Questions and answers in quantum

mechanics

Contents
1 Simple Harmonic Oscillator(SHO) 1
1.1 The power series method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1 Simple Harmonic Oscillator(SHO)

Q1.What is a Simple harmonic oscillator(SHO)?
Linear harmonic oscillator is a system of a spring mass system where a
mass m is attached to as spring of spring constant C . The mass executes
harmonic motion when shifted slightly from its equilibrium position. The
motion is linear because the spring applies a restoring force on the mass
which varies linearly with the the displacement of the block from its
equilibrium position.The motion of the block is described by the equation
F = −Cx—(1)
here C is spring constant and x is the displacement from the equilibrium
position. Since the force is proportional to the first power of displacement so
the system is called linear harmonic oscillator.

Q2. What is the importance of studying SHO in quantum me-

chanics?

Harmonic oscillator is a system which forms the basic of many topics in

quantum and classical physics. The reason for studying harmonic oscillator
is that the harmonic oscillator depicts the atomic and molecular arrangement
of materials. Harmonic oscillator is a system where a mass is attached to a
spring and constitutes motion under the action of a restoring force.Similar
type of motion occurs in case of atoms inside materials.

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However the most important reason for studying SHO isSHO presents a
realistic case of potential that varies continuously with time. For
continuous potentials the solutions of the one dimensional Schrodinger equa-
tion can be obtained by analytical techniques. The continuous SHO potential
is
V (x) ∝ x2 —(2)

Q3. Which physical systems can be studied by SHO potential

Any system which executes simple vibrations about an equilib-

rium point can be studied using SHO potential . Some examples of
such physical systems are

• vibration of atoms in diatomic molecules

• acoustic and thermal properties of solids which arise from

atomic vibrations

• magnetic properties of solids that involve vibrations in the

orientation of nuclei
Q4. What is the shape of SHO potential?

The SHO potential is described by equation (2) above the shape is parabolic
as potential V varies with the second power of x. Since the particle executes
motion about an equilibrium point so there must a be point where the po-
tential is minimum. The potential looks as follows.

Q5. What does classical mechanics say about a particle in the

SHO potential
In case of classical mechanics a particle attached to a spring oscillating
about the equilibrium point in the SHO potential will oscillate with a fre-
quencyq
1 C
ν = 2π m
-–(3)
According to classical mechanics the particle will have an total energy propor-
tional to x2 and the total energy E can have any value since x the equilibrium
position can have any value. There is no restriction on the values of energy
that the particle can take .

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Figure 1: shape of SHO potential

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Q6. How does we treat the SHO potential quantum mechanically?

Quantum mechanical explanation of the SHO potential is same as for

other systems. Quantum mechanically the particle in SHO potential can
have only discrete values of energy any energy value is not possi-
ble. Similar to the Planck’s quantum theory the allowed energies of the
particle executing SHO is
En = n 6 hν—–(5)

Q7. What is meaning of "quantum mechanical solution of SHO

potential?

Quantum mechanical solution means putting the given potential in the

time independent Schrodinger equation and solving the equation. The solu-
tions of the Schrodinger equation for a given potential yield eigenfunctions.
Each eigen function or the solution is associated with a particular value of
energy called Eigen value.In our case of SHO we will put the SHO potential
in Schrodinger equation will find the solutions.

Q8. What is the method to find the discrete energy values of a

SHO by quantum mechanical methods??

The basic step is to put the SHO potential in the one dimensional Schrodinger
equation.
q The frequency of oscillation of the mass is given by
ω= m C
——-(6)
equation (6)is the angular frequency. From (6) we can express the spring C
constant as
C = ω 2 m-–(7) The SHO potential is V = 12 Cx2 —-(8) using (7) in (8) we
have
V = 21 mω 2 x2 —(9)

Q9.Is there any physical significance associated with the math-

ematical steps described above?

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 This is a very conceptual question indeed.Most of the texts and students
take it for granted some mathematical steps but understanding the physics
makes the stuff more interesting.In the preceding question we have expressed
the potential in terms of the mass,frequency (ω)and displacement. The rea-
son for doing this is that since we want to find the energy in quantum me-
chanical description so we have to work with the frequency which is directly
related to energy both in classical and quantum mechanical descriptions. Re-
member quantum mechanically allowed energies are in terms of the frequency.

E = n 6 hν

What are the methods to solve the Schrodinger equation in quan-

tum mechanics

In the available literature there are two methods to solve the quantum
mechanical SHO problem.

• power series method

• ladder operator method

let us discuss the two methods separately

1.1 The power series method

The equation that we need to solve is
6h2 ∂ 2 ψ
− 2m ∂x2
+ 21 mω 2 x2 ψ = Eψ–-(10)

the equation (10) has to be written in a more convincing form to reach

the goal.
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2m
[p2 + (mωx)2 ] ψ = Eψ—(11)
now this equation has to be understood carefully. In equation (11) the
quantity −i 6 h ∂x
∂
is the momentum p of the particle in operator form. The
Hamiltonian of a particle is the sum of Kinetic and potential energies
so
H = KE + P E—-(12)

In case of the SHO we can express (12) as

p2
H = 2m 1
+ 2m mω 2 x2 —-(13) or

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 1
H= 2m
[p2 + (mωx)2 ]—(14)

The equation (14) contains sum of two squares. From your basic knowl-
edge of complex numbers you know

(a + ib)(a − ib) = a2 + b2 —(15)

applying (15)to (14) we get an important result

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H= 2m
[(mωx) − ip][(mωx) + ip]—(16)

equation (16)is of prime importance and begins a new concept in quan-

tum mechanics. We will discuss this new concept a bit later we have for the
time being we define

a+ = √ 1
2m6hω
(−ip + mωx)—-(17) and

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a− = √2m6 hω
(+ip + mωx)—(18)
These two equations are f prime importance in the theory of quantum
mechanical SHO. Now the new things will be revealed when the product of
(17) and (18) will be calculated

what new things are expected? the product of two complex

numbers will be a real number,then what new physics is expected?

Here is key point lets check the product and see what result it yields.
a− a+ = 2m61hω [p2 −mω 2 x2 −mωi(xp−px)]—(19).In equation (19) the quantity
(xp − px) is yielding something that we don’t expect from simple multipli-
cation of two complex numbers.

Q12.What is the problem with this quantity its pre school math-
ematics, the result will be zero?

Exactly this is what we expect, but this is quantum mechanics, uncer-

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tainty principle is everywhere !!!!! No this is not the reason. One thing you
must keep in mind that both momentum and position are operators. The
magic with operator is that when they operate on any function the result
depends on the direction from which they act.Let us make the things more
clear

momentum in operator form is −i 6 h ∂x

∂

and position is simple x.Now let us take a function f(x) and see the fol-
lowing results
(1) x(−i 6 h ∂f∂x(x) )—(20) this occurs when we apply xp on f(x). Now lets see
what happens when we apply px on f(x)

(−i 6 h ∂f∂x(x) x) = i 6 h[ ∂f∂x(x) x + f (x)]——(21)

if we subtract (21) from (20) we have

i 6 h left over.

what is this result??

Yes the result is both shocking and interesting.let us see another more
clear example.Let our function f (x) = x2 we now perform the mathematical
operations same as above

Q13.Can we write the mathematical operation of two operators

in a more convenient form??

Yes the convenient form is described below

[x, p] = xp − px. This is called Canonical Commutation relation. Now

let us use this expression for our function
∂ 2
[x, p]x2 = x(−i 6 h ∂x x ) = −i 6 h2x2 —(22)

now we come to the second operation where the position operator is after
the momentum operator

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 3
(−i 6 h ∂x
∂x
= −i 6 h3x2 )—-(23)

Now subtract (22) from(23) we are left with

i 6 hx2 —–(24) thus the commutation relation of position and momentum al-
ways leaves a factor i 6 h. This quantity prevents the result of xp-px to be
different from zero.

Q13Is there any physical meaning of this mathematical relation i.e. com-
mutation relation?

Yes the mathematical relation is the result of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty

relation. From the uncertainty relation we know that we cannot measure the
momentum and position of a particle simultaneously,there is an uncertainty
associated with the measurement of position and momentum

δxδp ' 6h2 . If the commutation relation of two operators A and B is such
that

[A, B] = AB−BA = 0 then the two operators A and B are said to commute
and the two quantities can be measured simultaneously. If

[A, B] = AB − BA 6= 0 then operators A and B do not commute and

they can be measured simultaneously

Q14. What is the meaning of the word canonical?

Canonical has a wide range of meanings. For time being we can under-
stand canonical means a set of coordinates that describe system completely.
For example position and momentum is such a set of coordinates.

Q15. In many places we hear conjugate or canonically conjugate

variables what does this mean?

Conjugate variables are those which do not commute with each other,i.e.
they cannot be measured simultaneously with precision. Momentum and po-
sition form such a pair of variables. But there is an important concept here

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when we are talking of momentum and position both are vector quantities
and have components along three axes. The meaning of conjugate will be
more clear here .Suppose the particle is moving in two dimensional space. If
you take position of the particle along x axis then you can find the y com-
ponent of momentum along the y axis i.e py so the commutation relation
between these two quantities will be

[x, py ] = 0—-(25)

physically this means that we can measure the x component of position

and y component of momentum simultaneously. Same is true for other pairs.
With the new quantities a− and a+ we have the following relation that links
with the Hamiltonian

a− a+ = 6h1ω H − 12 ——(25)
equation (25) results due to the commutation relations.The general for of
commutation relation is

[a− , a+ ] = 1—(26)

The Hamiltonian of the SHO now becomes

H =6 hω(a− a+ − 21 )—(27)

Q16.What are actually these two quantities a− and a+ ?

In order to understand what these two quantities a− and a+ are we start

with equation (27). The factor 21 is of crucial importance. In the earlier sec-
tion we saw that the ordering of the two quantities a− and a+ is important.
For example if I ask you to solve for

a+ a− what will be the value ??

lets solve this
a+ a− = 26h1mω [(−ip + mωx)(+ip + mωx)]

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a+ a− = 26hmω
[p2 + (mωx)2 − imω(−i 6 h)]

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 the first quantity in bracket on the right hand side is Hamiltonian so after
solving we have
a+ a− = denH
H + 12 —(28)
by similar method we can find that
H
a− a+ = nothω − 21
–(29)
Now let us come to the point what these actually mean.We see that chang-
ing the order of the two quantitiesa− and a+ changes the sign of the factor
1
2
in the Hamiltonian. Now the Schrodinger equation of the form
Hψ = Eψ–(30) can now be written in the form

6 h(a± a∓ ± 21 )ψ = Eψ—(31). Now if ψ is a solution of the Schrodinger

equation with energy value E then the question is

Q17.what about a± ψ

From physical considerations we can guess that since the quantities a and
a+ contain the operators np and x so they will produce some effect on the
eigen function ψ let us first evaluate the commutation relation
[a− , a+ ] = a− a+ − a+ a− = 1—(32)

now lets us see what occurs if we operate a+ on the eigen function ψ.

What I mean to say is that if in the equation

Hψ = Eψ we use

H(a+ ψ) then what will be in the right hand side??

H(a+ ψ) =6 hω(+ a− + 21 )(a+ ψ)

in the right hand side we expand the quantity inside bracket

H(a+ ψ) =6 hω(a+ a− a+ + 12 a+ )ψ
after some rearrangements

taking out the common factor a+

H(a+ ψ) =6 hωa+ (a− a+ + 21 )ψ

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now remembering the commutation relation between a− and a+ we have

a+ [6 hω(a+ a− + 1 + 12 )ψ]
don’t add 1 and 21

this gives

a+ (H+ 6 hω)ψ or

(E+ 6 hω)(a+ ω)——-(33)

this a remarkable result earlier where there was only E the total energy
of the system now we have
H(a+ )ψ = (E+ 6 h)—-(34)

So we observe that there is an additional term 6 hω so we conclude

the quantity a− when operates on the eigen function reduces the enrgy by
one unit of 6 hω

Q18. What is the use of these operators

these operators when operated on the eigen function increase or reduce

the energy discretely in steps of 6 hω. The situation is similar to climbing up
and getting down by stairs or ladders so a± are called ladder operators.

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the ladder operators

Figure 2: Quantum mechanics D.J. Griffiths

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