
point  0,0  corresponds to t  0 . So, we have

 x2 y   t 2  mt    mt 
lim  4   lim  4   lim  2 2 
0.
    x y
x , y  0,0

2
 t  0  t   mt  
2 t  0
t m 
 

However, if we approach the origin along the parabola y  x 2 , which has parametric
equations x  t , y  t 2 , t  0 and the point  0,0  corresponds to t  0 , we find that

 x2 y   t 2 t 2    t4 
  1 1
lim  4   lim  lim    lim    .
 x , y  0,0 x  y
 t 0  t 4   t 2   t 0  2t  t 0  2  2
2 2 4


This completes the proof.

Remark: It is often possible to show that a limit does not exist by the methods illustrated
in Examples 6 and 7. However, it is impossible to try to prove that lim f  x, y  exists
 x , y  x0 , y0 

by showing that the limiting value of f  x, y  is the same along every curve that passes
through  x0 , y0  since there are infinitely many such curves. However, one tool that can
be used to prove that a limit exists is the following generalization of the Squeeze theorem:

Squeeze Theorem:

Suppose that f  x, y   L  g  x, y  for all  x, y  in the interior of some circle centered at

 a, b  , except possibly at  a, b  . If lim

 x , y   a , b 
g  x, y   0 , then lim
 x , y   a ,b 
f  x, y  exists and

equals L . To find L , we compute lim f  x, y  along a few paths from  x, y  to  a, b 

 x , y   a ,b 
.
  x2 y 
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2 
Example 8: Evaluate lim  2
 

Solution: First, we find the limit along a few paths. Along the path x  0 , whose
parametric equations can be written as x  0, y  y with  0,0 corresponding to y  0 ,
the given limit is

 x2 y   02  y   0 
lim  2   lim    lim  2   lim  0  0.
 x , y  0,0 x  y
 y 0  0  y  y 0  y  y 0
2 2 2


Next, along the path y  0 , whose parametric equations are x  x, y  0 , we similarly find
that

 x2 y   x2  0   0
 lim  lim 2   lim  0  0.
 x , y  0,0  x 2  y 2  x 0  x 2  02  x 0 
lim
     x  x0

Further, along the path x  y , whose parametric equations are x  t , y  t , with  0,0
corresponding to t  0 , we have

 x2 y   t2  t   t3  t
 
 t 0  2t 2   lim    0.
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2 
lim  2 lim  lim
t 0 t 2  t 2
       
t 0 2

x2 y
Thus if the limit exists, then it must be equal to 0 . To show this, let f  x, y   and
x2  y2
L  0 , and consider

x2 y
f  x, y   L  f  x, y   0  .
x2  y2

Since x 2  y 2  x 2 , we have for x  0 ,

x2 y x2 y
f  x, y   L    y.
x2  y2 x2

 x2 y 
y  0 , the Squeeze Theorem gives us lim  2  0.
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2 
Since lim
 x , y  0,0 
 

  x  12 ln x 
Example 9: Prove that lim   exists and hence evaluate it.
 x , y 1,0   x  12  y 2 
 
Solution: Again, we find the limit along a few paths. Along the path x  1 , whose
parametric equations are x  1, y  y with 1,0 corresponding to y  0 , the given limit is

  x  12 ln x   02  ln x   0 
lim    lim    lim  2   lim  0  0.
 x , y 1,0   x  1  y 
2 y 0 0  y
2 2
  y 0  y  y 0
2
 

Next, along the path y  0 , whose parametric equations are x  x, y  0 , we similarly find
that

  x  12 ln x    x  12 ln x 
lim    lim    lim ln x  0.
 x , y 1,0   x  1 2  y 2  x 1 
 x  1
2
 x1
   

A third path through 1,0 is y  x  1 , whose parametric equations are x  t, y  t  1 with

1,0 corresponding to t  1 . Along this path, we have

  x  12 ln x    t  12  ln t   ln t 
lim    lim  2 
 lim    0.
 x , y 1,0   x  1 2  y 2  t 1  
  t  1   t  1   2 
2 t 1
 

Thus, if the limit exists, then it must be equal to 0 . To show this, let
 x  1 ln x and L  0 , and consider
2

f  x, y  
 x  1  y 2
2

 x  1 ln x .
2

f  x, y   L  f  x, y   0 
 x  1  y 2
2

Since  x  1  y 2   x  1 , we have for x  1 ,

2 2

 x  1 ln x  x  1 ln x
2 2

f  x, y   L    ln x .
 x  1  y 2  x  1
2 2

  x  12 ln x 
Since lim ln x  0 , the Squeeze Theorem gives us lim    0.
 x , y 1,0  x , y 1,0   x  1 2  y 2 
 

Note: Since ln x is a function of x alone, lim ln x  lim ln x  0 .

 x , y 1,0  x 1

1
Example 10: Show that the lim does not exist.
 x , y  0,0  x  y 2
2
 1
Solution: As  x, y  approaches  0,0 along any path, the values of f  x, y  
x  y2
2

increase without bound or approach  , that is there is no finite number to which f  x, y 

approaches when  x, y    0,0 . Hence, the limit does not exist.

 x2  y2 
Example 11: Show that the following limit does not exist lim  2
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2 
.
 

x2  y2
Solution: The domain of the function f  x, y   consists of all points in the xy -
x2  y2
plane except for the point  0,0 . To show that the given limit does not exist as
 x, y    0,0 , consider approaching  0,0 along two different paths in the domain of f
passing through origin. First, let  x, y    0,0 along x -axis, whose parametric equations
are x  x, y  0 with  0,0 corresponding to x  0 . The limit along this approach is

 x2  y2   x 2  02 
  lim 1  1.
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2  x0  x 2  02  x0
lim  2 lim
   

Next, let  x, y    0,0 along the line y  x . Then, we obtain

 x2  y2   x2  x2   0 
lim  2   lim    lim  2   0.
 x , y  0,0 x  y
  x , x 0,0  x  x  x0  2 x 
2 2 2


x2  y2
Since the limit of f along two different paths is different, the limit of f  x, y  
x2  y2
does not exist as  x, y    0,0 .

Exercises:

 y 
1) Prove that lim 
 x , y 1,0  x  y  1 
does not exist.
 
 xy 2 
 x , y  0,0 x  y 4 
2) Prove that lim  2 does not exist.
 
  5x 2 y   x 2  xy 
lim   and
 x , y  0,0 x  y 2 
3) Evaluate lim  2 ,
   x , y  0,0 
 x  y 
lim
 x , y  0,0 
x 2
 y 2  ln  x 2  y 2  .

x y2 x 2 y
4) Find the domain of f  x, y   and prove that
x y
lim f  x, y   2 .
 x , y  0,0 

Continuity of a function of two variables:

Definition: The function f  x, y  of two variables is continuous at the point  x0 , y0  if

a) f  x0 , y0  is defined;
b) lim f  x, y  exists;
 x , y  x0 , y0 

c) lim f  x, y   f  x0 , y0  .
 x , y  x0 , y0 

The function f is continuous on a set S if it is continuous at each point in S .

Geometrically, this says that f is continuous if the surface z  f  x, y  has no “gaps” or
“holes”.

Remark: A polynomial function p  x, y  in two variables is continuous throughout the

f  x, y 
plane. A rational function of two variables is continuous wherever g  x, y   0 .
g  x, y 

x y 1
Example 1: Test the continuity of the function f  x, y   and g  x, y   .
x y
2 2
y  x2

Solution: The function f is a rational function of x and y , so it is discontinuous only

where it is undefined; namely at  0,0 . Similarly, g is a rational function and is
discontinuous only where it is undefined. That is, wherever y  x 2  0 . Thus, the function
g

is continuous at every point on the plane except those lying on the parabola y  x 2 .

Example 2: Show that f is continuous at  0,0  where

  1
 y  sin x0
f  x, y    x

0 x  0.

Solution: In order to show that f is continuous at  0,0  , we must show that for any   0
, there exists a   0 such that

1
f  x, y   f  0, 0   y sin   whenever 0  x 2  y 2   .
x

 1 for x  0 , we have y sin  y for all x  0 . If  x, y  lies in the

1 1
Now, since sin
x x
disk of radius   0 centered at the origin, then x 2  y 2   2 so that the points  0, y 
satisfy 02  y 2   2 or y 2   2 or y   . In other words, points satisfying y   lie in
the disk. Hence, if we let    , it follows that f  x, y   f  0, 0   y   whenever

0  x 2  y 2   2 . This completes the proof.

Example 3: Find all the points where the function g  x, y  is continuous, where

 x4
 2 ,  x, y    0,0 
g  x, y    x  y
2

0,  x, y    0,0 .


Solution: The function g is a quotient of polynomials, except at the origin. Since the
denominator is never zero, g must be continuous at every point  x, y    0,0 . Now, we
check the continuity at the origin. Notice that for all  x, y    0,0 ,

x4 x4
g  x, y   0  g  x, y     x2.
x2  y2 x2

Since lim x 2  0 , we have that lim g  x, y   0 , by using Sandwich theorem. This

 x , y  0,0   x , y  0,0 
shows that g is continuous at the origin also. Hence, g is continuous everywhere.

Example 4: Discuss the continuity of the following function

  x3 y
 6 ,  x, y    0,0 ,
f  x, y    x  y
2

0,  x, y    0,0 .


Solution: For every point  x0 , y0   0,0 , f  x0 , y0  is a rational function with

denominator not equal to zero. Thus, lim  f  x0 , y0  and hence f  x, y  is
 x , y  x0 , y0 

continuous for all  x0 , y0    0,0 . Now, we claim that f  x, y  is discontinuous at the

origin since its limit at  0,0 does not exist. For, if we let  x, y    0,0 along the path
C : y  mx 3 , then

x3 y x 3  mx 3 m
lim f  x, y   lim  lim  ,
 x , y  0,0  x , y  0,0  x 6  y 2 x 0 x 6  m 2 x 6 1  m 2
 along C along C 

which depends on m , that is, the lim f  x, y  is path dependent. This proves our claim.
 x , y  0,0 

Theorem: (Continuity of certain types functions)

(a) Suppose that f  x, y  is continuous at  a, b  and g  x  is continuous at f  a, b . Then

the composite function h  x, y    g f  x, y   g  f  x, y   is continuous at  a, b  .

(b) If g  x  is continuous at x0 and h  y  is continuous at y0 , then the function

f  x, y   g  x  h  y  is continuous at  x0 , y0  .

(c) If f  x, y  is continuous at  x0 , y0  and if x  t  and y  t  are continuous at t0 with

x  t0   x0 and y  t0   y0 , then the composition f  x  t  , y  t   is continuous at t0 .

Example 4: Determine where the functions f  x, y   3x 2 y 5 , g  x, y   sin  3x 2 y 5  and

h  x, y   e x
2
y
are continuous.

Solution: Notice that h  x, y   g  f  x, y   , where g  t   et and f  x, y   x 2 y . Since g

is continuous for all values of t and f is a polynomial in x and y (and hence continuous
for all x and y ), it follows from preceding theorem (a) part that h is continuous for all
 x, y  . Similarly, f and g are continuous at every point  x, y  in the xy  plane.

Limit and Continuity for functions of three variables:

 2
The concepts of limit and continuity for functions of two variables in extend
naturally to functions of three variables in 3 . In particular, the limit statement

lim f ( x, y , z )  L
( x , y , z )( x0 , y0 , z0 )

means that for every given number   0 , there exists a number   0 such that whenever
the distance between ( x, y, z) and ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) satisfies

0  ( x  x0 ) 2  ( y  y0 ) 2   z  z0    ,
2

f ( x, y, z ) satisfies

f ( x, y , z )  L   .

The function f  x, y, z  is continuous at the point P0   x0 , y0 , z0  if

a) f  x0 , y0 , z0  is defined;
b) lim f  x, y , z  exists;
 x , y , z  x0 , y0 , z0 

c) lim f  x, y , z   f  x0 , y0 , z0  .
 x , y , z  x0 , y0 , z0 

Most commonly considered functions of three variables are continuous wherever they are
defined. For example, the function

3
f  x, y , z  
x  y2  2z
2

is continuous everywhere except where it is not defined. That is, f is discontinuous for all


1 2
points for which x 2  y 2  2 z  0 or z 
2
x  y 2  . Thus, f is continuous everywhere

in 3 except at any point inside or on the paraboloid given by z   x 2  y 2  . Similarly,

1
2
the function

1
g  x, y , z  
x  y2  z
2

is continuous at each point in space except at the points on the paraboloid given by
z  x2  y2 .