BUILDING SERVICES ASSIGNMENT

MOHAMMED ROUSHELL KHAN

SECTION A

1. Write short notes on:

a) Substation: A sub-station is required for the conversion, transformation and control of electrical
power. It is used where large buildings or complexes of buildings require greater power than the
standard low or medium potential of 230 and 400 volts.

b) Concealed wiring system: If the conduits are hidden inside the wall slots with the help of
plastering, it is called concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside
wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring.

c) Plate Earthing: In Plate Earthing an earthing plate either of copper of dimension

60cm×60cm×3m of galvanized iron of dimensions 60 cm× 60 cm×6 mm is buried into the ground
with its face vertical at a depth of not less than 3 meters from ground level. The earth plate is
inserted into auxiliary layers of coke and salt for a minimum thickness of 15 cm. The earth wire (GI or
copper wire) is tightly bolted to an earth plate with the help of nut or bolt.

d) Miniature circuit breaker: A miniature circuit breaker (MCB) automatically switches off
electrical circuit during an abnormal condition of the network means in overload condition as well as
faulty condition. Whenever continuous overcurrent flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated
and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip releases a mechanical latch. As this
mechanical latch is attached with the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit
breaker contacts, and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the circuit. To
restart the flow of current the MCB must be manually turned ON.

2. Explain the process how electricity is supplied to your house from power generating
station with diagram.
Ans. Electricity is produced at power generating stations at around 3.3kV to 22kV potential, in three-
phase supply at 50 cycles per second or hertz (Hz). Thereafter it is processed by step-up
transformers to 110, 220 or 400 kV before connecting to the national grid. Power to large towns and
cities is by overhead lines and transferred to substations. From these sub-stations the supply is again
transformed to the lower potential of 430 volts, three-phase supply and 250 volts, single-phase
Supply for general distribution. In India the power supply to residential premises is at 240V single
phase at 50 Hz and 415V, three phase.
 GENERATION

TRANSMISSION

BULK-POWER
SUBSTATION
SUB-TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
34.5-138kV
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION

SUBSTATION SUBSTATION SUBSTATION
PRIMARY SYSTEM
12.47-34.5 kV 12.47-13.8kV
12.47-13.8kV 4.16-34.5kV

LOAD DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION

LARGE INDUSTRIAL SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
LOAD
SECONDARY
480V-4.16kV 120/240V 120/240V
SYSTEM

LARGE INDUSTRIAL COMMERCIAL LOAD RESIDENTIAL OR

OR COMMERCIAL RURAL LOAD
LOAD

3. Explain the different types of wiring systems used in building electrification.

Ans. Electrical wiring is the electrical power distribution through the wires in a perfect manner for
economic use of wiring conductors inside a room or building with better load control.

Electrical wiring system is classified into five categories:

1) Cleat wiring:

a) Material Used in Cleat Wiring: VIR or PVC insulated wires, weather proof cables, porcelain
cleats or plastic cleats (two or three grooves), screws.
b) Procedure of Cleat Wiring: In this wiring VIR or PVC insulated wires are braided and
compounded on walls or ceiling with the help of porcelain cleats. The wires can be weather
proof. Simple wire laying is done in this scheme of wiring. In present days, this kind of wiring
scheme is not recommended for house or building. Only in temporary army campus or
festival related pandels this wiring is used.
c) Advantages: Cheap and easy wiring, easy to fault detection, easy to repair, alteration and
addition is easy.
d) Disadvantages: bad appearance, exposed to weather to be affected by humidity, rain,
smoke, sunlight etc, chances for shock or fire, used in only 220V in low ambient
temperature, not long lasting, sag happens.
2) Casing wiring:

a) Material Used in Casing Wiring: VIR or PVC insulated wires, Casing Enclosure (made of wood
or plastic), Capping (made of wood or plastic), Casing and capping joints.
b) Procedure of Casing Wiring: This kind of wiring is very old fashioned. Generally, PVC or VIR
insulated wires are carried through the casing enclosure and capping is used to cover the
casing.
c) Advantages: Cheap and easy to install, strong and durable wiring, customization can be done
easily, safe from smoke, dust, rain and steam etc., due to casing and capping no risk of
shock.
d) Disadvantages: Very costly, not suitable for weather with high humidity and acidic
conditions, insect like termites or ants can damage wooden casing and capping, high risk of
fire.

3) Batten wiring:

a) Material Used in Batten Wiring: CTS or TRS cable, Straight teak wooden batten (at 10 mm
thick), Tinned brass link clip (buckle clip), Brass pins.
b) Procedure of Batten Wiring: Group of Single or double or three core cables are used to be
laid on straight teak wooden batten. The cables are hold with help of tinned brass link clip or
buckle clip. Brass pins are used to fix the buckle clips on the wooden batten. Buckle clips is
fixed with brass pin on the wooden batten at an interval 10 cm for horizontal runs and 15 cm
for vertical runs.
c) Advantages: Easy installation, cheap in material cost, appearance is better, customization is
easy, less chance of leakage current
d) Disadvantages: Not suitable for outdoor wiring, humidity, smoke, steam etc directly effect
on wires, heavy wires are not recommended for this wiring scheme, only suitable for below
250 V, high risk of fire.

4) Conduit wiring:

a) Material Used in Conduit Wiring: Conduit-

Metallic Conduit-
1. Class A conduit: thin layer steel sheet low gauge conduit
2. Class B conduit: thick sheet of steel high gauge conduit

Non-Metallic Conduit- 13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37, 50 and 63 mm (diameter) PVC conduit.

VIR or PVC insulated cables, GI wire of 18SWG, Screw, Coupling, Elbow, Rigid off set, 2-hole
strap, Lock nut.

b) Procedure of Conduit Wiring: This kind of wiring is not easy to install. On the surface of the
wall or ceiling conduit pipes (with GI wire inside) are attached with help of 2-hole strap and
base clip at a regular certain distance. Next GI wire is used to lay down the wires through the
conduit pipe.
c) Advantages: The safest wiring, appearance is better, no risk of fire or mechanical wear and
tear, no risk of damage of cable insulation, safe from humidity, smoke, steam etc., no risk of
shock, long lasting.
 d) Disadvantages: Very expensive, installation is not easy, not easy to customize for future,
hard to detect the faults.

5) Concealed wiring:

a) Material Used in Concealed Wiring: Conduit-

Metallic Conduit-
Class A conduit: thin layer steel sheet low gauge conduit
Class B conduit: thick sheet of steel high gauge conduit
Non-Metallic Conduit- 13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37, 50 and 63 mm (diameter) PVC conduit.
VIR or PVC insulated cables, GI wire of 18SWG, Screw, Coupling, Elbow, Rigid off set, 2-hole
strap, Lock nut.
b) Procedure of Concealed Wiring: Concealed wiring is properly named as concealed conduit
wiring. It is very laborious to install. The layout of this wiring is done under the plaster of the
wall of the building. Conduit pipes are buried under the plaster of wall with GI wire inside.
After, with the help of GI wires, the main PVC insulated cables are drawn through the
conduit.
c) Advantages: The safest wiring, appearance is better, no risk of fire or mechanical wear and
tear, no risk of damage of cable insulation, safe from humidity, smoke, steam etc., no risk of
shock, long lasting.
d) Disadvantages: Very expensive, installation is not easy, not easy to customize for future,
hard to detect the faults.

4. What is Earthing? Explain types of Earthing with neat sketches?

Ans. To connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the earth plate or earth
electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick conductor wire (which has very low
resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing or grounding. Earthing can be said as the
connection of the neutral point of a power supply system to the earth so as to avoid or minimize
danger during discharge of electrical energy.

Methods and Types of Electrical Earthing:

a) Plate Earthing: In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm
x 60cm x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35
mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m
(10ft) from the ground level.
b) Pipe Earthing: A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of
earthing. The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The
dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary
 soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the pipe
to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).
c) Rod Earthing: It is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch)
diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe
of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a
desired value.

d) Earthing through the Waterman: In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes
are used for earthing purpose. Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing
clamps to minimize the resistance for proper earthing connection. If stranded conductor is used
as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire and make sure it is in the straight and
parallel position which is possible then to connect tightly to the waterman pipe.
e) Strip or Wire Earthing: In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than
25mm x 1.6mm (1in x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trench of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If
copper with a cross-section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if
it’s a galvanized iron or steel. If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should
not be too small, say less than 6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the
conductor buried in the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not
be less than 15m.
SECTION B

1. Write short notes on:

a. Sprinkler system: Water sprinklers provide an automatic spray dedicated to the area of fire
outbreak. Sprinkler heads have temperature sensitive elements that respond immediately to heat,
discharging the contents of the water main to which they are attached. In addition to a rapid
response which reduces and isolates fire damage, sprinklers use less water to control a fire than the
firefighting service, therefore preventing further damage from excess water.

b. Fire detectors: Fire detectors sense one or more of the products or phenomena resulting from
fire, such as smoke, heat, infrared and/or ultraviolet light radiation, or gas. Main Types of Fire
Detectors are-

1) Heat Detector: Heat detectors are generally used in storage closets, warehouses or other rooms
that aren’t frequently occupied. They will alert you when there’s a rise in the room temperature
or if there’s a significant amount of heat in the room. The issue with heat detectors is they take a
little longer to detect a fire than smoke detectors. However, they have fewer false alarms
because they don’t go off when there’s steam, dust, humidity or precipitation.
2) Ionization Smoke Detector: Ionization smoke detectors are usually found in commercial kitchens
and restaurants. They activate when there’s smoke present in the air. The detector has two metal
plates inside, which have a constant electric current that flows back and forth. Once smoke
enters the chamber, the current will no longer flow and the alarm will sound.
3) Photoelectric Smoke Detector: Photoelectric detectors are great for detecting small fires. They
are similar to ionization detectors, but instead of using an electric current, they use a beam of
light to detect smoke. When smoke enters the chamber on the photoelectric detector, then it will
interfere with the light and the alarm will go off.
4) Ionization and Photoelectric Smoke Detector: A smoke detector that senses both ionization and
photoelectric smoke is the best way to arm your building. This detector combines both the
ionization and photoelectric detectors to work as one unit. When there’s smoke in the air, it will
disrupt both the beam of light and electric current, which will cause the alarm to sound. The best
thing about this detector is it works as a 2-in-1 system; however, it won’t be able to detect heat.

c. Classes of fire: Classes of fire are -

• Class A - fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles.
• Class B - fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel or oils.
• Class C - fires involving gases.
• Class D - fires involving metals.
• Class E - fires involving live electrical apparatus. (Technically ‘Class E’ doesn’t exists however
this is used for convenience here)
• Class F - fires involving cooking oils such as in deep-fat fryers.

d. Fire resisting materials: A fire resistant material is one that is designed to resist burning and
withstand heat. Properties of fire-resistant material are –

• The material should not disintegrate under the effect of great heat.
• The expansion of material due to heat should not ne such that it leads to instability of
structure of which it forms a part.
• The contraction of the material due to sudden cooling with water after it has been heated to
high temperature should not be rapid.
Examples of fire resisting materials are stone, brick, concrete, asbestos cement, etc.

3. Discuss the role of an architect in ensuring the fire safety in buildings.

Ans. So as to minimize casualty it’s important to understand that fire safety deals with three aspects:
1. Causes & hazard of fire.
2. Effects of fire on building materials, their properties.
3. Prevention of Fire and hazard through –
Appropriate DESIGN and Implementation of SAFETY NORMS in building. (as Bye Laws and NBC
defines)
- Location of exits based on occupant level.
- Limiting fire spread through proper measures. - Fire resistant construction/ materials. - Installation
of firefighting services and other measures. Etc.

4. List and explain the causes of fire accidents in buildings. What is meant by fire load?
Ans. There are numerous causes of Fire. Some of them would include the following:

1. Electrical wiring can cause a fire if it is faulty or not adequate enough to carry the load being
supplied.

2. Smoking is not only a major destroyer of life; it is also a highly preventable cause of fires.

3. Cooking accidents are a major cause of home fires

4. Heating sources are often causes of Fire.

5. Rubbish and waste materials.

6. Combustible Materials.

7. Hazardous Materials.

8. Arson and Deliberate fire setting.

9. Post-Earthquake fire spread between buildings in an urban setting. Wind speed is the major factor
in the magnitude of post-earthquake fire losses.

10. Lightning.

Fire Load: The term Fire-load is used to indicate the amount of heat liberated in kilojoules per sq.
metre (kJ/m²) of the floor area of any compartment by the combustion of the content of the building
and any combustible part of the building itself. Fire load is determined by multiplying the weights of
all combustible materials by their respective calorific values and dividing by the floor area under
construction. Fire load is used for grading of the occupancies and as per BIS:1641-1960, the fire load
is divided into three classes:

1. Low fire-load

2. Moderate fire-load

3. High fire-load
SECTION C
1. Write short notes on

a. Double decker lift: A double-deck elevator or double-deck lift is an elevator with two cabs
attached together, one on top of the other. This allows passengers on two consecutive floors to be
able to use the elevator simultaneously, significantly increasing the passenger capacity of an
elevator shaft. Such a scheme can improve efficiency in buildings where the volume of traffic would
normally have a single elevator stopping at every floor. double-deck elevators occupy less building
core space than traditional single-deck elevators do for the same level of traffic. In skyscrapers, this
allows for much more efficient use of space, as the floor area required by elevators tends to be quite
significant.

b. Sky Lobby: A sky lobby is an intermediate interchange floor in a skyscraper where people can
change from an express elevator that stops only at the sky lobby to a local elevator which stops at
every floor within a segment of the building. When designing very tall (supertall) buildings, supplying
enough elevators is a problem – travellers wanting to reach a specific higher floor may conceivably
have to stop at a very large number of other floors on the way up to let other passengers off and on.
This increases travel time, and indirectly requires many more elevator shafts to still allow acceptable
travel times – thus reducing effective floor space on each floor for all levels.

c. Travelator: It is a slow-moving conveyor mechanism that transports people across a horizontal or

inclined plane over a short to medium distance. Moving walkways can be used by standing or
walking on them. They are often installed in pairs, one for each direction.

d. Dumbwaiter: A lift with a car which moves in guides in a vertical direction; has a net floor area
of 1 m2, total inside eight of 1.2 m, whether or not provided with fixed or removable shelves; has a
capacity not exceeding 250 kg and is exclusively used for carrying materials and shall not carry any
person.

e. Capsule Lift: Capsule Elevators act as Architectural highlights on prestigious buildings. They can
be called the ornaments of a building as they enhance its beauty and bring life into it. Their design,
features and infinite options add its optimum travel comfort. They have aesthetically attractive
interiors with large glass viewing panel.

f. Paternoster: Paternoster lift is a passenger elevator which consists of a chain of open

compartments (each usually designed for two persons) that move slowly in a loop up and down
inside a building without stopping. Passengers can step on or off at any floor they like. The same
technique is also used for filing cabinets to store large amounts of (paper) documents or for small
spare parts. The much smaller belt manlift which consists of an endless belt with steps and rungs but
no compartments is also sometimes called a paternoster.
2. Sketch the typical section through a traction lift and explain various parts.

CONTROL SYSTEM

GEARED MACHINE
MOTOR
GOVERNOR
ELEVATOR MACHINE ROOM

HOISTING ROPES

DOOR OPERATOR
ELEVATOR GUIDERAIL

CAR SAFETY DEVICE

TRAVELLING CABLE

COUNTERWEIGHT

COUNTERWEIGHT
GUIDERAIL

SHAFT DOORS
COMPENSATION ROPES

GOVERNOR TENSION SHEAVE

COUNTERWEIGHT BUFFER
CAR BUFFER
Traction lift works on the see-saw principle. When the car is raised and lowered by traction steel
ropes, the counterweight moves in vertically opposite direction with that of lift car as is done in see-
saw.

There are mainly 5 components involved in the working of a traction lift.

1. CONTROL SYSTEM

2. ELECTRIC MOTOR

3. SHEAVE

4. COUNTER WEIGHT

5. GUIDING RAIL

The ropes are attached to the elevator car, looped around a sheave & connected to an electric
motor. When the motor turns one way, the sheave raises the elevator; when the motor turns the
other way, the sheave lowers the elevator. Typically, the sheave, the motor and the control system
are all housed in a machine room above the elevator shaft. The ropes that lift the car are also
connected to a counterweight, which hangs on the other side of the sheave. The counterweight and
the car are perfectly balanced. Basically, the motor only has to overcome friction, the weight on the
other side does most of the work.

3. Explain the quality and quantity of lift services.

Ans. Quantity of lift service:
• The quantity of service is a measure of the passenger handling capacity of a vertical
transportation system.
• It is measured in terms of the total number of passengers handled during each five-minute
peak period of the day.
• A five-minute base period is used as this is the most practical time over which the traffic can
be averaged.
• The recommended passenger handling capacity for various buildings is as follows:
Office- diversified tenants – 10-15 percent
Office- single tenants – 15- 25 percent
Residential – 7.5 percent

Quality of lift service:

The quality of service on the other hand is generally measured by the passenger waiting time at the
various floors.

The following shall be the guiding factor for determining this aspect.

Quality of Service or Acceptable Interval

– 20 to 25 seconds Excellent

– 30 to 35 seconds Good

– 34 to 40 seconds Fair

– 45 seconds Poor

– Over 45 seconds Unsatisfactory

4. Explain working of an escalator, with neat sketches.
Ans. Working of an escalator

1. The core parts of the escalator are two chains, which rotate around two pairs of gears. At
the top of the escalator, an electric motor drives the transmission gear to rotate the chain
ring. A typical escalator USES a 100-horsepower engine to turn the gears. The engine and
chain systems are mounted in trusses, which are metal structures that extend from floor to
floor.
2. Unlike the conveyor belt moving a plane, the chain ring moves a set of steps. The most
interesting thing about escalators is the way they move. The steps remain level as the chain
moves. At the top and bottom of the escalator, the steps fold into a platform. This makes it
easier to get up and down the escalator.
3. Each step of the escalator has two sets of wheels, which rotate along two separate tracks.
The top gear (wheels near the top of the steps) is connected to a rotating chain and is pulled
by a drive gear located at the top of the escalator. The other wheels simply slide along the
track behind the first wheels.
4. The two tracks are separated from each other, so that each step can be kept level. At the top
and bottom of the escalator, the track is in a horizontal position, flattening the steps. There
are a series of grooves inside each step to connect the front and rear steps during the
levelling process.
5. Besides rotating the main link, the motor in the escalator can also move the handrails. The
armrest is just a rubber conveyor belt that circulates around a series of wheels. The
conveyor belt is precisely configured to move at exactly the same speed as the steps, making
the rider feel smooth.
6. The escalator system is not capable of lifting people up dozens of floors as elevators do, but
it is suitable for providing short distance transportation. This is because of the high load rate
of escalators. When the elevator is full, no one else can get on until it reaches the
designated floor and returns. On escalators, as long as one person reaches the top, it makes
room for others.

MOTOR

GEAR

CHAINS

GEAR
5. What is Hydraulic lift? Explain with neat sketches.
Ans. Hydraulic lift works on the Pascal’s principle of pressure which states that the pressure given to
liquid in closed chamber will be continued by the liquid to every direction with uniform and the
same magnitude. The main components of a hydraulic elevator are:

1. Piston within a cylinder (called a ram)

2. Oil reservoir or tank

3. Pump

4. Motor

5. Valve

In a hydraulic lift, to go up, a pump pushes oil into the cylinder, pushing the piston (which pushes
the lift car) up. To go down, the valve opens and oil is allowed to flow back into the reservoir, and is
pushed back using the gravitational force of the lift car. When the valve is closed, the oil can only go
from the reservoir into the cylinder. When the valve is open, the oil can only flow from the cylinder
back into the reservoir. The controls in the lift car make the pump operate, moving the oil. When a
floor is reached, the pump is switched off and the lift car sits on top of the piston held in position by
the oil which is trapped in the cylinder.

CYLINDER
VALVE

PISTON HYDRAULIC
FLUID
FLUID
RESERVOIR

ROTARY PUMP
HYDRAULIC LIFT
SECTION D

1. Write short notes on

a. Accent lighting: Accent lighting focuses light on a particular area or object. It is often used to
highlight art or other artifacts. Common types of accent lights include wall sconces, floodlights,
recessed lights, torchère lamps, or track lighting. The brighter light from the accent lamp creates
visual interest to a room. Accent lights may also be used in practical applications to shine light on a
stairway, such as in movie theatres, or to light walkways. Some accent lights aren't made to shine on
a particular object, but are themselves a piece of art with a self-contained light source. Often made
with Tiffany glass, these serve as a piece of functional decor for a home. Accent lights can also be
used outdoors as guides for pathways or to spotlight garden art.

b. Halogen lamps: It is an incandescent lamp with a tungsten filament contained within an inert
gas and a small amount of a halogen such as iodine or bromine. The combination of the halogen gas
and the tungsten filament produces a chemical reaction known as a halogen cycle which increases
the lifetime of the filament and prevents darkening of the bulb by redepositing tungsten from the
inside of the bulb back onto the filament. (In a HALOGEN LAMP, a chemical process returns metal to
the filament, extending its life.). Because of this, a halogen lamp can be operated at a higher
temperature than a standard gas-filled lamp of similar power and operating life.

c. Flood lighting: A flood light is a large, powerful fixture that has a wide beam spread. It is a high-
intensity artificial light that is used to illuminate a large area. Most often used outside, floodlights
are found illuminating outdoor playing fields and sports events. Floodlights can also be used indoors
for lighting stages to create an artificial daytime setting.

d. Glare: Glare is a visual sensation caused by excessive and uncontrolled brightness. It can be
disabling or simply uncomfortable. It is subjective, and sensitivity to glare can vary widely. Older
people are usually more sensitive to glare due to the aging characteristics of the eye. Disability glare
is the reduction in visibility caused by intense light sources in the field of view, while discomfort
glare is the sensation of annoyance or even pain induced by overly bright sources

2. Explain the illumination and laws of illumination.

Ans. Illumination(E) of a surface is defined as the luminous flux per unit area (F/ A) in lumens per
square meter which is renamed a lux (lx). E= F/A The illumination E of a surface is directly
proportional to the intensity (I) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance R.

E= I/R2

There are 2 important laws in illumination, these are: Inverse Square Law and Cosine Law

Inverse square law: This law assumes that the illumination received on a surface from a light
source is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the source

• In other words, the further away, the less illumination.

• It can be calculated by, E = I / d2

– E = Illuminance measured in lux

– I = Luminous Intensity measured in Candela

– D = Distance between source and surface measured in metres

Cosine law: When the light falls on a surface at an inclined angle, it illuminates areas larger than it
would do at right angle. to calculate illumination in such cases, cosine law is used.

• E = I / d2 cos ʘ

• This method allows us to calculate the illuminance with one or more lamps or with reflection from
surroundings.

3. What are different types of lamps used for lighting? Explain the factors that are
considered in design of lighting scheme.
Ans. Different types of lamps are:
1. Incandescent Lamp: Incandescent lights use a filament through which an electrical current is
run. The filament's resistance causes heat. Due to this heat, the filament glows like any
metal when heated. The hot filament is protected from air by a glass bulb that is filled with
inert gas (nitrogen or argon) or evacuated, depend on its power.
2. Halogen Lamp: It is an incandescent lamp with a tungsten filament contained within an inert
gas and a small amount of a halogen such as iodine or bromine. The combination of the
halogen gas and the tungsten filament produces a chemical reaction known as a halogen
cycle which increases the lifetime of the filament and prevents darkening of the bulb by
redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. (In a HALOGEN
LAMP, a chemical process returns metal to the filament, extending its life.). Because of this,
a halogen lamp can be operated at a higher temperature than a standard gas-filled lamp of
similar power and operating life.
3. Gas-discharge Lamps: They are a family of artificial light sources that generate light by
sending an electrical discharge through an ionized gas. Typically, such lamps use a noble gas
(argon, neon, krypton and xenon) or a mixture of these gases. Most lamps are filled with
additional materials, like mercury, sodium, and/or metal halides. In operation the gas is
ionized, and free electrons, accelerated by the electrical field in the tube, collide with gas
and metal atoms.
4. Fluorescent Lamp: A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas- discharge lamp that uses
electricity to excite mercury vapour. The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave
ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on inside of lamp to glow, producing
visible light. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently
than an incandescent lamp.
5. Compact fluorescent Lamps (CFL)- is an energy-saving light, is designed to replace an
incandescent lamp.
6. Black light- A black light, also referred to as a UV light (Ultra Violet Light), is a lamp that
emits ultraviolet radiation.
7. Neon Lamps: A neon lamp (also neon glow lamp) is a miniature gas discharge lamp typically
consists of a small glass capsule that contains a mixture of neon and other gases at a low
pressure and two electrodes (an anode and a cathode). When sufficient voltage is applied
and sufficient current is supplied between the electrodes, the lamp produces an orange glow
discharge. Neon glow lamps are widely used as indicator lamps in the displays of electronic
instruments and appliances.
 8. Mercury Vapour Lamps: A mercury-vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp that uses mercury in
an excited state to produce light. The arc discharge is generally con fined to a small fused
quartz arc tube mounted within a larger borosilicate glass bulb. The outer bulb may be clear
or coated with a phosphor; in either case, the outer bulb provides thermal insulation,
protection from ultraviolet radiation, and a convenient mounting for the fused quartz arc
tube. They are used for large area overhead lighting, such as in factories, warehouses, and
sports arenas as well as for streetlights.
9. Sodium Vapour Lamps: A sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp that uses sodium in an
excited state to produce light. There are two varieties of such lamps: low pressure and high
pressure. Because sodium vapor lamps cause less light pollution than mercury vapor lamps,
many cities that have large astronomical observatories employ them.
10. Light Emitting Diodes: LEDs utilizes two semiconductors in close proximity. As electrons jump
the gap between the two semiconductors, they lose energy and emit photons. A light-
emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. Early LEDs emitted low-intensity red
light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared
wavelengths, with very high brightness.

The lighting scheme should be such that it may:

(i) Provide adequate illumination

(ii) Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible

(iii) Provide light of suitable colour

(iv) Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible

The factors that should be considered in design of lighting scheme are:

1. Illumination Level
2. Uniformity of Illumination
3. The Colour of Light
4. Shadows
5. Glare
6. Mounting height
7. Spacing of luminaries
8. Colour of surrounding walls

4. Explain in brief with neat sketches different types of lighting schemes.

Ans. Different types of lighting schemes are:

1. Direct Lighting
• 90-95 % light falls directly on the object or the surface with help of deep reflectors.
• Used in industries and commercial lighting.
• Disadvantage- Causes glare and shadows.
2. Indirect Lighting
• 90% of light is directed upwards by using diffusing reflectors.
• Ceiling act as source of light and this light is uniformly distributed over the surface and glare
is minimized.
• Application- offices as it provides shadow less illumination; cinema halls, hotels etc.
3. Semi Direct
 • 60% of light is directed downward and 40% is directed upward.
• Semi direct light shines mainly down as direct light, but a small portion of it is directed
upward as indirect light.
• Chances of glare is reduced.
• Best suited for rooms with high ceilings.
4. Semi Indirect
• 60-90% of total light is thrown upward to the ceiling for diffused reflection and rest reaches
directly to working plane.
• Semi-indirect light is mostly reflected, but some light shines directly.
• Mainly used for interior decoration.
5. Diffused lighting
• Diffused light is spread evenly in all directions with the light source (bulb) not visible.

DIRECT LIGHTING

SEMI-INDIRECT DIFFUSED LIGHTING

LIGHTING
INDIRECT LIGHTING SEMI-DIRECT
LIGHTING
5. With neat sketches explain the construction and working of

i. Incandescent lamp: Incandescent lights use a filament through which an electrical current is run.
The filament's resistance causes heat. Due to this heat, the filament glows like any metal when
heated. The hot filament is protected from air by a glass bulb that is filled with inert gas (nitrogen or
argon) or evacuated, depend on its power.

INERT GAS
FILAMENT
SUPPORT
BUTTON

STEM LEAD-IN WIRE

HEAT DEFLECTING DISC

PINCH
EXHAUST TUBE

BASE

INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULB

ii. Fluorescent lamps: A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas- discharge lamp that uses
electricity to excite mercury vapour. The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave ultraviolet light
that then causes a phosphor coating on inside of lamp to glow, producing visible light. A fluorescent
lamp converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently than an incandescent lamp.

CONTACT PINS

INTERNAL GLASS TUBE

PHOSPHOR
COATING
ELECTRODE

MERCURY INERT GAS

FLUORESCENT LIGHT BULB

6. Mention the methods of lighting for

a. Food court – Indirect lighting

b. Children's park – Diffused lighting

c. Auditorium – Semi direct lighting

d. Architects cabin – Indirect lighting