C H A P T E R 1

Limits and Their Properties

Section 1.1 A Preview of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Section 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically . . . . . . . . 47

Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Section 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Section 1.5 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
C H A P T E R 1
Limits and Their Properties
Section 1.1 A Preview of Calculus

1. Precalculus:
20 ftsec
15 seconds
300 feet 2. Calculus: velocity is not constant
Distance 
20 ftsec
15 seconds
300 feet

3. Calculus required: slope of tangent line at x
2 is rate of 4. Precalculus: rate of change
slope
0.08
change, and equals about 0.16.

5. Precalculus: Area
2 bh
2
5
3
2 sq. units

1 1 15 6. Calculus required: Area
bh
 2
2.5

5 sq. units

7. f
x
4x  x2 8. f
x
x
(a) y
(a) y

P(4, 2)
4
2
P
3

x
x 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3

4x  x2  3 x  2
(b) slope
m
(b) slope
m

x1 x4

x  1
3  x x  2 1


3  x, x  1

, x4
x1
x  2 x  2 
 x  2

x
2: m
3  2
1 1 1
x
1: m


1  2 3
x
1.5: m
3  1.5
1.5
1
x
0.5: m
3  0.5
2.5 x
3: m
 0.2679
3  2
(c) At P
1, 3 the slope is 2.
1
You can improve your approximation of the slope at x
5: m
 0.2361
5  2
x
1 by considering x-values very close to 1.
1 1
(c) At P
4, 2 the slope is

0.25.
4  2 4
You can improve your approximation of the slope at
x
4 by considering x-values very close to 4.

5 5 5
9. (a) Area  5     10.417
2 3 4
1
Area  5 
2 
5 5
 
5
 
5 5 5
 
5
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
 9.145 
(b) You could improve the approximation by using more rectangles.

46
 Section 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 47


10. (a) For the figure on the left, each rectangle has width .
4
   3
Area 
4 
sin  sin  sin
4 2 4
 sin  


4 2

2
1

2
2 

2  1

  1.8961
4

For the figure on the right, each rectangle has width .
6
    2 5
Area 
6 
sin  sin  sin  sin
6 3 2 3

6
 sin  


6 2
 1
3

2
1

3
2

1
2 

3  2

  1.9541
6
(b) You could obtain a more accurate approximation by using more rectangles. You will learn later that the exact area is 2.

11. (a) D1

5  12  1  52

16  16  5.66

(b) D2

1   2  
1   2  3  
1   3  4  
1   4  1
5 25 5 5 5 2 5 2 2

 2.693  1.302  1.083  1.031  6.11

(c) Increase the number of line segments.

Section 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

1.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f x 0.3448 0.3344 0.3334 0.3332 0.3322 0.3226

x2
lim
x→2 x2  x  2
 0.3333  Actual limit is 13 .

2.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f x 0.2564 0.2506 0.2501 0.2499 0.2494 0.2439

x2
lim
x→2 x2  4
 0.25  Actual limit is 14 .

3.
x  0.1  0.01  0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f x 0.2911 0.2889 0.2887 0.2887 0.2884 0.2863

x  3 
3
lim
x→0 x
 0.2887  Actual limit is 12
3 .
48 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

4.
x  3.1  3.01  3.001  2.999  2.99  2.9

f x  0.2485  0.2498  0.2500  0.2500  0.2502  0.2516

1  x  2
lim
x→3 x3
 0.25  Actual limit is  14 .

5.
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1

f x  0.0641  0.0627  0.0625  0.0625  0.0623  0.0610

1x  1  14
lim
x→3 x3
 0.0625  Actual limit is  161 .

6.
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 4.001 4.01 4.1

f x 0.0408 0.0401 0.0400 0.0400 0.0399 0.0392

xx  1  45
lim
x→4 x4
 0.04  Actual limit is 251 .

7.
x  0.1  0.01  0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f x 0.9983 0.99998 1.0000 1.0000 0.99998 0.9983

sin x
lim  1.0000 (Actual limit is 1.) (Make sure you use radian mode.)
x→0 x

8.
x  0.1  0.01  0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f x 0.0500 0.0050 0.0005  0.0005  0.0050  0.0500

cos x  1
lim  0.0000 (Actual limit is 0.) (Make sure you use radian mode.)
x→0 x

9. lim 4  x
1 10. lim x2  2
3

x→3 x→1

11. lim f x
lim 4  x
2 12. lim f x
lim x2  2
3

x→2 x→2 x→1 x→1

13. lim
x  5
does not exist. For values of x to the left of 5, 14. lim
1
x3
does not exist since the function increases and
x→5 x5 x→3

x  5
x  5 equals 1, whereas for values of x to the decreases without bound as x approaches 3.
right of 5,
x  5
x  5 equals 1.

15. lim sin x
0 16. lim sec x
1

x→1 x→0

17. lim cos1x does not exist since the function oscillates 18. lim tan x does not exist since the function increases and
x→0 x→ 2
between 1 and 1 as x approaches 0. decreases without bound as x approaches 2.
 Section 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 49

19. (a) f 1 exists. The black dot at 1, 2 indicates that (c) f 4 does not exist. The hollow circle at 4, 2
f 1
2. indicates that f is not defined at 4.
(b) lim f x does not exist. As x approaches 1 from the (d) lim f x exists. As x approaches 4, f x approaches 2:
x→1 x→4
left, f x approaches 2.5, whereas as x approaches 1 lim f x
2.
x→4
from the right, f x approaches 1.

20. (a) f 2 does not exist. The vertical dotted line indicates (e) f 2 does not exist. The hollow circle at 2, 12 
that f is not defined at 2. indicates that f 2 is not defined.
(b) lim f x does not exist. As x approaches 2, the (f) lim f x exists. As x approaches 2, f x approaches 2 :
1
x→2 x→2
values of f x do not approach a specific number.
lim f x
12.
x→2
(c) f 0 exists. The black dot at 0, 4 indicates that
(g) f 4 exists. The black dot at 4, 2 indicates that
f 0
4.
f 4
2.
(d) lim f x does not exist. As x approaches 0 from the
x→0 (h) lim f x does not exist. As x approaches 4, the values
left, f x approaches 12, whereas as x approaches 0 x→4
of f x do not approach a specific number.
from the right, f x approaches 4.

21. lim f x exists for all c  3. In particular, lim f x
2. 22. lim f x exists for all c  2, 0. In particular, lim f x
2.
x→c x→2 x→c x→4

y
23. y 24.
6
2
5
4
1
3
f
2
1 x
x −π π π
2 2
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1 −1
−2

lim f x exists for all values of c  4. lim f x exists for all values of c  .
x→c x→c

y y
25. One possible answer is 26. One possible answer is
6 4
5
3
4
f 2

2 1
1
x
x −3 −2 −1 1 2
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −1
−1

27. Ct
0.75  0.50 t  1 (b)

t 3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4
(a) 3
C 1.75 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25

lim Ct
2.25

t→3.5

0 5
0 (c)
t 2 2.5 2.9 3 3.1 3.5 4

C 1.25 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.25 2.25 2.25

lim Ct does not exist. The values of C jump from 1.75 to 2.25 at t
3.
t→3
50 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

28. Ct
0.35  0.12 t  1

(a) 1

0 5
0

(b)
t 3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4

Ct 0.59 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71

lim Ct
0.71

t→3.5

(c)
t 2 2.5 2.9 3 3.1 3.5 4

Ct 0.47 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.71 0.71 0.71

lim Ct does not exist. The values of C jump from 0.59 to 0.71 at t
3.
t→3

29. We need f x  3
x  1  3
x  2 < 0.4. Hence, take 
0.4. If 0 < x  2 < 0.4, then

x  2
x  1  3
f x  3 < 0.4, as desired.

30. We need f x  1

1
x1
1

2x
x1

< 0.01. Let 

1
101
. If 0 < x  2 <
1
101
, then

1 1 1 1
 < x2 < ⇒1 < x1 < 1
101 101 101 101
100 102
⇒ < x1 <
101 101
100
⇒ x1 >

101
and we have

f x  1


1
x1
1

2x
x1
<

1101


1
100101 100

0.01.

1
31. You need to find  such that 0 < x  1 <  implies

So take 

. Then 0 < x  1 <  implies

11
1

x

f x  1
 1 < 0.1. That is,

1 1
 < x1 <
11 11
1
0.1 <  1 < 0.1
x 1 1
 < x1 < .
11 9
1
1  0.1 < < 1  0.1
x Using the first series of equivalent inequalities, you obtain
9
10
10
<
1
x
<
11
10
10

f x  1

1
x
 1 < 0.1.

> x >
9 11
10 10
1 > x 1 > 1
9 11
1 1
> x 1 >  .
9 11
 Section 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 51

32. You need to find  such that 0 < x  2 <  implies

33. lim 3x  2
8
L

x→2
f x  3
x2  1  3
x2  4 < 0.2. That is,

3x  2  8
< 0.01
0.2 < x2  4
4  0.2 < x2
<
<
0.2
4  0.2

3x  6
< 0.01
3.8 < x2 < 4.2 3
x  2
< 0.01

3.8 < x <
4.2 0.01

3.8  2 < x2 <
4.2  2
0 < x2 <
3

 0.0033


So take 

4.2  2  0.0494. 0.01

Hence, if 0 < x  2 < 

3
, you have

Then 0 < x  2 <  implies

 
4.2  2 < x  2 <
4.2  2

3 x  2 < 0.01

3.8  2 < x  2 <
4.2  2.

3x  6
< 0.01
Using the first series of equivalent inequalities, you obtain
3x  2  8
< 0.01

f x  3


x2  4
< 0.2.
f x  L
< 0.01

x→4
34. lim 4 
x
2 

2
L 35. lim x2  3
1
L
x→2

4

x
2 
 2 < 0.01

x2  3  1
< 0.01

x2  4
< 0.01


2
x
2
< 0.01
x  2x  2
< 0.01

x  2

x  2
< 0.01

1
 x  4 < 0.01
2 0.01

x  2
<
x  2

0 < x  4 < 0.02


If we assume 1 < x < 3, then 
0.015
0.002.

Hence, if 0 < x  4 < 
0.02, you have

1 Hence, if 0 < x  2 < 
0.002, you have

 x  4 < 0.01
2 1 1

x  2
< 0.002
50.01 <
x  2
0.01


2
x
2
< 0.01

x  2

x  2
< 0.01



4
x
2
 2 < 0.01
x2  4
< 0.01

x2  3  1
< 0.01

f x  L
< 0.01
f x  L
< 0.01

36. lim x2  4
29
L 0.01

x→5

Hence, if 0 < x  5 < 

11
, you have

x2  4  29
< 0.01 0.01 1

x  5
< <

0.01

x2  25
< 0.01 11 x5

x  5x  5
< 0.01

x  5 x  5 < 0.01

x  5
<
x  5

0.01
x  25
< 0.01
2

x  4  29
< 0.01
2

If we assume 4 < x < 6, then 
0.0111  0.0009.

f x  L
< 0.01
52 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

37. lim x  3
5 38. lim 2x  5
1

x→2 x→3
Given  > 0: Given  > 0:

x  3  5
< 
2x  5  1
< 

x  2
< 

2x  6
< 
Hence, let 
.
2
x  3
< 

Hence, if 0 < x  2 < 
, you have



x2 < 

x  3
< 2


x  3  5
<  Hence, let 
2.


f x  L
< .

Hence, if 0 < x  3 < 
, you have

2


x  3
< 2

2x  6
< 

2x  5  1
< 

f x  L
< .

39. lim
x→4
 12 x  1
12 4  1
3 40. lim  23 x  9
23 1  9
29
x→1
3

Given  > 0: Given  > 0:

 x  1  3

1
2 < 
 x  9 

2
3
29
3 < 

x  2

1
2 < 
x

2
3
2
3 < 
1
2
x  4
< 
2
3
x  1
< 

x  4
< 2
x  1
< 32
Hence, let 
2. Hence, let 
32.

Hence, if 0 < x  4 < 
2, you have

Hence, if 0 < x  1 < 
32, you have

x  4
< 2
x  1
< 32

x  2

1
2 < 
x

2
3
2
3 < 

 x  1  3

1
2 < 
 x  9 

2
3
29
3 < 

f x  L
< .
f x  L
< .

41. lim 3
3 42. lim 1
1

x→6 x→2
Given  > 0:

Given  > 0: 1  1 < 

3  3
<  0 < 
0 <  Hence, any  > 0 will work.
Hence, any  > 0 will work. Hence, for any  > 0, you have
Hence, for any  > 0, you have
1  1
< 

3  3
< 
f x  L
< .

f x  L
< .
 Section 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 53

43. lim 
3
x0 44. lim x  4  2

x→0 x→4

Given  > 0:


3 x



0 < 
Given  > 0: x
2 < 


3
x < 




x
2


x  2 <  x  2



x
<  3  



x
4 < x  2


Assuming 1 < x < 9, you can choose   3. Then,
Hence, let    3.

Hence for 0 x
0    3, you have


0 < x
4 <   3 ⇒ x
4 <  x  2





x
<  3

⇒ x
2 < .


3 x
< 

3 x
0
< 

f x
L
< .

45. lim x
2  
2
2  4
x→
2



46. lim x
3  0
x→3


Given  > 0: Given  > 0:

x
2

4
< 

x
3

0
< 

x
2
4
<  x
2 < 0
x
3
<   


x
2

x  2

x

2
<  Hence, let   .
Hence, let   .


Hence for 0 < x
3 <   , you have

Hence for 0 < x

2 <   , you have
x
3
< 

x  2
< 

x
3

0
< 


x  2
< 
f x
L
< .


x
2
4
< 


x
2

4
<  (because x
2 < 0)

f x
L
< .
47. lim x2  1  2 48. lim x2  3x  0
x→1 x→
3
Given  > 0: Given  > 0:

x2  1
2
< 
x2  3x
0
< 

x2
1
< 
xx  3
< 


x  1x
1
< 
x  3
<
x



x
1
<
x  1
If we assume
4 < x <
2, then   4.

If we assume 0 < x < 2, then   3.



Hence for 0 < x

3 <   , you have
4




Hence for 0 < x
1 <   , you have
3
1

x  3
< 4 <
x

1

1

x
1
< 3 <
x  1

1
xx  3
< 

x2  3x
0
< 

x2
1
< 
f x
L
< .

x2  1
2
< 

f x
2
< .
54 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

x  5  3 x3
0.5 4
49. f x
50. f x

x4 x2  4x  3
−3 5
1 1
lim f x
−6 6 lim f x

x→4 6 x→3 2
−0.1667
−4

The domain is 5, 4
4, . The graphing utility does The domain is all x  1, 3. The graphing utility does not
not show the hole at  4, 16 . show the hole at  3, 12 .

x9 x3
51. f x
10 52. f x
3

x  3 x2  9

lim f x
6 1
x→9 lim f x
−9 3
x→3 6
0 10
0 −3

The domain is all x ≥ 0 except x
9. The graphing The domain is all x  ± 3. The graphing utility does not
show the hole at  3, 6 .
1
utility does not show the hole at 9, 6.

53. lim f x
25 means that the 54. No. The fact that f 2
4 has no 55. No. The fact that lim f x
4 has
x→8 x→2
values of f approach 25 as x gets bearing on the existence of the no bearing on the value of f at 2.
closer and closer to 8. limit of f x as x approaches 2.

56. (i) The values of f approach different (ii) The values of f increase with- (iii) The values of f oscillate
numbers as x approaches c from out bound as x approaches c: between two fixed numbers as
different sides of c: y
x approaches c:
y y
6
4 5
4
3 4 3
2 3
2
1
x 1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −4 −3 −2 2 3 4
−1 −3 −2 −1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3 −3
−4 −4

4
57. (a) C
2 r 58. V
 r 3, V
2.48
3
C 6 3
r


 0.9549 cm 4
2 2  (a) 2.48
 r 3
3
5.5
(b) If C
5.5, r
 0.87535 cm 1.86
2 r3


6.5
If C
6.5, r
 1.03451 cm r  0.8397 in.
2
(b) 2.45 ≤ V ≤ 2.51
Thus 0.87535 < r < 1.03451
4 3
(c) lim 2 r
6; 
0.5;   0.0796 2.45 ≤ r ≤ 2.51
r →3
 3
0.5849 ≤ r 3 ≤ 0.5992
0.8363 ≤ r ≤ 0.8431

(c) For 
2.51  2.48
0.03,   0.003

 Section 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 55

59. f x
1  x1x

x f x x f x
lim 1  x1x
e  2.71828 0.1 2.867972 0.1 2.593742
x→0
y
0.01 2.731999 0.01 2.704814
7
0.001 2.719642 0.001 2.716942
0.0001 2.718418 0.0001 2.718146
3 (0, 2.7183) 0.00001 2.718295 0.00001 2.718268
2
1 0.000001 2.718283 0.000001 2.718280
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

60. f x

x  1

x  1
y
x
3

x 1 0.5 0.1 0 0.1 0.5 1.0

1
f x 2 2 2 Undef. 2 2 2
x
−2 −1 1 2

lim f x
2 −1
x→0

x  1  x  1
Note that for 1 < x < 1, x  0, f x

2.
x

61. 0.002 62. 0.005

(1.999, 0.001)
(2.001, 0.001)

1.998 2.002 2.99 3.01

0 0

Using the zoom and trace feature, 
0.001. That is, for From the graph, 
0.001. Thus

3  , 3  
2.999, 3.001.
x2  4

0 < x  2 < 0.001,

x2
 4 < 0.001. x2  3x
Note:
x for x  3.
x3

63. False; f x
sin xx is undefined when x
0. 64. True

From Exercise 7, we have

sin x
lim
1.
x→0 x

65. False; let 66. False; let

x  4x, x4
10, x2  4x, x4
2
f x
. f x
.
10, x
4 x
4
f 4
10 lim f x
lim x2  4x
0 and f 4
10  0
x→4 x→4
lim f x
lim x2  4x
0  10
x→4 x→4

67. f x

x
(a) lim
x
0.5 is true. (b) lim
x
0 is false.
x→0.25 x→0

As x approaches 0.25

1
f x

x approaches f x

x is not defined on an open interval containing 0
4,
1 because the domain of f is x ≥ 0.
2
0.5.
56 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

68. The value of f at c has no bearing on the limit as x approaches c.

69. If lim f x
L1 and lim f x
L2, then for every  > 0, there exists 1 > 0 and 2 > 0 such that
x→c x→c

x  c < 1 ⇒ f x  L1 <  and x  c < 2 ⇒ f x  L2 < . Let  equal the smaller of 1 and 2.

Then for x  c < , we have L1  L2
L1  f x  f x  L2 ≤ L1  f x  f x  L2 <   .

Therefore, L1  L2 < 2. Since  > 0 is arbitrary, it follows that L1
L2.


70. f x
mx  b, m  0. Let  > 0 be given. Take 
. 71. lim  f x  L
0 means that for every  > 0 there

m
x→c
exists  > 0 such that if


If 0 < x  c < 


m

, then

0 < x  c < ,

x  c
<  then

mx  mc
< 
 f x  L  0
< .

mx  b  mc  b
<  This means the same as
f x  L
<  when
which shows that lim mx  b
mc  b. 0 <
x  c
< .
x→c

Thus, lim f x
L.

x→c

1
72. (a) 3x  13x  1x2  0.01
9x2  1x2  (b) We are given lim gx
L > 0. Let 
2L. There
1
100 x→c

exists  > 0 such that 0 < x  c <  implies that

9x4  x2  L
100

gx  L < 
. That is,

2
1

10x2  190x2  1 L L
100  < gx  L <
2 2
Thus, 3x  13x  1x2  0.01 > 0 if
L 3L
10x2  1 < 0 and 90x2  1 < 0. < gx <
2 2
Let a, b
 1

90
90
,
1
. For x in the interval c  , c  , x  c, we have
L
gx > > 0, as desired.
For all x  0 in a, b, the graph is positive. You can 2
verify this with a graphing utility.

73. Answers will vary.

x2  x  12 n 4  0.1 n f 4  0.1 n n 4  0.1 n f 4  0.1 n

74. lim
7
x→4 x4
1 4.1 7.1 1 3.9 6.9

2 4.01 7.01 2 3.99 6.99

3 4.001 7.001 3 3.999 6.999

4 4.0001 7.0001 4 3.9999 6.9999

 Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 57

75. The radius OP has a length equal to the altitude z of the P

h h
triangle plus . Thus, z
1  .
2 2
1
Area triangle
b 1 
2
h
2
 h O

Area rectangle
bh b

1
Since these are equal, b 1 
2
h
2

bh 
h
1
2h
2
5
h
1
2
2
h

5

76. Consider a cross section of the cone, where EF is a diagonal of the inscribed cube. A
AD
3, BC
2. Let x be the length of a side of the cube. Then EF
x2.
By similar triangles,
E G F
EF AG


BC AD
x2 3  x

B D C
2 3
Solving for x, 32x
6  2x
32  2x
6
6 92  6
x

 0.96.
32  2 7

Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically

1. 7 (a) lim hx
0 2. 10 (a) lim gx
2.4

x→5 x→4

(b) lim hx
6 (b) lim gx
4

−8 13 x→1 x→0
0 10

−7 −5

hx
x2  5x 12x  3
gx

x9

3. 4 (a) lim f x
0 4. 10 (a) lim f t
0

x→0 t→4

(b) lim f x  0.524 (b) lim f t
5

−π π x→ 3 −5 10 t→1


−4




6
− 10

f x
x cos x 
f t
t t  4 
58 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

5. lim x4
24
16 6. lim x3
23
8

x→2 x→2

7. lim 2x  1
20  1
1 8. lim 3x  2
33  2
7

x→0 x→3

9. lim x2  3x
32  33
9  9
0 10. lim x2  1
 12  1
0

x→3 x→1

11. lim 2x2  4x  1
232  43  1
18  12  1
7

x→3

1 1
12. lim 3x3  2x2  4
313  212  4
5 13. lim

x→1 x→2 x 2

2 2 x3 13 2 2
14. lim

2 15. lim



x→3 x  2 3  2 x→1 x2  4 12  4 5 5

2x  3 23  3 3 5x 57 35 35
16. lim

17. lim



x→3 x5 35 8 x→7 x  2 7  2 9 3

x  1 3  1
18. lim

2 19. lim x  1
3  1
2
x→3 x4 34 x→3

20. lim 
3
x  4

3
44
2 21. lim x  32
4  32
1
x→4 x→4

22. lim 2x  13
20  1

3
1 23. (a) lim f x
5  1
4
x→0 x→1
(b) lim gx
43
64
x→4
(c) lim g f x
g f 1
g4
64
x→1

24. (a) lim f x
3  7
4 25. (a) lim f x
4  1
3

x→3 x→1
(b) lim gx
42
16 (b) lim gx
3  1
2
x→4 x→3
(c) lim g f x
g4
16 (c) lim g f x
g3
2
x→3 x→1


26. (a) lim f x
242  34  1
21 27. lim sin x
sin
1
x→4 x→ 2 2
(b) lim gx

3
21  6
3
x→21
(c) lim g f x
g21
3
x→4

x 2 1 x 
28. lim tan x
tan 
0 29. lim cos
cos
 30. lim sin
sin
1
x→  x→2 3 3 2 x→1 2 2

5 1
31. lim sec 2x
sec 0
1 32. lim cos 3x
cos 3
1 33. lim sin x
sin

x→0 x→  x→56 6 2

5 1
34. lim cos x
cos
x→53 3


2
35. lim tan
x→3
4x
tan 34
1 36. lim sec
x→7
6x
sec 76
23
3
 Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 59

37. (a) lim 5gx

5 lim gx
53
15
x→c x→c
38. (a) lim 4f x

4 lim f x
4
x→c x→c
32
6
(b) lim f x  gx

lim f x  lim gx
2  3
5 3 1
x→c x→c x→c (b) lim f x  gx

lim f x  lim gx

2
x→c x→c x→c 2 2
(c) lim f xgx

lim f x
lim gx

23
6
x→c

f x lim f x

x→c 2
x→c x→c
(c) lim f xgx

lim f x
lim gx


x→c x→c x→c
32
12
43
(d) lim


x→c gx lim gx 3 f x lim f x 32
x→c
x→c
(d) lim


3
x→c gx lim gx 12
x→c

39. (a) lim f x

3
lim f x
3
43
64 40. (a) lim 
3
f x

3 lim f x
27
3
3
x→c x→c x→c x→c
lim f x
f x x→c 27 3
(b) lim f x
 lim f x
4
2 (b) lim



x→c x→c x→c 18 lim 18 18 2
x→c

(c) lim 3 f x

3 lim f x
34
12 (c) lim f x

lim f x
2
272
729
2
x→c x→c
x→c x→c

(d) lim f x

32

lim f x
32

4
32

8
x→c x→c (d) lim f x
23
lim f x
23
2723
9
x→c x→c

2x2  x x2  3x
41. f x
2x  1 and gx
agree except at 42. f x
x  3 and hx
agree except at x
0.
x x
x
0.
(a) lim gx
lim f x
1 (a) lim hx
lim f x
5
x→2 x→2
x→0 x→0

(b) lim gx
lim f x
3 (b) lim hx
lim f x
3
x→0 x→0
x→1 x→1

x3  x 1 x
43. f x
xx  1 and gx
agree except at x
1. 44. gx
and f x
2 agree except at x
0.
x1 x1 x x

(a) lim gx
lim f x
2 (a) lim f x does not exist.
x→1 x→1 x→1

(b) lim gx
lim f x
0 (b) lim f x
1

x→1 x→1 x→0

x2  1 2x2  x  3
45. f x
and gx
x  1 agree except at x
1. 46. f x
and gx
2x  3 agree except at
x1 x1
x
1.
lim f x
lim gx
2
x→1 x→1
lim f x
lim gx
5
x→1 x→1
3

−3 4
−8 4

−4

−8
60 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

x3  8 x3  1
47. f x
and gx
x2  2x  4 agree except at 48. f x
and gx
x2  x  1 agree except at
x2 x1
x
2. x
1.
lim f x
lim gx
12 lim f x
lim gx
3
x→2 x→2 x→1 x→1

12 7

−4 4
−9 9
0 −1

x5 x5 2x  x  2

49. lim
lim 50. lim
lim
x→5 x2  25 x→5 x  5x  5 x→2 x2  4 x→2 x  2x  2

lim
1


1 1 1
x  5 10
lim

x→5 x→2 x2 4

x2  x  6 x  3x  2 x2  5x  4 x  4x  1
51. lim
lim 52. lim
lim
x→3 x2  9 x→3 x  3x  3 x→4 x2  2x  8 x→4 x  4x  2
x  2 5 5 x  1 3 1

lim


lim


x→3 x  3 6 6 x→4 x  2 6 2

x  5  5 x  5  5 x  5  5
53. lim
lim 
x→0 x x→0 x x  5  5

x  5  5 1 1 5

lim
lim


x→0 
x x  5  5  x→0 x  5  5 25 10

2  x  2 2  x  2 2  x  2
54. lim
lim 
x→0 x x→0 x 2  x  2

2x2 1 1 2

lim
lim


x→0  2  x  2 x x→0 2  x  2 22 4

x  5  3 x  5  3 x  5  3
55. lim
x4

lim
x4

x→4 x→4 x  5  3

x  5  9 1 1 1

lim
lim


x→4 x  4x  5  3 x→4 x  5  3 9  3 6

x  1  2 x  1  2 x  1  2 x3 1 1
56. lim
lim 
lim
lim

x→3 x3 x→3 x3 x12 x→3 x  3 x  1  2
x→3 x  1  2 4

1 1

3x 3 3  3  x x 1 1
57. lim
lim
lim
lim

x→0 x x→0 3  x3x x→0 3  x3x x→0 3  x3 9

1 1 4  x  4

x4 4 4x  4 2x  x  2x 2x  2x  2x
58. lim
lim 59. lim
lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
1 1
lim 2
2
x→0

lim

x→0 4x  4 16
 Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 61

x  x2  x2 x2  2xx  x2  x2 x2x  x

60. lim
lim
lim
lim 2x  x
2x
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x x→0

x  x2  2x  x  1  x2  2x  1 x2  2xx  x2  2x  2x  1  x2  2x  1

61. lim
lim
x→0 x x→0 x

lim 2x  x  2
2x  2
x→0

x  x3  x3 x3  3x2x  3xx2  x3  x3

62. lim
lim
x→0 x x→0 x
x3x2  3xx  x2

lim
lim 3x2  3xx  x2
3x2
x→0 x x→0

x  2  2
63. lim  0.354 2
x→0 x

−3
 0.1  0.01  0.001
3
x 0 0.001 0.01 0.1

f x 0.358 0.354 0.354 ? 0.354 0.353 0.349

−2

x  2  2 x  2  2 x  2  2
Analytically, lim
lim 
x→0 x x→0 x x  2  2

x22 1 1 2

lim
lim

 0.354.
x→0 xx  2  2 x→0 x  2  2 22 4

4  x 1
64. f x

x  16
0 20

x 15.9 15.99 15.999 16 16.001 16.01 16.1

−1
f x  0.1252  0.125  0.125 ?  0.125  0.125  0.1248

4  x 4  x  It appears that the limit is 0.125.

Analytically, lim
lim
x→16 x  16 x→16  x  4  x  4 

1 1

lim
 .
x→16 x  4 8

1 1 3

2x 2 1
65. lim

x→0 x 4
−5 1

x  0.1  0.01  0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 −2

f x  0.263  0.251  0.250 ?  0.250  0.249  0.238

1 1

2x 2 2  2  x 1 x 1 1 1
Analytically, lim
x→0 x

lim
x→0 22  x
 x
x→0
lim 
lim
22  x x x→0 22  x

 .
4
62 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

x5  32 100
66. lim
80
x→2 x2

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2.0 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1 −4 3

f x 72.39 79.20 79.92 79.99 ? 80.01 80.08 80.80 88.41 −25

x5  32 x  2x4  2x3  4x2  8x  16

Analytically, lim
lim
x→2 x2 x→2 x2

lim x4  2x3  4x2  8x  16
80.

x→2

(Hint: Use long division to factor x5  32.)


sinx x
15
1
15
5 31  cos x 1  cos x



30
0
sin x 1
67. lim
lim 68. lim
lim 3
x→0 5x x→0 x→0 x x→0 x

sin x1  cos x 1  cos x cos  tan  sin 

69. lim
x→0 2x2

lim
1
x→0 2  
sin x
x
 x  70. lim
 →0 

lim
 →0 

1

1

10
0
2

  tan2 x sin2 x
  cos2 x
sin2 x sin x sin x sin x
71. lim
lim sin x
1 sin 0
0 72. lim
lim 2
lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x cos x x→0 x

10
0

1  cos h2 1  cos h

73. lim
h→0 h

lim
h→0 h 
1  cos h  74. lim  sec 
1
 
→

00
0

cos x
75. lim
lim sin x
1
x→ 2 cot x x→ 2

1  tan x cos x  sin x

76. lim
x→ 4

lim
sin x  cos x x→4 sin x cos x  cos2 x
77. lim
t→0
sin 3t
2t

lim
t→0
sin 3t
3t 
32
1
32
23
 sin x  cos x

lim
x→ 4 cos xsin x  cos x

1

lim
x→ 4 cos x

lim sec x
x→ 4

 2

78. lim
x→0
sin 2x

lim 2
sin 3x x→0 2x 

sin 2x

13
sin3x3x
21
131
32
 Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 63

sin 3t 4
79. f t

t

t  0.1  0.01  0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 − 2 2

f t 2.96 2.9996 3 ? 3 2.9996 2.96 −1

The limit appears to equal 3.

Analytically, lim
t→0
sin 3t
t

lim 3
t→0

sin 3t
3t 

31
3.

cos x  1 1
80. From the graph, lim  0.25
x→0 2x2
− 

x 1 0.1 0.01 0.01 0.1 1

f x 0.2298 0.2498 0.25 0.25 0.2498 0.2298 −1

cos x  1
lim  0.25
x→0 2x2
cos x  1 cos x  1 cos2 x  1
Analytically,
2x2
 cos x  1
2x2cos x  1
sin2 x


2x2 cos x  1
sin2 x 1


x2
 2cos x  1

 sinx x  2cos1x  1
1
14
 4
0.25

2 1
lim 2
x→0

sin x2 1
81. f x

x
− 2 2

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1

f x 0.099998 0.01 0.001 ? 0.001 0.01 0.099998 −1

Analytically, lim
x→0
sin x2
x

lim x
x→0

sin x2
x2 

01
0.

sin x 2
82. f x

3
x
−3 3

x  0.1  0.01  0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1

f x 0.215 0.0464 0.01 ? 0.01 0.0464 0.215 −2

The limit appear to equal 0.

sin x
Analytically, lim 3
x→0 x

lim 
x→0
3 2
x
sin x
x


01
0. 

f x   x  f x 2x   x  3  2x  3 2x  2 x  3  2x  3 2 x

83. lim
lim
lim
lim
2
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0  x
64 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

f x   x  f x x   x  x x  x  x x  x  x
84. lim
x

lim
x

lim
x

x→0 x→0 x→0 x  x  x
x  x  x 1 1

lim
lim

x →0  xx  x  x x →0 x  x  x 2x

4 4

f x  x  f x x  x x 4x  4x  x 4 4
85. lim
lim
lim
lim
2
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x  xx x x→0 x  xx x

f x  x  f x x  x2  4x  x  x2  4x x2  2x x  x2  4x  4x  x2  4x

86. lim
lim
lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
x2x  x  4

lim
lim 2x  x  4
2x  4
x→0 x x→0

87. lim 4  x2 ≤ lim f x ≤ lim 4  x2

x→0 x→0 x→0 x→a
 
88. lim b  x  a
≤ lim f x ≤ lim b  x  a

x→a x→a
 
4 ≤ lim f x ≤ 4 b ≤ lim f x ≤ b
x→0 x→a

Therefore, lim f x
4. Therefore, lim f x
b.

x→0 x→a

89. f x
x cos x 

90. f x
x sin x  
91. f x
x sin x
4 6 6

− 3 3 − 2 2
2 2
− 2 2

−4 −2 −6

lim x cos x
0
x→0

lim x sin x
0
x→0
 x→0

lim x sin x
0

1

92. f x
x cos x 93. f x
x sin
x
94. hx
x cos
1
x
6
0.5
0.5

− 2 2 −0.5 0.5
− 0.5 0.5

−6 −0.5
− 0.5


lim x cos x
0
x→0


lim x sin
x→0
1
x
0


lim x cos 
1

0
x→0 x

x2  1
95. We say that two functions f and g agree at all but one 96. f x
and gx
x  1 agree at all points
x1
point (on an open interval) if f x
gx for all x in the
except x
1.
interval except for x
c, where c is in the interval.

97. An indeterminant form is obtained when evaluating a limit 98. If a function f is squeezed between two functions h and g,
using direct substitution produces a meaningless fractional hx ≤ f x ≤ gx, and h and g have the same limit L as
expression such as 00. That is, x → c, then lim f x exists and equals L.
x→c

f x
lim
x→c gx

for which lim f x
lim gx
0

x→c x→c
 Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 65

sin x sin2 x
99. f x
x, gx
sin x, hx
100. f x
x, gx
sin2 x, hx

x x
3 2
f
g h g
−5 5
−3 3
h
f
−3
−2

When you are “close to” 0 the magnitude of f is When you are “close to” 0 the magnitude of g is
approximately equal to the magnitude of g. “smaller” than the magnitude of f and the magnitude

Thus, g  f  1 when x is “close to” 0. of g is approaching zero “faster” than the magnitude of f.

Thus, g  f  0 when x is “close to” 0.

101. st
16t2  1000

s5  st 600  16t2  1000 16t  5t  5
lim
lim
lim
lim 16t  5
160 ftsec.
t→5 5t t→5 5t t→5  t  5 t→5

Speed
160 ftsec

102. st
16t2  1000
0 when t
1000

16


5 10
2

seconds

5 210  st

s
0  16t2  1000
lim
lim
t→5102 510  t t→5102 510
t
2 2


510

t  5 210
125 
16 t2  16 t 
2 2

lim
lim

t  5 10 
t→5102 510  t t→5102 
2 2

lim
t→5102


16 t 
510
2 

8010 ftsec  253 ftsec

103. st
4.9t2  150

s3  st 4.932  150  4.9t2  150 4.99  t2

lim
lim
lim
t→3 3t t→3 3t t→3 3t
4.93  t3  t

lim
lim 4.93  t
29.4 msec
t→3 3t t→3

104. 4.9t2  150
0 when t
150

4.9


1500
49
 5.53 seconds.

The velocity at time t
a is

sa  st 4.9a2  150  4.9t2  150 4.9a  ta  t
lim
lim
lim
t→a at t→a at t→a at

lim 4.9a  t
2a4.9
9.8a msec.
t→a

Hence, if a
150049, the velocity is 9.8150049  54.2 msec.

66 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

105. Let f x
1x and gx
1x. lim f x and lim gx do not exist.
x→0 x→0

lim f x  gx

lim
x→0
1
x→0 x
 
1
x 

lim 0

0
x→0

106. Suppose, on the contrary, that lim gx exists. Then, since 107. Given f x
b, show that for every
> 0 there exists a
   
x→c
lim f x exists, so would lim f x  gx
, which is a > 0 such that f x  b <
whenever x  c < .
x→c x→c
contradiction. Hence, lim gx does not exist.   
Since f x  b
b  b
0 <
for any
> 0,
x→c
then any value of > 0 will work.

108. Given f x
x n, n is a positive integer, then 109. If b
0, then the property is true because both sides
are equal to 0. If b  0, let
> 0 be given. Since
lim x n
lim x x n1
x→c x→c lim f x
L, there exists > 0 such that

lim x
lim x n1

c lim x x n2

x→c

x→c x→c x→c  f x  L <

b whenever 0 < x  c < . Hence,

c lim x
lim xn2

cclimxxn3 wherever 0 < x  c < , we have
x→c x→c x→c

. . .
c n. b f x  L <

or bf x  bL <

which implies that lim bf x

bL.
x→c

110. Given lim f x
0:

x→c
111.  
M f x ≤ f xgx ≤ M f x  
For every
> 0, there exists > 0 such that  
lim M f x  ≤ lim f xgx ≤ lim M f x   
   
x→c x→c x→c
f x  0 <
whenever 0 < x  c < .
M0 ≤ lim f xgx ≤ M0
  
Now f x  0
f x
f x  0 <
for     x→c

 
x  c < . Therefore, lim f x
0.
x→ c
  0 ≤ lim f xgx ≤ 0
x→c

Therefore, lim f xgx
0.

x →c

   
112. (a) If lim f x
0, then lim  f x

0.
x→c x→c
(b) Given lim f x
L:
x→c

  f x ≤ f x ≤  f x For every

> 0, there exists > 0 such that
lim   f x
≤ lim f x ≤ lim  f x  
f x  L <
whenever 0 < x  c < .  
x→c x→c x→c     
Since f x  L ≤ f x  L <
for 
0 ≤ lim f x ≤ 0
x→c
 
x  c < , then lim f x
L .
x→c
  
Therefore, lim f x
0.
x→c

sin x 0
113. False. As x approaches 0 from the 114. False. lim

0 115. True

left, 
x

1.
x→  x
x
2

−3 3

−2

116. False. Let 117. False. The limit does not exist. 118. False. Let
f x
12x2 and gx
x2.
x x1 4
f x
, c
1.
3 x
1
Then f x < gx for all x  0.
Then lim f x
1 but f 1  1. −3 6
But lim f x
lim gx
0.
x→1 x→0 x→0

−2
 Section 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 67

1  cos x 1  cos x 1  cos x

119. Let 120. lim
x→0 x

lim
x→0 x
 1  cos x

f x
4,4, if x ≥ 0
if x < 0
lim
1  cos2 x
x→0 x1  cos x

lim
sin2 x
x →0 x1  cos x

 
lim f x
lim 4
4. sin x sin x
x→0 x→0

lim
x→0 x
 1  cos x
lim f x does not exist since for x < 0, f x
4 and for
  lim 1  cos x
x→0 sin x sin x
x ≥ 0, f x
4.
lim
x→0 x x→0

10
0

121. f x
0,1, ifif xx isis irrational

rational
122. f x

sec x  1
x2

g x

0, if x is rational (a) The domain of f is all x  0, 2  n.
x, if x is irrational
(b) 2

lim f x does not exist.

x→0
− 3 3
No matter how “close to” 0 x is, there are still an infinite 2 2

number of rational and irrational numbers so that lim f x

x→0
does not exist. −2

lim gx
0 The domain is not obvious. The hole at x
0 is not

x→0
apparent.
When x is “close to” 0, both parts of the function are
1
“close to” 0. (c) lim f x

x→0 2
sec x  1 sec x  1 sec x  1 sec2 x  1
(d)
x2


x2
 sec x  1
x2sec x  1

x2
tan2 x


1 sin2 x 1
sec x  1 cos x x2 sec x  1
2

sec x  1
Hence, lim
x→0 x2

lim
x→0
1 sin2 x 1
cos2 x x2 sec x  1


11
12
21.
1  cos x 1  cos x 1  cos x 1  cos x 1 1
123. (a) lim
x→0 x2

lim
x→0 x2
 1  cos x (b) Thus,
x2
 ⇒ 1  cos x  x2
2 2
1  cos2 x 1

lim ⇒ cos x  1  x2 for x  0.
x→0 x21  cos x 2
sin2 x 1 1

lim
x→0 x2
 1  cos x (c) cos0.1  1  0.12
0.995
2

(d) cos0.1  0.9950, which agrees with part (c).

1
12
21
124. The calculator was set in degree mode, instead of radian mode.
68 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

Section 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits

1. (a) lim f
x
1 2. (a) lim f
x
2 3. (a) lim f
x
0

x→3 x→2 x→3

(b) lim f
x
1 (b) lim f
x
2 (b) lim f
x
0

x→3 x→2 x→3

(c) lim f
x
1 (c) lim f
x
2 (c) lim f
x
0

x→3 x→2 x→3

The function is continuous at The function is continuous at The function is NOT continuous at
x
3. x
2. x
3.

4. (a) lim f
x
2 5. (a) lim f
x
2 6. (a) lim f
x
0

x→2 x→4  x→1

(b) lim f
x
2 (b) lim f
x
2 (b) lim f
x
2

x→2 x→4 x→1
(c) lim f
x does not exist
(c) lim f
x
2 x→4 (c) lim f
x does not exist.
x→2 x→1
The function is NOT continuous
The function is NOT continuous at at x
4. The function is NOT continuous at
x
2. x
1.

x5 1 1 2x 1 1
7. lim
lim
8. lim
lim 

x→5 x2  25 x→5 x  5 10 x→2 x2  4 x→2 x  2 4

x x x  2 x  2 x  2
9. lim does not exist because 10. lim
x4

lim
x4

x→3  x2  9 x2  9 x→4 x→4 x  2
decreases without bound as x → 3  .
x4

lim
x→4
x  4
x  2
1 1

lim

x→4 x  2 4

11. lim x
lim

x

1 12. lim x  2
lim
x2

1
x→0 x x→0  x x→2 x2 x→2 x2

1 1

x  x x x 
x  x 1 x 1
13. lim 
x→0 x

lim 
x→0 x
x  x
 x
x→0
lim 
x
x  x x


1

lim 
x→0 x
x  x
1 1


 2
x
x  0 x

x  x2 
x  x 
x2  x x2  2x
x 
x2  x  x  x2  x

14. lim 
lim 
x→0 x x→0 x
2x
x 
x2  x

lim 
x→0 x

lim 
2x  x  1
x→0

2x  0  1
2x  1

x2 5
15. lim f
x
lim

x→3 x→3 2 2
 Section 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 69

16. lim f
x
lim
x2  4x  2
2 17. lim f
x
lim
x  1
2

x→2 x→2 x→1 x→1

lim f
x
lim
x  4x  6
2

2
lim f
x
lim
x3  1
2
x→2 x→2 x→1 x→1

lim f
x
2 lim f
x
2

x→2 x→1

18. lim f
x
lim
1  x
0

x→1 x→1

19. lim cot x does not exist since 20. lim sec x does not exist since 21. lim
3x  5
3
3  5
4
x→  x→ 2 x→4

lim cot x and lim cot x do not lim sec x and lim sec x do
x
3 for 3 ≤ x < 4
x→  x→  x→
2 x→
2
exist. not exist.

22. lim
2x  x 
2
2  2
2

x→2
23. lim
2  x  does not exist
x→3
 2x
1 
1
2
24. lim 1  
x→1
because
lim
2  x 
2 
3
5
x→3
and
lim
2  x 
2 
4
6.
x→3

1 x2  1 x
25. f
x
26. f
x
27. f
x
x
x2 4 x1 2

has discontinuities at x
2 and has a discontinuity at x
1 has discontinuities at each integer

x
2 since f
2 and f
2 are not since f
1 is not defined. k since lim f
x  lim f
x.
x→k x→k
defined.


x, x < 1
28. f
x
2, x
1 has a discontinuity at x
1 since f
1
2  lim f
x
1.
x→1
2x  1, x > 1

29. g
x
25  x2 is continuous 30. f
t
3  9  t2 is continuous 31. lim f
x
3
lim f
x.
x→0 x→0
on 5, 5. on 3, 3.
f is continuous on 1, 4.

1
32. g
2 is not defined. g is continuous 33. f
x
x2  2x  1 is continuous 34. f
x
is continuous for all
x2  1
on 1, 2. for all real x.
real x.

x
35. f
x
3x  cos x is continuous for all real x. 36. f
x
cos is continuous for all real x.
2

x x 1
37. f
x
is not continuous at x
0, 1. Since 2
for x  0, x
0 is a removable discontinuity,
x2  x x x x1
whereas x
1 is a nonremovable discontinuity.

x x
38. f
x
has nonremovable discontinuities at x
1 39. f
x
is continuous for all real x.
x2  1 x2  1
and x
1 since lim f
x and lim f
x do not exist.
x→1 x→1
70 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

x3 x2
40. f
x
41. f
x

x2  9
x  2
x  5
has a nonremovable discontinuity at x
3 since has a nonremovable discontinuity at x
5 since lim f
x
x→5
lim f
x does not exist, and has a removable does not exist, and has a removable discontinuity at
x→3
discontinuity at x
3 since x
2 since

1 1 1 1
lim f
x
lim
. lim f
x
lim
 .
x→3 x→3 x3 6 x→2 x→2 x5 7

42. f
x

x1
43. f
x
x  2

x  2
x  1 x2
has a nonremovable discontinuity at x
2 since has a nonremovable discontinuity at x
2 since
lim f
x does not exist.
lim f
x does not exist, and has a removable x→2
x→2
discontinuity at x
1 since

1 1
lim f
x
lim
.
x→1 x→1 x2 3

44. f
x
x  3 has a nonremovable discontinuity at x
3 since lim f
x does not exist.
x3 x→3

45. f
x
x,x ,

2
x ≤ 1
x > 1
46. f
x
2x
2
x,
 3, x < 1
x ≥ 1

has a possible discontinuity at x
1. has a possible discontinuity at x
1.

1. f
1
1 1. f
1
12
1

lim f
x
lim x
1 lim f
x
lim
2x  3
1

1  lim f
x
1
2. x→1 x→1 lim f
x
1 2. x→1 x→1
lim f
x
lim x2 x→1
lim f
x
lim x2
1
x→1
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1

3. f
1
lim f
x 3. f
1
lim f
x

x→1 x→1

f is continuous at x
1, therefore, f is continuous for f is continuous at x
1, therefore, f is continuous for

all real x. all real x.

x
47. f
x
2 
 1,
3  x,
x ≤ 2
x > 2
48. f
x
2x,
x  4x  1,
2
x ≤ 2
x > 2
has a possible discontinuity at x
2.
has a possible discontinuity at x
2.
2
1. f
2
 1
2 1. f
2
2
2
4
2
lim f
x
lim
2x  1
2

lim f
x
lim
2x
4
2.
x→2 x→2

x→2
lim f
x does not exist.
2. x→2 x→2
lim f
x
lim
x2  lim f
x does
x→2
 4x  1
3 not exist.
lim f
x
lim
3  x
1 x→2 x→2
x→2 x→2

Therefore, f has a nonremovable discontinuity at x
2. Therefore, f has a nonremovable discontinuity at

x
2.
 Section 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 71

x
x < 1 csc x ,
49. f
x
 tan 4 ,
x, x ≥ 1 50. f
x

2,
6 x  3 ≤ 2
x  3 > 2
x
csc x ,

 tan 4 ,
x,
1 < x < 1
x ≤ 1 or x ≥ 1

2,
6
1 ≤ x ≤ 5
x < 1 or x > 5
has possible discontinuities at x
1, x
1. has possible discontinuities at x
1, x
5.

1. f
1
1 f
1
1  5
1. f
1
csc
2 f
5
csc
2
2. lim f
x
1 lim f
x
1 6 6
x→1 x→1

3. f
1
lim f
x f
1
lim f
x 2. lim f
x
2 lim f
x
2
x→1 x→5
x→1 x→1

f is continuous at x
± 1, therefore, f is continuous for all 3. f
1
lim f
x f
5
lim f
x
x→1 x→5
real x.
f is continuous at x
1 and x
5, therefore, f is
continuous for all real x.

x
51. f
x
csc 2x has nonremovable discontinuities at integer 52. f
x
tan has nonremovable discontinuities at each
2
multiples of 2.
2k  1, k is an integer.

53. f
x
x  1 has nonremovable discontinuities at each 54. f
x
3  x has nonremovable discontinuities at each
integer k. integer k.

55. lim f
x
0 50 56. lim f
x
0 20

x→0 x→0

lim f
x
0 lim f
x
0

x→0 x→0
−8
f is not continuous at x
2. −8 8 f is not continuous at x
4. 8

−10 −10

4 sin x
57. f
2
8 58. lim g(x
lim
4
x→0 x→0 x
8
Find a so that lim ax2
8 ⇒ a

2. lim g
x
lim
a  2x
a
x→2 22 x→0 x→0

Let a
4.

59. Find a and b such that lim 
ax  b
a  b
2 and lim
ax  b
3a  b
2.
x→1 x→3

a  b
2

 3a  b
2


2, x ≤ 1
4a
4 f
x
x  1, 1 < x < 3
2, x ≥ 3
a
1
b
2 
1
1

x2  a2
60. lim g
x
lim 61. f
g
x

x  12
x→a x→a x  a

Continuous for all real x.

lim
x  a
2a
x→a

Find a such that 2a
8 ⇒ a
4.

72 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

1 1 1
62. f
g
x
63. f
g
x


x  1
x2  5  6 x2  1
Nonremovable discontinuity at x
1. Continuous for all Nonremovable discontinuities at x
± 1
x > 1.

64. f
g
x
sin x2

Continuous for all real x

1
65. y
x  x 66. h
x


x  1
x  2
Nonremovable discontinuity at each integer
Nonremovable discontinuities at x
1 and x
2.
0.5
2
−3 3

−3 4

−1.5

−2

cos x  1 , x < 0
5x, x
3


2x  4,
67. f
x
2
x  2x,
x ≤ 3
x > 3
68. f
x

x ≥ 0
−7 2
f
0
5
0
0
Nonremovable discontinuity at x
3

cos x  1
5 lim f
x
lim
0 −3
x→0 x→0 x

−5 7 lim f
x
lim
5x
0

x→0 x→0

Therefore, lim f
x
0
f
0 and f is continuous on the

x→0
−5
entire real line. (x
0 was the only possible discontinuity.)

x
69. f
x
70. f
x
xx  3
x2  1
Continuous on 3, 
Continuous on
 , 

x x1
71. f
x
sec 72. f
x

4 x
Continuous on: Continuous on
0, 
. . . ,
6, 2,
2, 2,
2, 6,
6, 10, . . .

sin x 3 x3  8 14
73. f
x
74. f
x

x x2

−4 4

−4 4
−2 0

The graph appears to be continuous on the interval The graph appears to be continuous on the interval
4, 4. Since f
0 is not defined, we know that f has 4, 4. Since f
2 is not defined, we know that f has
a discontinuity at x
0. This discontinuity is removable a discontinuity at x
2. This discontinuity is removable
so it does not show up on the graph. so it does not show up on the graph.
 Section 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 73

75. f
x
16x4  x3  3 is continuous on 1, 2.

1
76. f
x
x3  3x  2 is continuous on 0, 1.
f
1
33
16 and f
2
4. By the Intermediate Value f
0
2 and f
1
2
Theorem, f
c
0 for at least one value of c between
1 and 2. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f
x
0 for at least
one value of c between 0 and 1.

4 x
77. f
x
x2  2  cos x is continuous on 0, . 78. f
x
 tan is continuous on 1, 3.
x 8
f
0
3 and f

2  1 > 0. By the Intermediate
 4 3
Value Theorem, f
c
0 for the least one value of c f
1
4  tan < 0 and f
3
  tan > 0.
8 3 8
between 0 and .
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f
1
0 for at least
one value of c between 1 and 3.

79. f
x
x3  x  1 80. f
x
x3  3x  2

f
x is continuous on 0, 1. f
x is continuous on 0, 1.
f
0
1 and f
1
1 f
0
2 and f
1
2
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f
x
0 for at least By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f
x
0 for at least
one value of c between 0 and 1. Using a graphing utility, one value of c between 0 and 1. Using a graphing utility,
we find that x  0.6823. we find that x  0.5961.

81. g
t
2 cos t  3t 82. h

1   3 tan

g is continuous on 0, 1. h is continuous on 0, 1.
g
0
2 > 0 and g
1  1.9 < 0. h
0
1 > 0 and h
1  2.67 < 0.
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, g
t
0 for at least By the Intermediate Value Theorem, h

0 for at least
one value c between 0 and 1. Using a graphing utility, we one value between 0 and 1. Using a graphing utility, we
find that t  0.5636. find that  0.4503.

83. f
x
x2  x  1 84. f
x
x2  6x  8

f is continuous on 0, 5. f is continuous on 0, 3.
f
0
1 and f
5
29 f
0
8 and f
3
1
1 < 11 < 29 1 < 0 < 8
The Intermediate Value Theorem applies. The Intermediate Value Theorem applies.
x2  x  1
11 x2  6x  8
0
x2  x  12
0
x  2
x  4
0

x  4
x  3
0 x
2 or x
4
x
4 or x
3 c
2 (x
4 is not in the interval.)
c
3 (x
4 is not in the interval.) Thus, f
2
0.
Thus, f
3
11.
74 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

x2  x
85. f
x
x3  x2  x  2 86. f
x

x1
f is continuous on 0, 3.
f is continuous on 2 , 4. The nonremovable discontinuity,
5

f
0
2 and f
3
19 x
1, lies outside the interval.

2 < 4 < 19
The Intermediate Value Theorem applies.
f
52
356 and f
4
203
x3  x2  x  2
4 35 20
< 6 <
6 3
x3  x2  x  6
0
The Intermediate Value Theorem applies.

x  2
x2  x  3
0
x2  x
x
2
6
x1
(x2  x  3 has no real solution.)
x2  x
6x  6
c
2
x2  5x  6
0
Thus, f
2
4.

x  2
x  3
0
x
2 or x
3
c
3 (x
2 is not in the interval.)
Thus, f
3
6.

87. (a) The limit does not exist at x
c. (c) The limit exists at x
c, but it is not equal to the
value of the function at x
c.
(b) The function is not defined at x
c.
(d) The limit does not exist at x
c.


88. A discontinuity at x
c is removable if you can define 1, if x ≥ 2
(or redefine) the function at x
c in such a way that the 0, if 2 < x < 2
(c) f
x

new function is continuous at x
c. Answers will vary. 1, if x
2
0, if x < 2
(a) f
x
x  2
x2 y

sin
x  2 3
(b) f
x

x2 2

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

89. y 90. If f and g are continuous for all real x, then so is f  g

5 (Theorem 1.11, part 2). However, fg might not be
continuous if g
x
0. For example, let f
x
x and
4
3
2 g
x
x2  1. Then f and g are continuous for all real x,
but fg is not continuous at x
± 1.
1
x
−2 −1 1 3 4 5 6 7
−2
−3

The function is not continuous at x
3 because

lim f
x
1  0
lim f
x.
x→3 x→3
 Section 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 75

91. True 92. True; if f
x
g
x, x  c, then lim f
x
lim g
x (if
x→c x→c
1. f
c
L is defined. they exist) and at least one of these limits then does not

2. lim f
x
L exists. equal the corresponding function value at x
c.

x→c

3. f
c
lim f
x

x→c

All of the conditions for continuity are met.

93. False; a rational function can be written as P
xQ
x 94. False; f
1 is not defined and lim f
x does not exist.
x→1
where P and Q are polynomials of degree m and n, respec-
tively. It can have, at most, n discontinuities.

95. lim f
t  28 96. The functions agree for integer values of x:
t→4
g
x
3  x
3 
x
3  x
lim f
t  56
t→4
At the end of day 3, the amount of chlorine in the pool has
f
x
3  x
3  x
for x an integer 
decreased to about 28 oz. At the beginning of day 4, more However, for non-integer values of x, the functions differ
chlorine was added, and the amount was about 56 oz. by 1.
f
x
3  x
g
x  1
2  x .
For example, f
2 
3  0
3, g
2 
3 
1
4.
1 1


1.04, 0 < t ≤ 2
97. C
1.04  0.36t  1 ,
1.04  0.36
t  2,
t > 2, t is not an integer
t > 2, t is an integer
98. N
t
25 2
t 2 2  t
Nonremovable discontinuity at each integer greater than or t 0 1 1.8 2 3 3.8
equal to 2.
N
t 50 25 5 50 25 5
You can also write C as

1.04, 0 < t ≤ 2 Discontinuous at every positive even integer. The

C
. company replenishes its inventory every two months.
1.04  0.362  t , t > 2
N
C
50
4
Number of units

40

3 30

20
2
10

1 t
2 4 6 8 10 12
t Time (in months)
1 2 3 4

99. Let s
t be the position function for the run up to the campsite. s
0
0 (t
0 corresponds to 8:00 A.M., s
20
k (distance
to campsite)). Let r
t be the position function for the run back down the mountain: r
0
k, r
10
0. Let f
t
s
t  r
t.
When t
0 (8:00 A.M.), f
0
s
0  r
0
0  k < 0.
When t
10 (8:10 A.M.), f
10
s
10  r
10 > 0.
Since f
0 < 0 and f
10 > 0, then there must be a value t in the interval 0, 10 such that f
t
0. If f
t
0, then
s
t  r
t
0, which gives us s
t
r
t. Therefore, at some time t, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 10, the position functions for the
run up and the run down are equal.
76 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

100. Let V
43  r 3 be the volume of a sphere of radius r. V is 101. Suppose there exists x1 in a, b such that f
x1 > 0 and
continuous on 1, 5. there exists x2 in a, b such that f
x2 < 0. Then by the
Intermediate Value Theorem, f
x must equal zero for
V
1
43   4.19 some value of x in x1, x2 (or x2, x1 if x2 < x1). Thus, f
V
5
43 
53  523.6 would have a zero in a, b, which is a contradiction.
Therefore, f
x > 0 for all x in a, b or f
x < 0 for all
Since 4.19 < 275 < 523.6, the Intermediate Value x in a, b.
Theorem implies that there is at least one value r between
1 and 5 such that V
r
275. (In fact, r  4.0341.)

102. Let c be any real number. Then lim f
x does not exist 103. If x
0, then f
0
0 and lim f
x
0. Hence, f is
x→c x→0
since there are both rational and irrational numbers continuous at x
0.
arbitrarily close to c. Therefore, f is not continuous at c. If x  0, then lim f
t
0 for x rational, whereas
t→x
lim f
t
lim kt
kx  0 for x irrational. Hence, f is
t →x t →x
not continuous for all x  0.


1, if x < 0 105. (a) S
4
104. sgn
x
0, if x
0 3 60

1, if x > 0 2 50
1 40
x
(a) lim sgn
x
1 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 30
x→0 20
−2
(b) lim sgn
x
1 −3
10
x→0 −4 t
5 10 15 20 25 30
(c) lim sgn
x does not exist.
x→0
(b) There appears to be a limiting speed and a possible
cause is air resistance.

0b

0 ≤ x < b x
106. (a) f
x
0 ≤ x ≤ b
b < x ≤ 2b 2
(b) g
x

x
y
b b < x ≤ 2b
2
2b
y

b 2b

x b
b 2b

x
NOT continuous at x
b. b 2b

Continuous on 0, 2b.

1  xx,, x ≤ c
2
107. f
x
108. Let y be a real number. If y
0, then x
0. If y > 0,
x > c
then let 0 < x0 < 2 such that M
tan x0 > y (this is
f is continuous for x < c and for x > c. At x
c, you possible since the tangent function increases without
need 1  c2
c. Solving c2  c  1, you obtain bound on 0, 2). By the Intermediate Value Theorem,
f
x
tan x is continuous on 0, x0 and 0 < y < M ,
1 ± 1  4 1 ± 5
c

. which implies that there exists x between 0 and x0 such
2 2 that tan x
y. The argument is similar if y < 0.
 Section 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 77

x  c2  c
109. f
x
, c > 0
x

Domain: x  c2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ c2 and x  0, c2, 0

0, 

x  c2  c x  c2  c x  c2  c
lim
lim 
x→0 x x→0 x x  c2  c

x  c2  c2 1 1

lim
lim

x→0 xx  c2  c x→0 x  c2  c 2c
Define f
0
1
2c to make f continuous at x
0.

110. 1. f
c is defined. 111. h
x
xx

2. lim f
x
lim f
c   x
f
c exists. 15
x→c x→0
Let x
c   x. As x → c,  x → 0
3. lim f
x
f
c.
x→c
−3 3
Therefore, f is continuous at x
c.
−3

h has nonremovable discontinuities at

x
± 1, ± 2, ± 3, . . . .

112. (a) Define f
x
f2
x  f1
x. Since f1 and f2 are continuous on a, b, so is f.
f
a
f2
a  f1
a > 0 and f
b
f2
b  f1
b < 0
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists c in a, b such that f
c
0.
f
c
f2
c  f1
c
0 ⇒ f1
c
f2
c
(b) Let f1
x
x and f2
x
cos x, continuous on 0, 2, f1
0 < f2
0 and f1
2 > f2
2.
Hence by part (a), there exists c in 0, 2 such that c
cos
c.
Using a graphing utility, c  0.739.

113. The statement is true.

If y ≥ 0 and y ≤ 1, then y
y  1 ≤ 0 ≤ x2, as desired. So assume y > 1. There are now two cases.
1
Case 1: If x ≤ y  2, then 2x  1 ≤ 2y and Case 2: If x ≥ y  12
x2 ≥
y  12 
2
y
y  1
y
y  1  2y
≤
x  12  2y
y2  y  14

x2  2x  1  2y > y2  y

≤ x2  2y  2y
y
y  1

x 2

In both cases, y
y  1 ≤ x2.

114. P
1
P
02  1
P
02  1
1

P
2
P
12  1
P
12  1
2
P
5
P
22  1
P
22  1
5
Continuing this pattern, we see that P
x
x for infinitely many values of x.
Hence, the finite degree polynomial must be constant: P
x
x for all x.
78 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

Section 1.5 Infinite Limits

1. lim 2
x→
2   x
x2
4
 2. lim
x→
2
1
x2 
 3. lim tan
x→
2
x
4

 4. lim sec
x→
2
x
4


 
1
x lim 
 x x
x→
2
x  2  

lim 2  lim tan lim sec
x→
2
x2
4 x→
2
4 x→
2
4

1
5. f
x 
x2
9

x
3.5
3.1
3.01
3.001
2.999
2.99
2.9
2.5

f
x 0.308 1.639 16.64 166.6
166.7
16.69
1.695
0.364

lim f
x  
x→
3

lim f
x 

x→
3

x
6. f
x 
x2
9

x
3.5
3.1
3.01
3.001
2.999
2.99
2.9
2.5

f
x
1.077
5.082
50.08
500.1 499.9 49.92 4.915 0.9091

lim f
x 

x→
3

lim f
x  
x→
3

x2
7. f
x 
x2
9

x
3.5
3.1
3.01
3.001
2.999
2.99
2.9
2.5

f
x 3.769 15.75 150.8 1501
1499
149.3
14.25
2.273

lim f
x  
x→
3

lim f
x 

x→
3

x
8. f
x  sec
6

x
3.5
3.1
3.01
3.001
2.999
2.99
2.9
2.5

f
x
3.864
19.11
191.0
1910 1910 191.0 19.11 3.864

lim f
x 

x→
3

lim f
x  
x→
3
 Section 1.5 Infinite Limits 79

1 1 4
x2  x→0
x2
x
23 
9. lim   lim 10. lim 
x→0 x→2

Therefore, x  0 is a vertical asymptote. 4

lim 

x→2

x
23
Therefore, x  2 is a vertical asymptote.

x2
2 2x 2x

x
2
x  1 
11. lim  12. lim
 lim 
x→2 x→0 x2
1
x x→0 x2
1
x
x2
2 Therefore, x  0 is a vertical asymptote.
lim 

x→2

x
2
x  1
2x
x2
1
x 
lim 
Therefore, x  2 is a vertical asymptote. x→1

x2
2 2x



x
2
x  1 
lim  lim
x→1 x2
1
x
x→
1

x2
2 Therefore, x  1 is a vertical asymptote.

lim


x→
1
x
2
x  1
Therefore, x 
1 is a vertical asymptote.

x2 x2
x2
4 
13. lim  and lim  2 

x→
2
x→
2 x
4

Therefore, x 
2 is a vertical asymptote.

x2 x2
lim

 and lim 2 
x→2 x
4
2 x→2 x
4

Therefore, x  2 is a vertical asymptote.

14. No vertical asymptote since the denominator is never zero. 15. No vertical asymptote since the denominator is never zero.

sin 2x
16. lim h
s 
 and lim  h
s  . 17. f
x  tan 2x  has vertical asymptotes at
s→
5
s→
5 cos 2x
Therefore, s 
5 is a vertical asymptote.

2n  1  n
x   , n any integer.
lim
h
s 
 and lim h
s  . 4 4 2
s→5 s→5
Therefore, s  5 is a vertical asymptote.

18. f
x  sec x 

1
cos x
has vertical asymptotes at 19. lim 1

t→0  4
t2 4

  lim
1
2
t→0 t 
2n  1 Therefore, t  0 is a vertical asymptote.
x , n any integer.
2

12x3
x2
4x 1 x
x2
2x
8
20. g
x  
3x2
6x
24 6 x2
2x
8
1
 x, x 
2, 4
6
No vertical asymptotes. The graph has holes at x 
2 and x  4.
80 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

x

x  2
x
1 
21. lim 
x→
2

x
lim 

x→
2

x  2
x
1
Therefore, x 
2 is a vertical asymptote.

x

x  2
x
1 
lim 
x→1

x
lim 

x→1

x  2
x
1
Therefore, x  1 is a vertical asymptote.

4
x2  x
6 4
x  3
x
2 4

22. f
x    , x 
3, 2
x

x3
2x2
9x  18 x
x
2
x2
9 x
x
3
Vertical asymptotes at x  0 and x  3. The graph has holes at x 
3 and x  2.

x3  1
x  1
x2
x  1 x2
4
x  2
x
2
23. f
x   24. h
x  
x1 x1 x3  2x2  x  2
x  2
x2  1
has no vertical asymptote since has no vertical asymptote since
lim f
x  lim
x2
x  1  3. x
2 4
x→
1 x→
1 lim h
x  lim 
.
x→
2 x→
2 x2  1 5
The graph has a hole at x 
1.
The graph has a hole at x 
2.

x
5
x  3 x3 t
t
2 t

25. f
x   ,x5 26. h
t   ,t2

x
5
x2  1 x2  1
t
2
t  2
t 2  4
t  2
t 2  4
No vertical asymptotes. The graph has a hole at x  5. Vertical asymptote at t 
2. The graph has a hole at
t  2.

t tan  sin 
27. s
t  has vertical asymptotes at t  n, n 28. g
   has vertical asymptotes at
sin t   cos 
a nonzero integer. There is no vertical asymptote at
2n  1 
t  0 since    n, n any integer.
2 2
t There is no vertical asymptote at   0 since
lim  1.
t→0 sin t
tan 
lim  1.
 →0 

x2
1 x2
6x
7
29. lim  lim
x
1 
2 30. lim  lim
x
7 
8
x→
1 x  1 x→
1 x→
1 x1 x→
1

2 2

−3 3
−3 3

−5 −12

Removable discontinuity at x 
1 Removable discontinuity at x 
1

 Section 1.5 Infinite Limits 81

x2  1 sin
x  1
31. lim  8 32. lim 1 2
x→
1 x1 x→
1 x1
x2  1 Removable discontinuity at
lim

 −3 3 −3 3
x→
1 x1 x 
1
Vertical asymptote at x 
1 −8 −2

x
3 2x
33. lim 
 34. lim 

x→2 x
2 x→1 1
x

x2 x2 1

x
3
x  3 
35. lim  36. lim

x→3 x→4 x2  16 2

x2  2x
3
x
1
x  3 x
1 4
37. lim
 lim
 lim

x→
3 x2  x
6 x→
3
x
2
x  3 x→
3 x
2 5

6x2  x
1
3x
1
2x  1 3x
1 5

38. lim  lim  lim 
x→

12 4x2
4x
3 x→

12
2x
3
2x  1 x→

12 2x
3 8

x2
x x 1 x
2 1
39. lim  lim 2  40. lim 
x→1
x  1
x
1 x→1 x  1 x2
2
2 x→3 9

2
2
41. lim
1 
x→0  1
x 

 42. lim
x2

x→0  
1
x
 43. lim
x→0 sin x 
 44. lim
x→
2 cos x 


x
x  2
45. lim  lim
x sin x  0 46. lim  lim 
x  2tan x  0
x→  csc x x→ x→0 cot x x→0

47. lim x sec
 x   and lim x sec
 x 
. 48. lim x2 tan  x   and lim x2 tan  x 
.
x→
12
x→
12 x→
12
x→
12
Therefore, lim x sec
 x does not exist. Therefore, lim x2 tan  x does not exist.
x→
12 x→
12

x2  x  1 x2  x  1 x3
1
x
1
x2  x  1
49. f
x   50. f
x  
x3
1
x
1
x2  x  1 x2  x  1 x2  x  1
1
lim f
x  lim  lim f
x  lim

x
1  0
x→1 x→1 x
1 x→1
x→1

4
3

−8 8
−4 5

−4
−3

1 0.3
x 6
51. f
x  52. f
x  sec
x2
25 6
−8 8 −9
lim f
x 
 lim f
x 

9

x→5
x→3

−0.3 −6
82 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

53. A limit in which f
x increases or decreases without 54. The line x  c is a vertical asymptote if the graph of f
bound as x approaches c is called an infinite limit. approaches ±  as x approaches c.
 is not a number. Rather, the symbol
lim f
x  
x→c
says how the limit fails to exist.

x
3 x
3 1
55. One answer is f
x   . 56. No. For example, f
x  has no

x
6
x  2 x2
4x
12 x2  1
vertical asymptote.

k  200
57. y
58. P  59. (a) r  50 sec2  ftsec
V 6 3

3

k (b) r  50 sec2  200 ftsec

2
lim  k
   3
V→0 V
1
(In this case we know that k > 0.) (c) lim 50 sec2   
x
−2 −1 1 3  →
2

−1

−2

528x
60. C  , 0 ≤ x < 100
100
x

(a) C
25  $176 million (c) C
75  $1584 million

(b) C
50  $528 million 528
100
x 
(d) lim  . Thus, it is not possible.
x→100

m0 2
7 7
61. m  62. (a) r   ftsec
1

v2c2 625
49 12
m0 2
15 3
lim m  lim
 (b) r   ftsec
v→c
v→c 1

v2c2 625
225 2
2x
(c) lim

x→25 625
x2

Total distance
63. (a) Average speed  (b)
Total time x 30 40 50 60
2d y 150 6.667 50 42.857
50 

dx 
dy
25x
x
25 
2xy (c) lim 
50  x→25
yx
As x gets close to 25 mph, y becomes larger and larger.
50y  50x  2xy
50x  2xy
50y
50x  2y
x
25
25x
y
x
25

Domain: x > 25
 Section 1.5 Infinite Limits 83

64. (a)
x 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
f
x 0.1585 0.0411 0.0067 0.0017
0
0
0

0.5
x
sin x
lim 0
x→0 x
−1.5 1.5

−0.25

(b)
x 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
f
x 0.1585 0.0823 0.0333 0.0167 0.0017
0
0

0.25

x
sin x
−1.5 lim 0
1.5
x→0 x2

−0.25

(c)
x 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

f
x 0.1585 0.1646 0.1663 0.1666 0.1667 0.1667 0.1667

0.25

x
sin x
−1.5 lim  0.1667
16
1.5
x→0 x3

−0.25

(d)
x 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
f
x 0.1585 0.3292 0.8317 1.6658 16.67 166.7 1667.0

1.5

x
sin x
−1.5 lim 
1.5
x→0 x4

−1.5

x
sin x
For n > 3, lim  .
x→0 xn

1 1 1 1
65. (a) A  bh
r 2  
10
10 tan 

102 (b)
2 2 2 2  0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
 50 tan 
50 
f
 0.47 4.21 18.0 68.6 630.1

Domain: 0, 2 
(c) 100
(d) lim A  
 → 2

0 1.5
0
84 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

66. (a) Because the circumference of the motor is (b) The direction of rotation is reversed.
half that of the saw arbor, the saw makes
(d)
17002  850 revolutions per minute.  0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
(c) 2
20 cot   2
10 cot : straight sections. L 306.2 217.9 195.9 189.6 188.5
The angle subtended in each circle is
(e) 450

2
2
2

     2.
Thus, the length of the belt around the pulleys is

20
  2  10
  2  30
  2. 0
0 2

Total length  60 cot   30
  2 (f) lim L  60

188.5
 →
2


Domain: 0,
2   (All the belts are around pulleys.)
(g) lim L  
 →0

67. False; for instance, let 68. False; for instance, let 69. True

x2
1 x2
1
f
x  . f
x  or
x
1 x
1

The graph of f has a hole at
1, 2, x

g
x  .
not a vertical asymptote. x2  1

1 1
70. False; let 71. Let f
x  and g
x  4, and c  0.
x2 x
1,
f
x  x
3,
 x0
x  0. lim
x→0
1
x2 

1
and lim 4  , but
x→0 x

The graph of f has a vertical asymptote at x  0, but

x1
x1   lim x x
1 
  0.
2
f
0  3. lim 2 4 4
x→0 x→0

72. Given lim f
x   and lim g
x  L:

x→c x→c

(2) Product:
 
If L > 0, then for  L2 > 0 there exists
1 > 0 such that g
x
L < L2 whenever 0 < x
c <
1. Thus,  
L2 < g
x < 3L2. Since lim f
x   then for M > 0, there exists
2 > 0 such that f
x > M
2L whenever
   
x→c
x
c <
2. Let
be the smaller of
1 and
2. Then for 0 < x
c <
, we have f
xg
x > M
2L
L2  M.
Therefore lim f
xg
x  . The proof is similar for L < 0.
x→c

(3) Quotient: Let > 0 be given.

 
There exists
1 > 0 such that f
x > 3L2 whenever 0 < x
c <
1 and there exists
2 > 0 such that g
x
L < L2  
 
whenever 0 < x
c <
2. This inequality gives us L2 < g
x < 3L2. Let
be the smaller of
1 and
2. Then for
 
0 < x
c <
, we have

 
g
x
f
x
<
3L2
3L2
 .

g
x
Therefore, lim  0.
x→c f
x

g
x
73. Given lim f
x  , let g
x  1. then lim  0 by Theorem 1.15.
x →c x →c f
x
 Review Exercises for Chapter 1 85

1
74. Given lim
0. Suppose lim f x exists and equals L. 1
x→c f x x→c 75. f x
is defined for all x > 3. Let M > 0 be
x3
lim 1 1
1 1 given. We need  > 0 such that f x
> M
Then, lim
x→c

0. x3
x→c f x lim f x L
x→c whenever 3 < x < 3  .
1
This is not possible. Thus, lim f x does not exist.
x→c
Equivalently, x  3 <
M 
whenever x  3 < , x > 3. 
1
So take 
. Then for x > 3 and x  3 < ,
M  
1 1
>
M and hence f x > M.
x3 8

1 1
76. f x
is defined for all x < 4. Let N < 0 be given. We need  > 0 such that f x
< N whenever 4   < x < 4.
x4 x4
1 1 1
N  
Equivalently, x  4 > whenever x  4 < , x < 4. Equivalently,
x4
<  whenever x  4 < , x < 4. So take
N    
1 1 1 1 1
N 

 . Note that  > 0 because N < 0. For x  4 <  and x < 4,  x4
>
N, and
  x4



x4
< N.
 

Review Exercises for Chapter 1

1. Calculus required. Using a graphing utility, you can estimate 2. Precalculus. L

9  12  3  12  8.25
the length to be 8.3. Or, the length is slightly longer than the
distance between the two points, approximately 8.25.

4 1
2
x2 −3 3
3. f x

x

x  0.1  0.01  0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

−5
f x  1.0526  1.0050  1.0005  0.9995  0.9950  0.9524

lim f x  1.0

x→0

4. 3
x  0.1  0.01  0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f x 1.432 1.416 1.414 1.414 1.413 1.397 −3 3

lim f x  1.414

x→0 −3

x2  2x 3x
5. hx
(a) lim hx
2 6. gx
(a) lim gx does not exist.
x x→0 x2 x→2

(b) lim hx
3 (b) lim gx
0

x→1 x→0

7. lim 3  x
3  1
2
x→1


Let  > 0 be given. Choose 
. Then for 0 < x  1 < 
, you have 
 
x1 < 

1  x < 
3  x  2 < 
 f x  L < .
86 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

8. lim
x

9
3
x→9

Let  > 0 be given. We need


x  3 <  ⇒ 
x  3
x  3 < 
x  3 ⇒ x  9 < 
x  3.

Assuming 4 < x < 16, you can choose 
5.

 
Hence, for 0 < x  9 < 
5, you have

x  9 < 5 < 
x  3 

x  3 < 
 f x  L < .

9. lim x2  3
1
x→2
1
    
Let  > 0 be given. We need x2  3  1 <  ⇒ x2  4
x  2x  2 <  ⇒ x  2 <    x  2.
 
Assuming, 1 < x < 3, you can choose 
5. Hence, for 0 < x  2 < 
5 you have
 1
x  2 < 5 < x  2
x  2x  2 < 
x2  4 < 
x2  3  1 < 
 f x  L < .
10. lim 9
9. Let  > 0 be given.  can be any positive 11. lim
t  2

4  2

6  2.45
x→5 t→4


number. Hence, for 0 < x  5 < , you have 
9  9 < 
 f x  L < .
t2 1 1 t2  9
y→4
 
12. lim 3 y  1
3 4  1
9   13. lim
t→2 t  4
2
lim
t→2 t  2


4
14. lim
t→3 t3

lim t  3
6
t→3

x  2
x  2
4  x  2
4  x  2
4  x  2
15. lim
lim 16. lim
lim 
x→4 x4 x→4  

x  2
x  2  x→0 x x→0 x
4  x  2

1 1 1 1 1

lim


lim

x→4
x  2
4  2 4 x→0
4  x  2 4

1x  1  1 1  x  1 1
17. lim
lim
lim
1
x→0 x x→0 xx  1 x→0 x  1

 1
1  s   1
lim  1
1  s   1  1
1  s   1

s→0  1
1  s  1

18. lim
s→0 s s

11  s  1 1 1

lim
lim
s→0 s 1
1  s   1 s→0 1  s 1
1  s   1
 2

x3  125 x  5x2  5x  25 x2  4 x  2x  2

19. lim
lim 20. lim
lim
x→5 x  5 x→5 x5 x→2 x3  8 x→2 x  2x2  2x  4

lim x2  5x  25
75 x2 4 1

x→5
lim


x→2 x2  2x  4 12 3
 Review Exercises for Chapter 1 87

1  cos x
21. lim
x→0 sin x

lim
x
x→0 sin x 1  xcos x
10
0 22. lim
x→ 4
4x
tan x


44
1



sin6  x  12 sin6 cos x  cos6 sin x  12

23. lim
lim
x→0 x x→0 x
1 cos x  1
3 sin x
3
3

lim
x→0 2
 x
 lim
x→0 2
 x
0  2 1
2

cos  x  1 cos  cos x  sin  sin x  1

24. lim
lim
x→0 x x→0 x

lim
x→0  cos xx  1
 x→0
lim sin 
sin x
x

0  01
0

25. lim  f x  gx
 34 23 
 12 26. lim  f x  2gx
 34  223 
12
7
x→c x→c

2x  1 
3
27. f x

x1

(a) (b) 2
x 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001

f x 0.5680 0.5764 0.5773 0.5773

2x  1 
3
 Actual limit is
33.
−1 2
lim  0.577 0
x→1 x1

2x  1 
3
2x  1 
3
2x  1 
3
(c) lim
x1

lim
x1

x→1 x→1
2x  1 
3

2x  1  3

lim
x→1 x  1
2x  1 
3 
2

lim
x→1
2x  1 
3
2 1
3




2
3
3 3

1 

3 x
28. f x

x1

(a) (b) 2
x 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001

f x  0.3228  0.3322  0.3332  0.3333 −3 3

1 

3 x
lim
x→1 x1
 0.333  Actual limit is  13 . −3

(c) lim
1 

3 x

lim
1 

3 x

1 
3 x
3 x 
2

x1 x1 1 
x  
x
3 3 2
x→1 x→1

1x

lim
x→1 x  11 
 3 x2
3 x 

1 1

lim

x→1 3 x  

1 
3 x 2 3
88 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

sa  st 4.942  200  4.9t2  200

29. lim
lim 30. st
0 ⇒ 4.9t2  200
0
t→a at t→4 4t
⇒ t 2  40.816 ⇒ t  6.39 sec
4.9t  4t  4

lim When a
6.39, the velocity is approximately
t→4 4t
sa  st

lim 4.9t  4
39.2 msec lim
lim 4.9a  t
t→4 t→6.39 at t→6.39

4.96.39  6.39

62.6 msec.

31. lim x  3
lim

 x  3
32. lim x  1 does not exist. The 33. lim f x
0
x→3 x3 x→3  x3 x→4 x→2

graph jumps from 2 to 3 at x
4.

1

34. lim gx
1  1
2 35. lim ht does not exist because 36. lim f s
2
x→1 t→1 s→2
lim ht
1  1
2 and
t→1
lim ht
21  1
1.
1
t→1

3x2  x  2 3x  2x  1

37. f x
x  3 38. f x


x1 x1
lim x  3
k  3 where k is an integer.
x→k
f is continuous on  , 1
1, .
lim x  3
k  2 where k is an integer.
x→k
Nonremovable discontinuity at each integer k
Continuous on k, k  1 for all integers k

3x2  x  2 3x  2x  1

39. f x

x1


x1
40. f x
52xx,3, x ≤ 2
x > 2
lim f x
lim 3x  2
5 lim 5  x
3
x→1 x→1 x→2

Removable discontinuity at x
1 lim 2x  3
1

Continuous on  , 1
1,  x→2

Nonremovable discontinuity at x
2
Continuous on  , 2
2, 

41. f x

1
x  22
x x 1

1  1x
42. f x

lim
1 

1 1
x  22
lim

x→2 x→0 x

Nonremovable discontinuity at x
2 Domain:  , 1, 0, 

Continuous on  , 2
2, 
Nonremovable discontinuity at x
0
Continuous on  , 1
0, 

3 x1
43. f x
44. f x

x1 2x  2
lim f x
 x1 1
x→1 lim

x→1 2x  1 2
lim f x

x→1
Removable discontinuity at x
1
Nonremovable discontinuity at x
1
Continuous on  , 1
1, 
Continuous on  , 1
1, 
 Review Exercises for Chapter 1 89

x
45. f x
csc 46. f x
tan 2x 47. f 2
5
2
Nonremovable discontinuities at Nonremovable discontinuities when Find c so that lim cx  6
5.
x→2
each even integer. 2n  1 c2  6
5
Continuous on x

4
2c
1
2k, 2k  2
Continuous on
1
for all integers k. c

2n  1 2n  1
 
2
,
4 4

for all integers n.

48. lim x  1
2
x→1

lim x  1
4
x→3

Find b and c so that lim x2  bx  c
2 and lim x2  bx  c
4.

x→1 x→3

Consequently we get 1bc
2 and 9  3b  c
4.

Solving simultaneously, b
3 and c
4.

49. f is continuous on 1, 2. f 1
1 < 0 and 50. C
9.80  2.50 x  1, x > 0
f 2
13 > 0. Therefore by the Intermediate Value
Theorem, there is at least one value c in 1, 2 such
9.80  2.50  x  1 30

that 2c3  3
0. C has a nonremovable

discontinuity at each integer.

0 5
0

x2  4 x2
51. f x


x2

x  2
 
x2 

52. f x

x  1x

(a) Domain:  , 0
1, 
(a) lim f x
4
x→2
(b) lim f x
0
(b) lim f x
4 x→0
x→2
(c) lim f x
0
(c) lim f x does not exist. x→1
x→2

2 4x 8
53. gx
1  54. hx
55. f x

x 4  x2 x  102
Vertical asymptote at x
0 Vertical asymptotes at x
2 and Vertical asymptote at x
10
x
2

2x2  x  1
56. f x
csc  x 57. lim 

x→2 x2
Vertical asymptote at every integer k

x x1 1 1
2x  1
58. lim
59. lim
lim

x→ 12 x→1 x3  1 x→1 x2  x  1 3

x1 1 1 x2  2x  1
60. lim 
lim
 61. lim

x→1 x4  1 x→1 x2  1x  1 4 x→1 x1
90 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

x2
2x  1 1
62. lim 
x→
1 x1
 63. lim x

x→0
1
x3 

 64. lim

x→2 x
4
3 2 



  54
sin 4x 4 sin 4x sec x
65. lim  lim 66. lim 
x→0 5x x→0 5 4x x→0 x

csc 2x 1 cos2 x
67. lim  lim  68. lim


x→0 x x →0 x sin 2x x→0 x

80,000p
69. C  , 0 ≤ p < 100
100
p

(a) C15  $14,117.65 (b) C50  $80.000

80,000p
(c) C90  $720,000
100
p 
(d) lim 
p→100

tan 2x
70. f x 
x

(a)
x
0.1
0.01
0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f x 2.0271 2.0003 2.0000 2.0000 2.0003 2.0271

tan 2x
lim 2
x→0 x

(b) Yes, define

x0
2, x
tan 2x ,
f x  .
x0
Now f x is continuous at x  0.

Problem Solving for Chapter 1

1 1 x
1. (a) Perimeter
PAO  x2  y
12  x2  y2  1 2. (a) Area
PAO  bh  1x 
2 2 2
 x2  x2
12  x2  x4  1
1 1 y x2
Area
PBO  bh  1 y  
Perimeter
PBO  x
1  2 y2  x2  y2 1 2 2 2 2
 x
1  2 x4  x2  x4 1 Area
PBO x2
2
(b) ax   x
x2  x2
12  x2  x4  1
Area
PAO x
2
(b) rx 
x
12  x4  x2  x4  1
x 4 2 1 0.1 0.01
x 4 2 1 0.1 0.01 Area
PAO 2 1 1
2 1
20 1
200
Perimeter Area
PBO 8 2 1
2 1
200 1
20,000

PAO 33.02 9.08 3.41 2.10 2.01
ax 4 2 1 1
10 1
100
Perimeter

PBO 33.77 9.60 3.41 2.00 2.00
(c) lim ax  lim x  0
x→0 x→0
r x 0.98 0.95 1 1.05 1.005

101 2
(c) lim r x   1
x→0 101 2
 Problem Solving for Chapter 1 91

4
0 4
3. (a) There are 6 triangles, each with a central angle of 4. (a) Slope  
3
0 3
60  
3. Hence,
3 3
Area hexagon  6  12bh  6 121 sin 3  (b) Slope 

4
Tangent line: y
4 
x
3
4
3 25
33 y
x
  2.598. 4 4
2
(c) Let Q  x, y  x, 25
x2
h = sin θ
h = sin 60°
25
x2
4
1 1 mx 
x
3
θ
60° 25
x2
4 25
x2  4
(d) lim mx  lim
x
3

x→3 x→3 25
x2  4
33 25
x2
16
Error: 
 0.5435  lim
2 x→3 x
325
x2  4
(b) There are n triangles, each with central angle of 3
x3  x
  2
n. Hence,  lim
x→3 x
325
x2  4

An  n  12bh  n 121 sin 2n  n sin22

n.  lim
x→3

3  x
25
x2  4


6
44


3
4
(c) This is the slope of the tangent line at P.
n 6 12 24 48 96

An 2.598 3 3.106 3.133 3.139

(d) As n gets larger and larger, 2

n approaches 0.
Letting x  2
n,
sin2
n sin2
n sin x
An    
2
n 2
n x
which approaches 1  .

12 a  bx
3 a  bx
3 a  bx  3
5. (a) Slope 
6.  
5 x x a  bx  3

5 a  bx
3
(b) Slope of tangent line is . 
12 xa  bx  3
5 Letting a  3 simplifies the numerator.
y  12  x
5
12 Thus,
5 169 3  bx
3
y x
Tangent line lim  lim
bx
x3  bx  3
12 12 x→0 x x→0

(c) Q  x, y  x,
169
x2  b

 lim .

169
x2  12 x→0 3  bx  3
mx 
x
5 b
Setting  3, you obtain b  6.
12
169
x2 12  169
x2 3  3
(d) lim mx  lim
x
5

x→5 x→5 12  169
x2 Thus, a  3 and b  6.
144
169
x2
 lim
x→5 x
5 12  169
x2 

x2
25
 lim
x→5 x
512  169
x2
x  5 10 5
 lim  
x→5 12  169
x2 12  12 12
This is the same slope as part (b).
92 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

3  
271
3
2
7. (a) 3  x1
3 ≥ 0 (b) 0.5 (c) lim f x 
x→
27
27
1
x1
3 ≥
3

2 1
   0.0714
x ≥
27
28 14
−30 12

Domain: x ≥
27, x  1 −0.1

3  x1
3
2 3  x1
3  2
(d) lim f x  lim
x
1

x→1 x→1 3  x1
3  2

3  x1
3
4
 lim
x→1 x
13  x1
3  2
x1
3
1
 lim
x→1 x
1
3

1x2
3
 x1
3  13  x1
3  2
1
 lim
x→1 x2
3  x1
3  13  x1
3  2
1 1
 
1  1  12  2 12

8. lim
f x  lim
a2
2  a2
2 9. (a) lim f x  3: g1, g4

x→0 x→0 x→2

lim f x  lim

x→0
ax
x→0 tan x
 a because lim
x→0 x

tan x
1  (b) f continuous at 2: g1
(c) lim
f x  3: g1, g3, g4
x→2
Thus,
a2
2  a
a2
a
2  0
a
2a  1  0
a 
1, 2

10. y
11. y

4
3
3
2
2
1
1
x x
−1 1 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−2
−3
−4

(a) f 4   4  4
1

f 1  1  
1  1  
1  0
f 3  13  0
(a)

f 1  1  1 f 0  0
f 12   0  
1 
1
(b) lim
f x  1
x→1
f 
2.7 
3  2 
1
lim f x  0
x→1
(b) lim f x 
1
lim f x 
 x→1

x→0

lim f x 
1
lim f x   x→1
x→0
lim f x 
1
(c) f is continuous for all real numbers except x→1
2
(c) f is continuous for all real numbers except
x  0, ± 1, ± 12, ± 13, . . .
x  0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, . . .
 Problem Solving for Chapter 1 93

192,000
12. (a) v2   v02
48 13. (a) y
r
2
192,000
 v2
v02  48
r
1
192,000
r
v2
v02  48
x
a b
192,000
lim r 
v→0 48
v02
Let v0  48  43 mi
sec.
(b) (i) lim Pa, bx  1
x→a
1920
(b) v2   v02
2.17 (ii) lim
Pa, bx  0
r x→a

1920 (iii) lim Pa, bx  0

 v2
v02  2.17 x→b
r (iv) lim
Pa, bx  1
x→b
1920 (c) Pa, b is continuous for all positive real numbers
r 2
v
v02  2.17 except x  a, b.
1920 (d) The area under the graph of U, and above the
lim r 
v→0 2.17
v02 x-axis, is 1.
Let v0  2.17 mi
sec  1.47 mi
sec.
10,600
(c) r
v2
v02  6.99
10,600
lim r 
v→0 6.99
v02
Let v0  6.99  2.64 mi
sec.
Since this is smaller than the escape velocity for
Earth, the mass is less.

14. Let a  0 and let  > 0 be given. There exists 1 > 0 such that if 0 < x
0 < 1 then f x
L < .

Let   1
a . Then for 0 < x
0 <   1
a , you have

x < a1
ax < 1
f ax
L < .
As a counterexample, let a  0 and f x  1,2, x0
x0
.

Then lim f x  1  L, but lim f ax  lim f 0  lim 2  2.

x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0