The Earliest Use of Lime and Gypsum

Mortars in Cyprus

Maria Philokyprou

Abstract The microstructural investigation of prehistoric mortars selected from

various archaeological sites of Cyprus demonstrated that the discovery of lime and
gypsum technology had occurred on the island during the Neolithic period. This
technology was already known in the Near East since earlier periods (Epi-Paleolithic
period). Lime mortars were widely disseminated during the Chalcolithic period,
whereas the use of gypsum mortars was rather limited on the island during all of the
prehistoric periods. The discovery of crushed-brick lime mortars during the Late
Bronze Age constitutes an innovation and can be associated with the overall pros-
perity of the era. The use of these mortars seems to have occurred simultaneously
with the Mycenaean world. The selection of the raw materials for the preparation of
mortars was based on the geology of each area. The absence of volcanic rocks in
Cyprus led to the use of bricks as additives in the preparation of hydraulic mortars.

1 Introduction

Lime and gypsum mortars were used extensively in various structures in Cyprus,
employed mainly as plaster coatings. This paper presents the results of an exten-
sive research aiming to investigate the chronological evolution of these two main
types of mortars during the earliest periods of antiquity in Cyprus. This research
also aims to investigate the different methods of their preparation and to identify
the pyrotechnology known during these periods. The ultimate aim is for the
results to form a database for investigations of mortar from all the different peri-
ods of antiquity of the island. It is also hoped that the results will form the basis

M. Philokyprou (*)
University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
e-mail: [email protected]

J. Válek et al. (eds.), Historic Mortars: Characterisation, Assessment and Repair, 25

RILEM Bookseries 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4635-0_3, © RILEM 2012
26 M. Philokyprou

for the development of compatible mortars for conservation purposes. Lime and
gypsum mortars have been in use without any significant changes in the vernacular
architecture of the last two centuries on the island before the introduction of
cement, showing the high level of pyrotechnology reached in these early periods
of antiquity.
Lime and gypsum, which have been the two main mortar binders since antiq-
uity, are derived from the burning of limestone and gypsum rocks respectively.
The discovery of lime and gypsum plasters introduced a revolutionary pyro-
chemical advance, in which natural rocks underwent chemical change when
heated, and when crushed to powder and mixed with water, created a paste that
could be easily worked [1]. The chemical composition of lime and gypsum binders
is identical to that of the corresponding natural rocks, although their microstructure
is different. The technology in the production of pozzolanic or crushed brick-lime
mortars is more complex. These can be manufactured by mixing lime with pul-
verized clay materials called pozzolans (natural or artificial). When finely ground,
the pozzolans react with lime at normal temperatures in the presence of water or
moisture to form stable calcium silicate/aluminate hydrates. The hydraulic char-
acter of such mortars is due to the reactions between the pozzolanic material and
the lime binder.
During the prehistoric periods, in most areas, either gypsum or lime was pre-
ferred. In the Levant (Syro-Palestine coast), Anatolia and Greece [2, 3], lime plaster
was almost exclusively the material of choice. In these areas [4] the use of gypsum
plasters in the earliest periods of antiquity is rather limited. According to Gourdin
and Kingery [4], the limited use of gypsum can be related to the difficulty in main-
taining the low temperatures required for the preparation of gypsum plasters, as
well as to the solubility of this material which makes it unsuitable for exterior use.
However, gypsum is the material of choice in the area of the Tigris and Euphrates
and further to the East [1, 5]. Recent studies have shown that in ancient Egypt, lime
was also used: a fact that contradicts the previous beliefs that gypsum was exclu-
sively used in this region [6]. Geographically, Cyprus constitutes an interesting
case, as it is located in the lime region between the Levant, Anatolia and Greece [1],
but has very notable deposits of gypsum.

2 Experimental

This research was based on the investigation of 120 prehistoric samples of lime
and gypsum mortars derived from various archaeological sites of Cyprus (Neolithic,
Chalcolithic, Bronze Age – as shown in Fig. 1). Initially, plasters and mortars
were studied in situ (photographed, measured) and then samples were selected for
laboratory analyses. The different layers of plasters were counted, the thickness of
each was measured and the bond at each interface was investigated in detail.
Special attention was given to the presence of admixtures and additives and their
distribution throughout the mortars. Some of the samples constituted rather porous
The Earliest Use of Lime and Gypsum Mortars in Cyprus 27

Fig. 1 Map of Cyprus showing the sites from which samples were collected.
• Neolithic sites: Kalavasos Tenta, Khirokitia
• Chalcolithic site: Kissonerga – Mosphilia
• Late Bronze Age sites: Kition, Hala Sultan Tekke, Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, Maroni-
Vournes, Alassa-Paliotaverna, Maa-Palaiokastro

crushable materials, but most were dense and coherent. The samples also differed
in terms of grain size, colour, texture and surface roughness.

2.1 Methodology

All of the samples selected (120) were thoroughly observed in the laboratory under
a stereoscopic microscope, followed by the preparation of thin sections of each
specimen. These sections were examined using a petrographic microscope for the
identification of the binder and the aggregates. The preliminary microscope obser-
vations led to a selection of a smaller number of samples (70) for further mineral
analyses using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) as well as for chemical quantitative analy-
ses. From the results of these analyses, the 20 most characteristic and representative
examples were subjected to a more detailed investigation. For the examination of
the microstructure of these samples in the micron particle size, an SEM (Phillips
515) equipped with EDAX 9900 (Accelerating voltage: 25 kV, Counting time:
1,000 s, Standardless software for quantitative analysis: SUPQ) was employed to
determine their composition in different parts through the analysis of the binders,
aggregates, and reaction products. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermo-
gravimetry (TG) were employed for some lime plasters so as to determine the nature
of the mortar constituents and to investigate the degree of their hydraulicity.
28 M. Philokyprou

2.2 Results and Discussion

In this paper the cumulative results derived from the analyses of a large number of
samples are presented in chronological order. The samples are divided into different
categories regarding their period and the settlement from which they were collected
as well as their general composition (gypsum, lime, crushed-brick lime mortars).

2.2.1 In Situ Observations

The coating plaster of the Neolithic as well as Bronze Age walls was very often set
in thin, successive layers. The placement of successive layers to produce a thicker
coating was also observed in the wider area of the Near East [7]. The final external
visible thin coating of lime was often applied above a base mud layer. This base
layer contributed to better adhesion of the external coating to the structure of the
wall. In the lower part of the vertical wall where it meets the horizontal floor,
a series of small rounded stones was sometimes laid to ease the curvature of the wall
coating [8], which continued as a floor coating. The floor plaster often constituted
two or three successive layers. A fine-grained coating was often laid on one or two
coarser substrates and sometimes placed on a base layer of flat stones [8]. This tech-
nique has also been widely observed in the Middle East since the Neolithic period
[9]. These successive layers of different floor plasters during the earliest periods
were associated not only with the construction technology but also with the duration
of the structures. The thickness of the floors was also affected by social factors and
particularly by the Neolithic custom of burial beneath the plaster floors – a practice
that resulted in extensive use of plaster. This custom was widespread not only in
Cyprus [8] but also in the Near East [7].

2.2.2 Laboratory Data and Results

The mineral (petrographic, XRD) as well as the chemical analyses carried out showed
that during the Neolithic period, lime and gypsum – either separately or in combina-
tion – were used as plaster coatings for walls and floors. The samples selected were
derived from the two most important settlements of this period: Kalavasos-Tenta and
Khirokitia (Fig. 1). Floors and walls were usually coated with a thin, whitish plaster
layer laid on a base of friable mud plaster. Samples were selected from the hardest
and most dense final plaster layers. The XRD and chemical analyses of the samples
showed that the plaster samples taken from Kalavasos-Tenta can be divided into
separate categories based on their mineral and chemical composition [8]: gypsum
plasters, lime plasters, and gypsum-lime or lime-gypsum plasters. Samples having
both calcite and gypsum as their main components belong to the last two categories.
The samples having a high percentage (more than 10% and less than 40%) of sulphur
trioxide (SO3) are considered gypsum-lime, whereas the samples with a lower per-
centage of SO3 (less than 10%) are considered to be lime-gypsum. On the other hand,
the samples from Khirokitia are mainly lime plasters.
The Earliest Use of Lime and Gypsum Mortars in Cyprus 29

Fig. 2 Thin section (with cross nicols) of a Neolithic gypsum-lime plaster from Kalavasos-Tenta.
The grains of calcite (C) are surrounded by the gypsum crystals (G)

The examination with a petrographic microscope and an SEM revealed that gypsum
is the binding material in the gypsum and gypsum-lime mortars. Most of these mor-
tars showed more than 20% SO3. The structure of these Neolithic plasters is very
different from the irregular microcrystalline morphology of the natural gypsum
rock but also differs from the needle-like structure of the contemporary gypsum
plasters. This is possibly due to the non-controlled heating procedure which leads to
a different microstructure, but more probably is due to the age of the samples
(7000 B.C.). Gourdin and Kingery made similar observations when studying
Neolithic mortars from the Near East, recognising gypsum crystals of hard burned
material in some samples [4]. According to Kingery et al. [1], the faceted gypsum
grains observed in a plaster ball under investigation were formed by metamorphic
grain coarsening over time. In the gypsum-lime mortars, gypsum crystals often
surround the grains of calcite, giving the impression that the calcite is acting as an
aggregate (Fig. 2).
The observation with a petrographic microscope of the samples of Kalavasos-
Tenta and Khirokitia, which are mainly of a calcitic composition, revealed that in
these cases, lime constitutes the binder. The observation of thin sections of the lime
mortars confirmed the existence of siliceous aggregates. There were often pieces
of igneous rocks (diabase) and a few silicates (quartz, pyroxenes, feldspars). The
observations of the samples in the SEM showed that the crystalline form of the lime
is different from the crystalline structure of the raw material used for its manufacture,
as the large volume – change during the calcination process creates large strains in
the surface layer of the reaction product forming small interconnected particles
during the loss of CO2. When mixed with water, the (expansive) hydration reaction
forces it apart firstly into a CaOH powder and then into a putty (colloidal hydroxide).
Thus, during recarbonation, extremely fine-grained calcium carbonate is produced
with particles less than 1 mm in size [1, 4]. Thus, the crystalline form of the sample
(size, uniformity) confirmed the calcination and hydration procedure (Fig. 3).
30 M. Philokyprou

Fig. 3 SEM Photo showing the microstructure of a Neolithic lime mortar from Kalavasos-Tenta.
Small rounded lime grains of small size (1–10 mm)

This very early use of lime mortars in Cyprus is not surprising since the invention
of lime in the Near East can be dated back to the earliest periods of antiquity.
According to Frierman [10], the production of lime originated in Anatolia and then
spread to the Levant. More recent studies [1, 11] have shown that the invention of
lime in the Near East can be dated back to the Epi-Paleolithic period (12000 B.C.)
while the earliest use of lime in architecture took place in the Early Natufian period
(10300 B.C.). This plaster production was disseminated in the Aceramic Neolithic
period and particularly in the seventh and sixth millennium B.C. when thick plaster
floors were widely adopted [1].
The fossils, observed mainly in thin sections of lime and lime-gypsum mortars,
suggest the presence of aggregates of calcitic composition. According to Hughes
et al. [12], small lime lumps of under-burnt or over-burnt quicklime can often be
recognized in the historic lime mortars, showing that the calcination process was
not complete. The presence of lime lumps is sometimes interpreted as having been
caused by a practice where damp aggregate is deliberately mixed with roughly
crushed quicklime [13]. This was a typical ancient and traditional technique [4].
The use of lime and gypsum plasters appears to be associated with the emergence of
permanent architecture during the Neolithic period of the island, accompanied by
the need for building materials resistant to environmental conditions. This theory is
also supported by Kingery et al. [1], who reported that “the appearance of perma-
nent architecture brought with it the desirability of building materials resistant to
environmental weathering.” In Cyprus during the Neolithic period, the knowledge
of the technology for plaster production, in relation to the rest of the civilization,
either suggests a sophisticated culture that was introduced to the island from abroad
or constitutes an evolution of an earlier local civilization.
Chalcolithic mortars were mainly collected from Kissonerga-Mosphilia, one of
the most important sites of this period (Fig. 1). Their detailed investigation showed
The Earliest Use of Lime and Gypsum Mortars in Cyprus 31

that the lime heating process was widespread on the island during this period, as
several plaster floors of considerable thickness were found, all consisting of one or
two dense layers of lime, 5–10 cm thick. In his PhD thesis on Prehistoric Cypriot
Buildings, Thomas [14] gives some preliminary estimates regarding the Chalcolithic
floors of Kissonerga. For the largest circular house of the settlement with a diameter
of 15.0 m and a floor thickness of 10 cm, the required lime was calculated to be
2.5 m3. For smaller structures with a diameter of about 9.5 m, approximately 1 m3
lime was probably used. These thick lime floors were quite different from the Neolithic
thin final layers of lime. The study of the thin sections showed that the binder is
microcrystalline-calcite. The examination of the microstructure of the plasters using
the SEM revealed a uniform fine-grained material (calcite grains 1–3 mm). The
physical (hardness and thickness) and chemical characteristics, as well as the micro-
structure of the Chalcolithic floors, suggest that the combustion process of limestone
was widespread during this period. It can be deduced that lime plaster floors have
existed since the Neolithic period, but in most cases they just constituted one or two
very thin upper layers. Thus, the process of heating limestone, although known
during the Neolithic period, was widely disseminated during the Chalcolithic period.
The results for the Bronze Age lime plasters were based on analyses of samples
selected from six very significant sites of the Late Bronze Age (Kalavasos-Ayios
Dhimitrios, Maroni-Vournes, Hala Sultan Tekke, Maa-Palaiokastro, Kition and
Alassa-Palaiotaverna – Fig. 1). In the primary rooms of important public buildings,
the coatings of the flooring were thick and consisted of hard calcitic material [8] that
was recognised under the SEM as lime. The discovery and use of crushed brick-lime
mortars for the first time in the Late Bronze Age constitutes the most important
evolution in the manufacture of lime mortars during this period. Their main use was
in floors, where the capillary rise of water was expected (bath rooms and workshops)
and in various water-related structures (water channels). Small reddish particles
were observed in all samples during examination under an optical microscope. These
particles were recognized as ceramic fragments in thin sections (Fig. 4). The high
quantities of aluminium, iron, and silicon oxides are directly related to the addition
of clay ceramic material during the preparation of the mortars. The identification by
XRD of gehlenite, a mineral that is seldom found in nature but is characteristic of
the use of ceramics heated to 800–1,060°C or natural hydraulic lime, is important.
The presence of anorthite in some samples also confirms the use of ceramics [15].
The observations under the SEM showed that crushed brick-lime mortars have a
compact microstructure of the type formed in hydraulic mortars. The ceramic frag-
ments in the thin sections appeared as reddish clay inclusions (Fig. 4). The ceramic
is extremely fine and uniformly distributed, with some grains smaller than 1 mm.
The small size of the ceramic grains considerably increases the interaction surface
area of the ceramic with the calcium. During the consolidation phase, the grains of
the ceramic, particularly their periphery, seem to react with calcium hydroxide to
create calcium silicate and aluminate hydrates, which results in the hydraulicity of
the mortars. The pozzolanicity of these mortars is attributed to the adhesion reac-
tions occurring at the ceramic matrix interface. It is known that brick powder has a
high pozzolanicity when it is heated to low temperatures. Ancient ceramics were
32 M. Philokyprou

Fig. 4 Thin section (with cross nicols) of a Late Bronze Age crushed-brick lime plaster of a water
channel from Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios. Red irregular inclusions of ceramics (K) of different
sizes (0.1–1.5 mm) in a lime matrix

often heated to relatively low temperatures, and so they were suitable as pozzolanic
additives. The thermal curves confirmed that the examined crushed brick-lime mortars
were hydraulic. Weight loss, estimated through thermal analyses, between 200°C
and 600°C is attributed to the loss of structurally bound (hydraulic) water, i.e. due
to the decomposition of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate hydrates. The Late
Bronze Age crushed brick-lime mortars consist of 5–8% structurally bound water,
so they present a moderate hydraulic character.
The appearance of the crushed brick-lime plasters in Cyprus during this period
can be associated with the overall prosperity of the era and particularly with the
emergence of urban centres. The appearance of crushed brick-lime mortars seems
to occur simultaneously in the Mycenaean and Minoan world as well [3]. Recent
studies have shown the use of natural pozzolanic additives in the later Minoan periods
in Crete [16]. On the other hand, in the Levant, the earliest use of lime plasters with
hydraulic properties is dated to the Early Bronze Age, and thus appears to precede
the use of the similar mortars in Cyprus [8].
With the exception of the widespread use of gypsum plasters in the settlement of
Kalavasos-Tenta, gypsum plasters are to be found mainly during the Late Bronze Age
for special applications (i.e. as a material for the fastening of wooden elements).
The limited use of gypsum is surprising, since the island has very notable deposits
of gypsum rocks. Observations by SEM on the Late Bronze Age gypsum plasters
revealed the existence of various well-shaped elongated or rather rounded crystals
(Fig. 5). The microstructure of these samples is very similar to the structure of other
historic gypsum mortars, but differs from contemporary ones [1, 4, 17].
According to Middendorf [17], a long-term weathered gypsum mortar is made
up of large rounded crystals due to accumulated crystallization process
induced by wet and dry cycles during weathering processes, and thus differs from
The Earliest Use of Lime and Gypsum Mortars in Cyprus 33

Fig. 5 Thin section of a Late Bronze Age gypsum plaster found near a door frame in Kalavasos-
Ayios Dhimitrios. Rounded flat gypsum crystals (G) with a small number of rounded lime grains (L)

contemporary gypsum mortars. The procedure described by Strahan [18] was

followed for further verification of the manufacturing method of gypsum mor-
tars. According to this theory, the final gypsum product of calcination can be
distinguished from the natural rock by the XRD diagram when samples are
mixed with acetone. By using acetone slurry on a quartz plate, the preferred
orientation of the crystals is duplicated. The relationship between the three
major gypsum XRD peaks was investigated (7.56, 4.28, 3.06 Å) and the inten-
sity of the peak of 7.56 Å (first peak) was compared to the other two samples.
According to Strahan, the peak of 7.56 Å is consistently lower than the other two
in the plasters. The prehistoric plasters examined showed the first peak to be
lower than the others, confirming this assumption.
The analyses under the SEM indicated that most of the samples have a compact
microstructure typical of old historic mortars, with aggregates well-embedded in
the matrices [1, 4]. Chemical quantitative analyses showed that in most of the aerial
and crushed-brick lime plasters, the relationship between silicon and aluminum
oxides is linear (Fig. 6). The same relationship can be observed between silicon and
ferric oxides. This leads to the conclusion that these oxides are related to the exis-
tence of clay minerals in aerial lime mortars. In crushed brick-lime mortars this can
be related either to ceramic additives or to the presence of raw clay mineral compo-
sition. The relationship between silicon and calcium oxides appears to be of an
inverse nature in all lime mortars. Gypsum mortars constitute a different case with
a limited content of aggregates. The diagrams and the analyses showed that the
gypsum mortars, especially those of the Bronze Age, were prepared by the calcina-
tion of pure gypsum rocks, whereas lime mortars always had other additives, either
due to the composition of the raw material or to the addition of aggregates during
the manufacturing process.
34 M. Philokyprou

Fig. 6 Diagram showing the relationship between Al2O3 and SiO2 in aerial lime and crushed-brick
lime mortars of the Bronze Age (Diagram derived from the results of bulk chemical analyses of the
samples)

3 Conclusions

The investigation showed the chronological evolution regarding the use of mortars
in Cyprus. Lime and gypsum seem to have been used since the Neolithic period.
Lime was the material of choice during all the prehistoric periods, whereas the use
of gypsum was rather limited. The use of the different types of plasters, especially
during the Neolithic period was related to the environment in the vicinity of the
settlements. This explains the wide use of gypsum, lime, gypsum-lime and lime-
gypsum mortars in Kalavasos-Tenta, where the neighbouring rocks and soils were
of these compositions. The preference for the use of lime mortars in Khirokitia was
also connected with the presence of such rocks and soils in the immediate environ-
ment. The discovery of crushed-brick lime mortars during the Late Bronze Age
constitutes an innovation, and it is associated with a significant evolution in the
pyrotechnology of this period. The preference for the use of ceramic as a hydraulic
additive instead of natural pozzolans is due to the absence of such physical volcanic
minerals on the island.
This research demonstrated the need for the use of a combination of different
characterisation techniques for the detailed study of ancient mortars [19]. It is obvious
that the investigation of the various types of plasters gives information about the
knowledge level of technology, the economy and organization of the production of
a region, and the distribution of raw materials and finished products.

Acknowledgement The information for the preparation of this paper is derived from an unpub-
lished PhD thesis, submitted by the author to the University of Cyprus and supervised by
Professor Vassos Karageorghis as well as from one multidisciplinary research program on
The Earliest Use of Lime and Gypsum Mortars in Cyprus 35

ancient plaster technology financed by the Research Promotion Foundation of Cyprus (with code
RPF 34/99). The laboratory analyses were carried out in the Research Center of Democritos,
Athens (SEM with EDAX, qualitative XRD analyses) and in the laboratories of two government
departments (Geological Survey Department, Cyprus: Chemical analyses, Institute of Geological
and Mineral Exploration, Athens: Quantitative XRD analyses, Petrographic analyses, Thermal
analyses).

References

1. Kingery, W.D., Vandiver, P.B., Prickett, M.: The beginnings of pyrotechnology, part II:
production and use of lime and gypsum plaster in the pre- pottery Neolithic Near East.
J. Field Archaeol. 15, 219–244 (1988)
2. Davey, N.: A History of Building Materials. Phoenix House, London (1961)
3. Shaw, J.W.: Minoan Architecture: Materials and Techniques. Annuario della Scuola
Archeologica di Atene et delle Missioni Italiane in Oriente XLIX. Nuova Serie 33. Rome
(1973)
4. Gourdin, W.H., Kingery, W.D.: The beginnings of pyrotechnology: Neolithic and Egyptian
lime plaster. J. Field Archaeol. 2, 133–150 (1975)
5. Arnold, D.: Building in Egypt. Oxford University Press, New York (1991)
6. Borelli, E., Laurenzi Tabasso, M.: Which binder for the Egyptian plasters of the Pharaos’
monuments? In: Proceedings of the 8th International Congress on Conservation of Stone,
Berlin, pp. 1447–1456 (1996)
7. Garfinkel, Y.: Burnt lime products and social implications in the pre-pottery Neolithic B
villages of the Near East. Paleorient 13, 69–76 (1987)
8. Philokyprou, M.: Building materials and structures of the architecture in Cyprus, from the
Neolithic period until the Late Bronze Age. PhD thesis, University of Cyprus (1998)
9. Ronen, A., Bentur, A., Soroka, I.: A plastered floor from the Neolithic village, Yiftahel (Israel).
Paléorient 17(2), 149–155 (1991)
10. Frierman, J.D.: Lime burning as the precursor of fired ceramics. Isr. Explor. J 21, 212–216
(1971)
11. Thusen, I., Gwozdz, R.: Lime plaster in Neolithic Hama, Syria. Paleorient 8, 99–103 (1982)
12. Leslie, A.B., Hughes, J.J.: Binder microstructure in lime mortars: implications for the interpre-
tation of analysis results. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 35, 257–263 (2002)
13. Hughes, J.J., Leslie, A.B., Callebaut, K.: The petrography of lime inclusions in historic lime
based mortars. In: Proceedings of the 8th Euroseminar on Microscopy Applied to Building
Materials, Athens, pp. 359–364 (2001)
14. Thomas, G.D.: Prehistoric Cypriot mud buildings and their impact on the formation of archae-
ological sites. PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh (1995)
15. Périnet, G., Courtois, L.: Évaluation des températures de cuisson de céramiques et de vaiselles
blanches néolithiques de Syrie. Bulletin de la Societé Pr. Française 80, 157–160 (1983)
16. Maravelaki–Kalaitzaki, P., Bakolas, A., Moropoulou, A.: Physico-chemical study of Cretan
ancient mortars. Cem. Concr. Res. 33, 651–661 (2003)
17. Middendorf, B.: Physico-mechanical and microstructural characteristics of historic and resto-
ration mortars bases on gypsum: current knowledge and perspective. In: Siegesmund,
S., Weiss, T., Vollbrecht, A. (eds.) Natural Stone, Weathering Phenomena, Conservation
Strategies and Case Studies, pp. 165–176. Geological Society, London (2002)
18. Strahan, D.K.: Naturally deposited versus intentionally applied gypsum on archaeological
materials from Harappa, Pakistan. J. Field Archaeol. 18, 527–530 (1991)
19. Papayianni, I.: A holistic way of studying mortars and bricks of ancient masonries for manu-
facturing compatible repair materials. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on
the Conservation of Monuments in the Mediterranean, Rhodes, pp. 265–274 (1997)