TDP-102 ABCs of Comfort

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INTRODUCTION
TO HVAC
ABCs
of
Comfort
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Technical Development Programs (TDP) are modules of technical training on HVAC theory,
system design, equipment selection and application topics. They are targeted at engineers and de-
signers who wish to develop their knowledge in this field to effectively design, specify, sell or apply
HVAC equipment in commercial applications.
Although TDP topics have been developed as stand-alone modules, there are logical group-
ings of topics. The modules within each group begin at an introductory level and progress to
advanced levels. The breadth of this offering allows for customization into a complete HVAC
curriculum – from a complete HVAC design course at an introductory-level or to an advanced-
level design course. Advanced-level modules assume prerequisite knowledge and do not review
basic concepts.
The Carrier TDP modules deal primarily with the design and operation of comfort air condi-
tioning. To design these comfort air-conditioning systems, it is first necessary to understand what
comfort is, and how a system designer can influence the human perception of comfort. The
“ABCs of Comfort” is a module of the introductory series and is intended to introduce system
designers to the parameters that influence human comfort, and how the air system and mechanical
refrigeration system work together to control these conditions. The material presented helps the
designers determine one of the first objectives of the system design, which is to establish the
comfort standards for the project.
© 2004 Carrier Corporation. All rights reserved.

The information in this manual is offered as a general guide for the use of industry and consulting engineers in designing systems.
Judgment is required for application of this information to specific installations and design applications. Carrier is not responsible for
any uses made of this information and assumes no responsibility for the performance or desirability of any resulting system design.
The information in this publication is subject to change without notice. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose, without the express written permission of Carrier Corporation.
Printed in Syracuse, NY
CARRIER CORPORATION
Carrier Parkway
Syracuse, NY 13221, U.S.A.
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Table of Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Why Do We Need Air Conditioning?.......................................................................................... 1
Process Air Conditioning......................................................................................................... 2
Comfort Air Conditioning ....................................................................................................... 2
Comfort............................................................................................................................................ 2
Body Temperature Control ...................................................................................................... 3
Conduction............................................................................................................................... 3
Convection............................................................................................................................... 5
Radiation.................................................................................................................................. 6
Evaporation.............................................................................................................................. 8
Relative Humidity and Comfort .............................................................................................. 9
Body Regulation and Space Control...................................................................................... 14
Comfort Chart ............................................................................................................................ 16
Clothing Level ....................................................................................................................... 17
Activity Level ........................................................................................................................ 17
Effective Temperature ........................................................................................................... 18
The Comfort Chart................................................................................................................. 18
Conditions that Impact Comfort ............................................................................................ 19
Comfort System Requirements .................................................................................................. 20
Defining Comfort Conditions .................................................................................................... 23
Air-Conditioning Systems ............................................................................................................. 25
Air System ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Building Loads........................................................................................................................... 27
Air System – Components ......................................................................................................... 30
Room Air Distribution ............................................................................................................... 31
Ventilation ................................................................................................................................. 32
Filtration..................................................................................................................................... 33
Heating....................................................................................................................................... 33
Cooling....................................................................................................................................... 35
Mechanical Refrigeration System.................................................................................................. 40
Change of State Provides the Capacity ...................................................................................... 41
Components of the System ........................................................................................................ 43
Summary........................................................................................................................................ 48
Work Session 1 .............................................................................................................................. 49
Work Session 2 .............................................................................................................................. 51
Work Session 3 .............................................................................................................................. 53
Appendix........................................................................................................................................ 55
Comfort Conditions Form.......................................................................................................... 56
Table of Design Conditions ....................................................................................................... 57
Work Session Answers .............................................................................................................. 66
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Introduction
HVAC is the business of providing comfort. In order to design a comfort system, one must
first understand what comfort is. This training module will introduce the principles of human com-
fort, the environmental factors that influence comfort, and how air conditioning works to maintain
comfort. It will also explain how to determine the comfort specifications for a project.
We will begin by defining human comfort and the six environmental factors that influence
our perception of comfort. These factors are: temperature, humidity, air motion, radiant tempera-
ture, ventilation (air quality) and contaminant control (air purity). Each of us perceive
comfortable levels of these factors in different ways, and each of these factors has limits that an
HVAC system must maintain. However, there is no absolute mix of conditions that will assure
that every person is comfortable in every situation. It is the designer’s responsibility to under-
stand the requirements, then to identify an HVAC system that will maintain these conditions
within acceptable limits. This design often requires a trade-off in design, cost, complexity, and
comfort.
In order to define comfort specifications, the American Comfort is controlling
Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning • Temperature
Engineers (ASHRAE) has developed a comfort chart. This
• Humidity
chart will be explained later on in this module.
• Air motion
We will also explore how total air-conditioning sys-
tems are actually two interdependent systems: the air • Radiant temperature effects
system and the mechanical refrigeration system. Finally, • Air purity

the primary function of the components of these systems • Air quality
will be explained.
Why Do We Need Air Conditioning?

There are two purposes for
conditioning the air: comfort air
conditioning and process air con-
ditioning.
Figure 1
Comfort depends on how the space is used.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Process Air Conditioning
The purpose of process air conditioning is to improve an industrial process so that the quality or
quantity of the product is improved. For example, the printing process requires certain air condi-
tions to maintain high quality standards. This also applies to pharmaceutical and electronic
equipment assembly areas or in refrigeration (food preservation) applications. In these applications,
when air conditions are out of the desired range, product quality and reliability suffer. The condi-
tions to be maintained are fixed by the nature of the process or material being handled. The number
of variables controlled and the acceptable range of those variables vary greatly from process to
process.
Comfort Air Conditioning
The second, basic reason for conditioning air is to maintain indoor conditions that are consid-
ered comfortable to the occupants. This process is called comfort air conditioning.
While comfort air conditioning focuses on people, process air conditioning focuses on a
product or process, if the people are comfortable as well, so much the better. This module will
focus on comfort air conditioning.
Comfort
Most people think of cooling when air conditioning is mentioned, but it means much more than
that. Total comfort air conditioning is provided by a system that will heat, humidify, cool, dehu-
midify, ventilate, filter, and circulate indoor air in a controlled manner to achieve a desired set of
conditions. Most air-conditioning systems do only a partial job of controlling these comfort vari-
ables. But, at the very least, all systems must maintain temperature, humidity, and air motion within
an acceptable range to be perceived as acceptable. Comfortable
Total comfort air temperature ranges from 68 to 78 degrees Fahrenheit (ºF), with
conditioning provides: 75° F being a typical design goal. Humidity is comfortable from
30 to 60 percent relative humidity, with 50 percent being a typi-
Heating cal design goal in the cooling season.
Humidification
Cooling
Dehumidification
Ventilation
Filtration
Circulation
An explanation of how the

human body regulates tempera-
ture and how space conditions
affect human comfort will help
in understanding why these con-
ditions represent good design
goals. Figure 2
People generate heat depending on activity.
2
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Body Temperature Control
The food we eat acts as fuel, which our body converts to useful energy. In addition to energy,
heat is also produced. Whether you are digesting food, raising your arm, or using your eyes, energy
is used and heat is generated. The more vigorous the activity, the greater the heat generated.
Our bodies are designed to func-
tion in a healthy manner at an inner
body temperature of about 98.6° F. In
order to maintain that temperature,
any excess heat must be rejected. In a
conditioned space, the body always
generates more heat than needed to
keep the inner body temperature at
98.6° F. Therefore, heat is rejected
from our bodies constantly. Four
ways our bodies transfer heat to the
air around us are by conduction, con-
vection, radiation, and evaporation.
Figure 3
Heat is transferred from the body by four processes.
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat directly through a substance or from one substance to another
as heat flows from a higher temperature area to a lower one. The flame of the candle heats the end
of the metal bar. The heat moves along the bar, from the higher temperature area to the lower tem-
perature area, by conduction.
The heat is conducted into the
fingers of the person holding the bar
if the process is allowed to continue.
Also, the heat from the bar is con-
ducted to the cooler air surrounding
it. The heat from the flame is con-
ducted to the bar, through the bar,
from the bar into the fingers, as well
as into the air.
Likewise, in a conditioned space,
heat generated by a person is con-
ducted to the objects the person
touches and to the air surrounding
them. Figure 4
Conduction – Heat Transfer by Contact
3
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ABCs OF COMFORT
The body transfers heat to the air as it comes in contact with it.
Typical temRerature
design targets a11e;
80° F
rll
The greater the temperature difference, the greater the transfer rate.
Figure 5
Air temperature controls conduction.
When the temperature is too low, occupants will complain about feeling cold. When the air
temperature is too warm, they will complain about feeling hot. Consequently, the basic device
used to control the amount of heating or cooling capacity delivered by a comfort air-conditioning
system is a temperature controller, called a thermostat. It is located in the conditioned space.
Temperatures considered comfortable vary with the level of activity, clothing, and personal
preference. The design range for comfortable temperature for normally clothed people who are
involved in sedentary, or near-
sedentary activities that occur in an
office, school, theater, restaurant, retail
shop, hospital or residence is about 68 -
78° F. A typical design target for heat-
ing is about 70° F and for cooling it is
about 75° F. This will be explored fur-
ther later in this module.
Clothing slows down the conduc-
tion process by adding insulation to our
bodies. In the cooling season, adding
insulation is not advisable because it
slows down the conduction process
Figure 6
necessary to reject excess heat. In the
heating season, clothing helps to re- Clothing insulates our body, slowing conduction.
duce body heat loss, adding to comfort.
However, there is a practical limit to how much clothing can be added before people feel un-
comfortable because their body movement is restricted. In sedentary occupations, most efforts to
create comfort with a space temperature below 70° F have been unsuccessful.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Convection
Our bodies also transfer heat by convection. Convection is heat transfer by the movement of a
fluid (gas or liquid) from one place to another. Heated molecules within a flowing medium, such as
air, carry their heat directly to a new area. Thus, convection air currents carry heat to our body or
away from it. Convection currents are easy
HEAT TRANSFER BY DENSITY CURRENTS
to see in a pan of water being heated on a
stove, especially just before boiling begins.
Natural convection currents like these are
also called density currents because their
movement is caused by differences in fluid
density that are a result of temperature dif-
ferences. Warmer fluids are less dense and
tend to rise, while cooler fluids are denser
and tend to fall. Even though we cannot see
Figure 7
them, convection currents operate in the air
around us, very much like they do in a pan Convection -Heat Transfer by Density Currents
of water.
Natural air convection currents form
around our bodies in a conditioned space.
As body heat is conducted into the air close
to us, it becomes warmer than the air farther
away. Since warm air is lighter, or less
dense, than cool air, the warm air floats
upward. The warm air is replaced by cooler
air, and the process continues.
When fans are used, the convection
process is forced rather than natural. Using
fans allows the convection process to move
along more rapidly than it would by natural
Figure 8
means.
Natural Convection - Warm Air Rises Upward
Forced air systems send air from a fan
through a supply ductwork system and out
the supply diffusers located in the ceiling,
wall or floor of the air-conditioned space.
Return grilles pull the room air into a return
ductwork system that takes the air back to
the central equipment for conditioning.
Then the fan sends the air back to the space
agam.
Forced-convection: convective motion is caused

by a fan. Air motion influences comfort.
Figure 9
Forced Convection - Fans Provide Air Motion
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ABCs OF COMFORT
The way the supply air diffusers and return air grilles are sekckd and laid out in the condi-
tioned space is called room air distribution. Room air distribution uses forced convection
currents to assure comfort. If air moves too slowly, temperatures within the space will be uneven
and the occupants may feel stuffy. If the air moves too rapidly, complaints about draftiness and
feeling cold might be expressed.
Comfortable air motion depends on the clothing of the occupants
and their activity. For normally clothed people who are involved in Air Motion Comfort:
sedentary, or near-sedentary activities, a reasonable target for room
air motion is 15 to 45 feet per minute (fpm). When supply diffusers
are selected, located, and ducted according to manufacturer's rec-
ommendations, this design goal is easily achieved.
Radiation
Radiation is the third way heat is transferred from our bodies to conditioned spaces. Radiant
heat travels from a warmer object to a
colder object without heating up the
area in betvveen. For example, a
camper sitting in front of a fire on a
cold night can get warmed even
though the air benveen him and the
fire remains cold. Some of the fire's
radiant heat travels to the camper,
sttiking him, and wanning the side of
his body facing the fire.
Figure 10
Radiation - Heat Transfer by Electromagnetic Waves
Just as the radiant heat of the

campfire flowed to the cooler camper, Low Surface Temperature
radiant heat can also flow from our
bodies to cooler surfaces surrounding
us in conditioned spaces. For in-
stance, body heat will flow from the
man standing in the room to the
colder outside window behind him,
by means of radiation. The colder the
window is, the more rapidly the heat
leaves his body.
Figure 11
Radiation - Warmth radiates/ram the body toward cooler surfaces.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Conversely, radiant heat can flow from a surface to our bodies when the surface is warmer
than our body. Even when the air temperature surrounding us is acceptable, the temperature of the
surfaces surrounding us can cause
discomfort because of radiant heat
flow if those surfaces are very cold or Higher Surface Temperature
hot.
The surface temperature of the
ceiling, walls, floor, and glass that
surrounds us is determined largely by
how well insulated they are. The bet-
ter the insulation, the closer the inside
surface temperature will be to the
inside air temperature. The closer the
surface temperatures are to the room
air temperature, the more comfort is Figure 12
enhanced.
Radiation - Higher suiface temperatures radiate toward the body.
Therefore, quality construction reduces discomfort

caused by radiant heat loss from our bodies in the winter.
It also reduces discomfort caused by radiant heat gain to
our bodies in the summer.
The ideal comfort situation exists when the average temperature of all the surfaces surrounding
the occupant is between 70 and 80° F. Adequate wall and ceiling insulation, multiple layers of
glass, and internal or external solar shading devices all help to achieve this ideal situation. Substan-
tial space temperature adjustment is required to maintain comfort when surface temperatures are
much different than the space air temperature. For instance, a building with poorly insulated outside
walls and single glass may have to be set for 78° F space temperature in the winter to give the same
feeling of comfort as a well insulated space with triple glass set at 70° F.
Likewise, a poorly insulated building without adequate solar shading may have to be set for
68° F in the summer to provide the same feeling of comfort as a well insulated building with ade-
quate solar shading set at 75° F.
Besides the comfort incentive, energy costs for air conditioning add another important moti-
vation for providing adequate building insulation and glass quality. In most cases, the energy
impact of high quality construction is well Surface Temp.*
Barrier Minimum Example Construction
known, but the comfort aspect is often Summer/Winter
R-11 Wood frame with sheathing and siding,
forgotten. The energy penalty of inade- Walls
U-0.099
76.4° F / 69.3° F %-in. sheetrock inside, 3%-in. fiberglass
insulation
quate insulation and poor glazing is R-19 Sheetrock ceiling on bottom of wooden
Roof 75.5° F / 72.9° F trusses, 6-in. fiberglass insulation above
compounded when the thermostat is reset U-0.036 ceiling
Closed-cell foam board slab between
in an attempt to restore comfort. Floor Slab
R-5
78.1° F / 61.6° F foundation and floor slab runs
U-0.231 vertically down below frost lines
Here are some reasonable mm1mum Doors U-0.39 78.4° F / 60.5° F
All closures weather-stripped
from factory
guidelines for insulation and glazing in Single Glass U-1.13 90.4°F/10.0° F Single glass (pane) window
residential construction with outside tem- Single Glass

U-0.49 81.6° F / 46.7° F Single glass (pane) window with storm
w/Storm
peratures at -10° F and 95° F and a space
*Outside Summer 95° F with 75° F inside
temperature of 75° F in both summer and Outside Winter -10° F with 75° F inside
winter.
Figure 13
Typical Residential Surface Temperatures
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Commercial construction guide- Barrier Minimum

Surface Temp.•
Example Construction
Summer/Winter
lines are similar. Here is a table with
U--0.124 76. 7• F / 67.8° F
the same type information but for Walls
U--0.580 82.9" F / 41.5" F
Steel frame masonry
common commercial construction, R-15

Roof 76.2° F / 70.1 ° F Steel frame insulation over deck
again at -10° F and 95 ° F with a 75° F U--0.085
space in both summer and winter. Floor Slab

U--0.350 79.8° F / 70.2° F
Steel joist masonry
U--0.322 79.3° F I 56.4° F
Solar heat absorbed by the surface Doors U--0.70 80.4° F / 51.9° F Swinging type
can make these temperatures much Single Glass U-1.22 89.6° F / 5.3° F Single pane window less than 40% glass
higher. This will be dealt with in Double Pane
U--0.64 83.7° F / 38° F Double pane glass
Glass
more detail later.
• Outside Summer 95° F with 75° F inside
Outside Winter -10° F with 75' F inside
Figure 14
Typical Commercial Sw:face Temperatures
Evaporation
Evaporation is the fourth way heat is transferred from our bodies to the conditioned spaces we
occupy. Moisture, in the form of perspiration, is given off through the pores of our skin. As this
moisture evaporates, it turns into invisible water vapor. The body provides the heat necessary to
accomplish this change of state, from water to vapor. Each pound of water evaporated absorbs
about 1000 British thermal units
(Btu) of heat from the body. Evapora- oisture (perspiration) evaporates from the bodY,
tion from our bodies goes on
constantly, whether it is visible or not.
When you see drops of perspiration on
your skin, your body is producing
more heat than it can reject at the nor-
mal rate.
Convection currents affect evapo-
ration. If there were no air motion, the
layer of air closest to your body
would soon absorb most of the water
vapor it could hold. If this happened,
the evaporation process would come Figure 15
to a halt. Moving air prevents the Evaporation helps control body heat.
build-up of a blanket of moist air
around you.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Convection currents move the air that has absorbed evaporated moisture away from your
body. Behind that air comes drier air that allows the evaporation process to continue. The faster
the air flows over your body, the
more rapidly evaporation takes place
and, therefore, the greater the sensa-
tion of coolness you feel. While
convection currents affect evapora-
tion in an important way, relative
humidity affects it most of all. !j]
Figure 16
Convection currents increase the evaporation rate.
Relative Humidity and Comfort
Relative humidity is a measure of how much moisture is in the air. In reality, it is a ratio that in-
dicates the ability of the air to absorb more moisture, expressed as a percent.
The lower the percent, the lower the moisture content in
the air and the greater the air' s ability to absorb more
moisture . Since relative humidity influences comfort in
an important way, let's take a closer look at it.
Since each pound of water evapo- Higher Humidity = Slower Evaporation

rated from our skin removes about Lower Humidity = Faster Evaporation
1000 Btu from our bodies, evaporation
is an important means for keeping us
cool. The relative humidity of the air
surrounding us sets a limit on how fast
evaporation can take place. The more
humid the air, the slower evaporation
will progress . The less humid, the
more rapidly evaporation will pro-
gress.
Figure 17
Humidity affects the rate of evaporation.
,.)
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There is an upper limit to the water vapor any specific volume of air can hold. Air is said to
be saturated or at saturation when it reaches that level. Air is saturated with all the water vapor it
can hold without having the water change state from a vapor (a gas) into a liquid or a solid. When
that limit is exceeded, the vapor turns to liquid, forming droplets of condensation. Outdoors it
shows up as fog, rain, sleet, or snow.
Consider the air in the room
illustrated. Obviously, there is no
Atmospheric air is a mixture
rain or fog in the room, so the air of dry air and water vapor.
is at a condition, which is at or
less than saturation. When the
temperature of the air is meas-
ured, it is found to be 70° F. We
will need some more information
to determine how close to satura-
tion the air is.
Air has weight. The dry
gases in air, as well as its water
vapor, contribute to that weight.
The amount it weighs per unit of
volume (space) is its density,
Figure 18
which is expressed as pounds per
3
cubic foot of air (lb/ft ). Mostly it Air is a mixture of dry gases and water vapor.
is temperature that influences air
density. Warmer air is less dense .
Colder air is denser.
The amount of volume, or space, one pound of air takes up is its specific volume . Density and
specific volume are like flip sides of the same coin. Mathematically speaking, specific volume is
the reciprocal of density (specific volume = l/density). Likewise, density is the reciprocal of spe-
cific volume (density= l/specific volume). As density increases, specific volume decreases, and
vice versa.
Figure 19 gives you an ap-
preciation of the specific volume Specific Volume = 13.3 ft3/lb
Density
of a typical sample of air and =1/Specific Volume
water vapor mixture in an air- = 1/13 .3 ft3/lb
conditioned room . The sample =.075 lb/ft3
shown has a specific volume of 1 lb of air @ 70° F __ _
13 .3 cubic feet per pound. In fills a 13.3 ft3 cube - -
other words, one pound of air at
the conditions in this room takes ,. "'
-
.,. , ,,,.
*,,,."",,,. -
- "'"'
,
- ,"'""
up a space the size of a cube that T ••••• .··

is about 28Y2 inches on each side. 28Y." • • • • • ,•
The density of the same air sam-
ple is 0.075 pounds per cubic - l..,e,,_
I ••••• •••
• • • • • .· 55 gr
(1/10ofanozofwater)
1l- 2aY." - I
foot (1 /13.3). This moist air
sample is about the same weight Figure 19
as four packs of chewing gum.
One pound of air and water mixture containing 55 grains of moisture .
.... )
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When the moisture of the air is measured, it is determined to be about 55 grains of water va-
por per pound of dry air. This is a very small amount of water vapor, since there are 7000 grains
in a pound of water. So in this example, each pound of dry air contains about 1110 of an ounce in
the form of water vapor. So in this example, each pound of dry air contains about 1110 of an
ounce in the form of water vapor. If the air were at 50° F and the same 55 grains of moisture, the
air would be saturated.
85 90
180
1 lb water = 7000 gr 160
Saturation 140
(maximum amount of water vapor) 120 w

··· ········w110
100
if grains
. 80
~
.;;
'Q
g
fj
j
If this same pound of 70° Fair
. 20
was saturated with water vapor, it
could hold a maximum of 110 db ' F• 30 40 50 60 70 SO 90 100 110
0 '
120
grains of water vapor. Psychromet- Dry Bulb Temperature,• F

rics is required to determine the
maximum amount of water vapor Figure 20
the air sample can hold. Psy- A psychrometric chart is used to determine saturation.
chrometrics is the study of dry air
and water vapor mixtures, the kind
we find in any room. The psy-
chrometric chart shows how the
specific humidity of our air sam-
ple is determined to be 110 grains
per pound at saturation. Following Saturated
r,~
the 70-degree dry bulb line verti-
=~ / V10° F
cally up to the saturation line (100
percent rh), and over to the right
gives the value of 110 grains per
pound of dry air.
~:::::/~r;
+ 110 gr
The air sample is not satu-

rated since it only contains 55
grains of water vapor per pound Figure 21
of dry air, rather than 110 grains. Air Sample ~Not Saturated and Saturated
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To find the relative humidity of the air, divide the amount of moisture the sample contains
(55 grains per pound) by the maximum amount it could hold at saturation (110 grains per pound),
and multiply by 100 to get the percent. The answer is 50 percent for the illustrated room . There-
fore , the room conditions are
70° F and 50 percent relative
humidity (rh) .
Because the air has a 50 per-
cent rh, you know that it
contains half as much water va-
por as it could hold if it were
saturated. Since the moisture
holding ability of air is influ- Relative Humidity = ~*100 = 50%
enced by temperature, the 110
relative humidity of the air in the Figure 22
room changes if its temperature
changes. Relative Humidity of 70 ° F Moist Air
Let' s raise the temperature to 92° F. Since no more water vapor has been added, the actual
moisture content, also called specific humidity, is still 55 grains per pound of dry air (gr/lb).
However, warm air has a greater ability to hold moisture than cool air. At 92° F, a pound of dry
air holds approximately 220
Not Saturated
grains of water vapor when satu-
rated. o/92° F
The relative humidity of the
air sample is now only 25 per- >H r~55gr
cent, as shown. One pound of
70° F air is 50 percent of the
way to being saturated when
containing 55 grains of water Relative Humidity = ~* 100 = 25%
vapor, but when heated to 92° F, 220
it is only 25 percent of the way
Figure 23
to saturation. Air at 92° F can
hold twice the moisture as 70° F Relative Humidity of the Same Air at 92 F .
air.
As previously illustrated, cold air can hold less moisture than warm air. A practical applica-
tion of this fact can be seen in heated spaces situated in cold climates. The air within a building
always starts out being outdoor air. The moisture within the building is a combination of what
comes in from outside plus the vapor added by people, cooking, washing, and water exposed to
the indoor air. If a building has good vapor barriers, some of the moisture added internally can be
retained; but if the barriers are poor, most of the moisture leaks out rather rapidly.
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If the outdoor air is 20° F and 50 percent rh, as shown here, its specific humidity is only
about 7.5 grains per pound. Its specific humidity is very low at 50 percent rh because cold air can
hold very little water vapor before
becoming saturated. When this same
air comes inside by leakage (infiltra-
tion), or is brought in through
ventilation, it still contains 7.5 grains 70° F 20° F
per pound, but drops way down to 7 7.5 gr/lb 7.5 gr/lb
percent rh at 70° F. It will not take 7% rh 50% rh
much air this dry to drop the space
relative humidity below the lower
Outdoor Air Enters Via:
limit for comfort, which is about 30 • Infiltration
percent. • Ventilation
During the heating season, evapo- Figure 24

ration works against US. The heating Infiltration of outside air lowers space relative humidity.
system is used to limit the loss of heat
from our bodies by heating the air, but evaporation is accelerating body heat loss as the air be-
comes drier. Consequently, a humidifier becomes an important part of a total comfort air-
conditioning system installed in a cold climate.
If the air around your body has a low relative humidity, your body will be able to give off
more heat through evaporation than ifthere is a high relative humidity. Lowering the relative hu-
midity speeds up evaporation. Increasing relative humidity slows it down.
Comfortable relative humidity
ranges from about 30 percent to 60
More - Evaporation . . . Less
percent, with an ideal goal in the Low High
Relative Humidity Relative Humidity
cooling season being 50 percent.
Relative humidity of 55 percent is a i I I 1,
more reasonable goal for climates
with a moderately humid climate .
Relative humidity of 60 percent is the
limit for high humidity climates.
In the cooling season, when rela-
tive humidity is above 60 percent,
people often complain of being un-
comfortable, regardless of the space Figure 25
temperature . It is often true that a Relative humidity influences the rate of evaporation.
space with a slightly warmer tem-
perature but lower relative humidity is perceived to be more comfortable than one with a lower
temperature but higher relative humidity. Since cooling systems dehumidify the air only when the
compressor is running, it is important to avoid oversizing equipment more than about 20 percent
to avoid excessive humidity at partial cooling load. Over-
sized systems spend too much time with the compressor
cycled off to do a good job of dehumidifying the indoor air.
This is especially important in humid, summer climates.
Humidity levels above 60 percent have the potential to cre-
ate indoor air quality issues in addition to comfort
complaints .
.Introduction to HVAC «<Mtii.>

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ABCs OF COMFORT
Heating season goals for rt:lative humidity are limited by the severity of the winter climate
and the insulation and glazing quality of the building. When the outdoor temperature drops, cold
outside walls and windows can cause moisture to condense as liquid water, damaging walls,
draperies, moldings, and floor coverings. It is wisest to reset the humidistat, which controls the
humidifier, according to outside temperature. If the humidity level is not reset, a practical design
goal for locations with a winter design tem-
Outdoor Maximum
perature not less than 10° F is 30 percent. Outdoor
Relative Indoor
Milder climates may tolerate somewhat Temperature
Humidity Humidity
higher humidities, as shown. -10° F 20%
30 to 70
0° F 30 to 70 25%
10° F 30 to 70 30%
20° F 30 to 70 35%
30° F 30 to 70 40%
Figure 26
Recommended Maximum Winter Humidity Levels
Body Regulation and Space Control
Now we will summarize human comfort as it pertains Conditions designers control:

to air conditioning by relating the four ways our bodies
transfer heat to four building conditions the air-
conditioning designer can control.
Conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation,
the four ways our bodies transfer heat to the environment,
occur simultaneously. These methods work together at-
tempting to maintain our bodies in a comfortable state. As
we have seen, there are several conditions within the
space that help our bodies achieve the comfort they are
trying to maintain .
.. )
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ABCs OF COMFORT
These conditions include air temperature, space relative humidity, air motion, and surface
temperature of outside barriers. The designer of a comfort air-conditioning system can influence
air temperature, space relative humidity, and air motion so that comfort is assured for most people
in most circumstances. The goal of the comfort air-conditioning designer is to engineer systems
that maintain these conditions
within ?- reasonable range at a Four Ways the Body Four Space
Regulates Heat Conditions to Control
reasonable cost and energy usage. Conduction Surface
Proper attention must be given to Temperature
the air system and mechanical Convection Air
refrigeration system to achieve Temperature
this goal. First we will examine Radiation
Relative
the air system and then the me- Humidity
chanical refrigeration system.
Both are equally important.
It can be noted from the dis-
cussion that comfort parameters
have acceptable control ranges.
Some of these are the result of Figure 27
personal preferences, and some
are the result of seasonal varia- Body Temperature Regulation and Space Control
tions.
People dress differently in summer than they do in winter, which influences the insulating
value provided by clothing. It is typical for people to dress in lighter clothes with less insulating
value in the summer, making
higher temperatures acceptable.
This variation can result in tem- Summer Winter
Less Clothing More Clothing
peratures perceived as comfort-
Warmer Surfaces Colder Surfaces
able in one season as not being
acceptable in another.
Similar results are observed
with transmission loss and gains.
It is not uncommon to have
greater temperature difference
inside to outside in winter than
... ...
summer. This can result in condi-
tions like colder glass temp-
eratures that require higher space
Figure 28
temperatures to compensate for
the additional radiant heat loss. Clothing levels vary by season.
For the designer this means it is important to evaluate conditions for all seasons of the year.
This is true even when a space requires cooling all year round in order to be sure the selected
comfort criteria is maintained.
,..,..)
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Comfort Chart
ASHRAE has conducted considerable research on what constitutes comfort. The results are a
comfort chart that can be used by the designer to select the appropriate comfort conditions for any
occupancy, activity level, or season.
Since the conditions that define
You can't please all the
optimum comfort depend on individ- people all the time Levels of comfort
Hot
ual preferences, dress, activity, and • Clothing Level • Hot
body function, it is impossible to have • Activity Level Warm
one specific number that satisfies eve- • Temperature • Slightly Warm
Neutral
ryone . To account for human • Humidity Neutral
differences, studies have been done • Air Motion • Slightly Cool
using a large number of people to de- • Surrounding Surfaces • Cool
fine what people perceive as Localized Conditions Cold Cold
comfortable.
80 I 20 Rule means:
Each of four comfort variables Conditions are acceptable to more
has been tested along with dress, ac- than 80% of the people
tivity, and localized conditions to Figure 29

determine what range of each is con-
Comfort is subjective and depends on many variables.
sidered acceptable. The results of
these tests have resulted in the devel-
opment of the ASHRAE Comfort Standard, ASHRAE 55. This standard can serve as the de-
signer's guide in determining the indoor comfort requirements for a project.
As is done with many studies that involve human judgment, the 80/20 rule is used. This rule
is, when greater than 80 percent of the people are satisfied with the conditions, then the condi-
tions are considered acceptable . In reality, since comfort is so subjective and a function of
numerous variables, a 10 percent dissatisfaction level is used for acceptability with each individ-
ual comfort condition. This should result, when all conditions are considered, in meeting the
80/20 rule.
Comfort perception varies considerably, so a seven-step scale is used to evaluate the level of
comfort. The subjects of the studies rate comfort as, hot, warm, slightly warm, neutral, slightly
cool, cool and cold. Results then are based on a 90 percent rating of those conditions.
As discussed, temperature and humidity have the greatest influence on comfort and are the
primary controllable functions of air-conditioning systems . The comfort envelope defines a range
of acceptable temperature and humidity. Other conditions that influence comfort are assumptions
and corrections to the values in the chart. Air motion, surrounding surface temperatures, clothing
levels, activity level, and local conditions, such as floor-to-ceiling temperature difference, cycles
per hour, and temperature drift, are assumptions on which the chart is based.
Designers can then use the chart and the modifications, which account for the other variables,
to select the design conditions appropriate for the project.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Clothing Level
Clothing acts as an insulator inhibiting the ability of the body to dissipate heat. This can both
help and hinder in the ability to maintain comfort. The more layers and the heavier clothing people
have on, the less heat the body will be able to dissipate. The insulating value of clothing is meas-
ured in CLO units, or clothing insulat-
ing value. One CLO unit is equivalent • Clothing is an insulator
to an R-value (resistance to heat flow) • Insulating value is measured in CLO -
of 0.88 Btu/(h * ft2 * F), or about Clothing Insulation Value
equal to wrapping the body in a 'l4
inch of cellular foam insulation. • Varies from summer to winter with lower
value in areas with less annual variation
Tables have been established for Typical Values Business Suit - 1.0 CLO
typical clothing assemblies based on Summer 0.35 - 0.6
men and women and typical dressing
Winter 0.8 - 1.2
situations. These tables are found in
ASHRAE Standard 55 and The
ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook.
When the assemblies for the project
are not listed, a table of CLO values
for different clothing pieces is pro- Figure 30
vided. The CLO value of the
assembly can be estimated by adding The insulating value of clothing is measured in CLO units.
individual component CLOs using a
formula.
As discussed earlier, people have different dressing habits in summer and winter. The comfort
chart assumes a CLO value of 0.5 for summer dress and 0.9 for winter dress. These values are typi-
cal for most office and retail applications. As a guideline, typical values of 0.35 to 0.60 in summer
and 0.8 to 1.2 in winter are appropriate.
Activity Level
Light
The activity level of the people in Sleeping Office Industrial High Activity
a space also affects the perceived 0.8 MET 1.2 MET 1.6 MET 3.0 MET
comfort level for temperature and
humidity. Activity level is measured
in metabolic rate units (MET) , and is
used to calculate the heat energy pro-
duced by the body. One MET is
equivalent to a heat generation rate of
2
18.4 Btuh/ft • The average body is 19 Figure 31
2
ft , therefore, the body generates ap- Activity level is measured in MET (Jvfetabolic Rate Temperatures)
proximately 350 Btuh per MET or and can be less for higher activity levels.
about 420 Btuh per person for per-
forming standard office tasks.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Typical levels vary from 0.8 MET when sleeping, to 3.0 MET doing heavy activity. The val-
ues in the comfort chart are based on an activity level representative of people seated at rest and
doing typical office work. The metabolic rate for this activity level is 1.2 MET.
The higher the activity level the lower the tempera-
The average human body
ture generally found acceptable. Designers may be able
to adjust design conditions to account for this. However,
people often compensate for the activity in their dress.
When designing, you must anticipate the impacts of both
the activity and compensation of clothing to activity
level.
Effective Temperature
Humidity has a significant impact on comfort. People commonly feel comfortable at a lower
temperature in winter if the humidity is
higher. Conversely, in the summer people • Humidity affects how we perceive comfort
feel more comfortable at a higher tem-
• Effective temperature (ET) is the temperature
perature if the humidity is lower. and humidity that feels the same as that dry
bulb temperature at 50% relative humidity
To account for this difference, the
concept of effect temperature is used. • In winter we feel more comfortable at a lower
temperature if the dew point is higher
The effective temperature is dry bulb and
relative humidity that feel the same as • In summer we feel more comfortable at a
higher temperature if the dew point is lower
that dry bulb temperature at 50 percent
relative humidity. Notice the lines on the Figure 32
comfort chart below reflect this concept.
Effective Temperature
The Comfort Chart
ASHRAE has plotted, on

the psychrometric chart, an 120
envelope of the acceptable ...
range of temperature and hu- 100 ·~
midity based on clothing and • Do not exceed 60% rh
-c
a
activity levels in a typical of- 80 ~
fice environment. This data • Lower limit rh is not !..
required but it affects 60 ~
allows the designer to select
comfort Cl
operating conditions that c:i
should achieve the 80/20 rule • Energy codes require 40 ~
~
for comfort. The effective 5 degrees between '6
temperature results in the slop- cooling and heating 20 ·~
:c
ing angle to the sides of both set points
the upper and lower limits of 0
60 70 80 90
the operative temperature. The Operative Temperature, °F
impact of clothing can be seen
in the difference in the limit Figure 33
values being different for
..
rlSHIUE Comfort Chart
summer and winter.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Notice that the line does not extend above 60 percent relative humidity or 84 grains. Above
60 percent, comfort is usually compromised and the potential for mold growth and indoor air
quality issues are likely. A dotted line at 35° F dew point represents a design goal for a lower
limit of space humidity. However, the current ASHRAE comfort envelope has removed the lower
limit requirement due to concerns over condensation on cold walls and glass. Several studies
have shown that maintaining the space humidity at the line represented by the 35° F dew point
will help avoid complaints often associated with very dry air.
Also notice that the summer and winter conditions overlap in the 73° F to 75° F range . One
might assume that this temperature range then would be a good compromise for both winter and
summer with one set point for both. However, energy codes require a 5-degree temperature dif-
ference between summer and winter control points. Designers need to consider both the summer
and winter control set points.
Conditions that Impact Comfort
A number of conditions could exist that will impact comfort if the settings from the comfort
chart are applied. The first is the impact of air motion. When the air motion is increased the evapo-
ration is also increased. As a result, in areas
where the higher air motion can be tolerated, • Air Motion
the temperature may be up to 7° F higher than - Control temperature can be compensated
indicated in the chart. This has the most im- by up to 7° F
pact in high activity level applications. For - Drafts over 100 fpm maintain between 25
lower activity levels, like the office environ- and 40 fpm, depending on temperature,
ment, this should be less than 5.5° F. turbulence and activity level
While air motion helps with the cooling • Head-to-Toe difference of 5° F

effect, airflow that exceeds the velocity lim- • Temperature Cycling> 4° F/hour
its shown may result in drafts that could be
objectionable. This is the case if air motion • Temperatu re Drifts> 1° F/h our
is such that papers move on a desk. Air ve-
Figure 34
locity in excess of 100 fpm is not
recommended. Non-uniform Impacts
Another phenomenon that can result in discomfort is too great a thermal gradient from head
to toe. Warm air rises and cold air settles based on the thermal density currents. With a great dif-
ference in this temperature, discomfort is sensed even when the temperatures at both extremes are
within the comfort zone. A head-to-toe temperature difference should not exceed 5° F.
People are also sensitive to the time rate of change in temperature. Many systems control ca-
pacity by cycling stages of cooling or heating capacity. It has been determined that this rate
should not exceed a change of greater than 4° F based on a maximum of one cycle every 15 min-
utes. The peak-to-peak differences in cycles per hour should also not exceed 2° F. These issues
are associated with the system's ability to control temperature at part load conditions.
A similar issue is related to the amount of intentional drift or swing a system is allowed to
exhibit. Drift is intentionally letting the control temperature not meet the thermostat set point.
This can be done by offset in the thennostat or by control strategies that reduce cooling capability
during the occupied hours. To maintain comfort, the temperature drift should not exceed 1° F per
hour.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
The final impact on how comfort is perceived is the impact of radiant surface temperatures .
When the temperature of one surface is warmer than another surface it radiates heat energy to the
cooler surface. If we consider a room and a person in the room, if their body is at a higher tem-
perature than all the surfaces in the room, the body will radiate heat energy to all the surfaces. In
most actual applications each of the room surfaces is at different temperatures.
Radiant heat exchange is governed by three key principles. First, the heat transfer is based on
the temperature difference between the body and the surface . The greater the temperature differ-
ence the greater the heat transfer. The second principle is that the heat transfer is a function of the
distance squared so the Maximum Allowable Differences with 75° F room
further away the surface is Radiant Temperature 75 F +go F =84 ° F
0
from the person the less • Requires temperature

the impact. Third, the heat adjustment to
compensate for
transfer is a function of the large differences 75° F 75° F 75° F
absorption (ability to ab- • Most sensitive +18° F -18° F
sorb heat) of the surface surface is ceilings g3° F 57° F
and the angle between sur-
faces. It should be obvious Floors
that the calculation of ra- • Temperatures should
diant effects is very 75° F - go F = 66° F
be limited to between
complicated. While the 65° F and 84° F
Cold or Hot Surfaces
equations are available to greater than room set point:
calculate the radiant im- go F Vertical
pacts, a few simple rules 18° F Horizontal
will help designers main-
Figure 35
tain comfort under most
conditions. Suiface Temperatures Influence Comfort
People tend to be most sensitive to ceiling temperatures. If the ceiling and floor temperatures
are within 9° F of the room control point, and wall, glass, and other horizontal surfaces are within
18° F, comfort conditions should be maintained.
Floor temperatures present a similar problem, and with normal footwear ifthe floor tempera-
ture is kept between 65° F and 84° F, comfort conditions should not be compromised.
Comfort System Requirements

Now that comfort standards have been defined, how does a designer go about determining what
the actual requirements should be for a project?
Figure 36 shows a form with the data a designer should consider in preparing the comfort re-
quirements for a project. One of the first steps in design is to define the comfort requirements and
the ranges acceptable to the owner. Ranges that are tighter than actually required can result in
excess cost, both initially and for operation. Likewise, understated requirements result in occu-
pants who are uncomfortable, unhappy, and often less productive.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
The first step is to identify the type of space by usage and the activity to be performed. Build-
ings often have several spaces with different activity and usages; requirements need to be
established for each.
Comfort Design Standards

Space I Activity
Temperature Occupied Unoccupied Throttl ing Swing
Design Min Design Min Range
Summer
Winter
Humidity Design Max Min
Summer
Winter
Air Motion Max Min Notes
fpm
Ventilation Occupied Unoccupied Notes:
Design Min Min
cfm
Direct Exhaust
Filtration Condition MERV Type Other
Radiant Surfaces Glass Wall Floor Roof Other

Summer
Winter
Acoustics Room RC Other Notes:
Notes:
Figure 36
Defining Comfort Requirements
Next, determine temperatures that should be maintained in the space. Temperature can be de-
termined from the comfort chart with the appropriate adjustments for activity level, clothing and
the like. It is necessary to consider a temperature requirement at four operational points, both for
summer and winter. First, occupied temperature both an upper (cooling) and lower (heating) con-
trol point during summer operation must be determined. Remember that a 5° F offset is normally
required between heating and cooling. The second set is the control point for unoccupied condi-
tions for both heating and cooling. Most commercial buildings require that the set point of the
thermostat be setup for cooling and setback for heating. In some buildings, not all these heating
and cooling conditions are controlled during certain seasons of the year. For example, heating
may not be available during summer seasons, or during summer unoccupied periods, cooling may
be shutoff and the space temperature allowed to drift to whatever temperature it will. The strate-
gies used are often dependent on the location of the project.
The same set of four conditions also needs to be evaluated in winter operation. Remember,
because of the conditions reflected on the comfort chart, the conditions may be different for each
season. When making the temperature decisions think about changes in activity level and clothing
during each of the seasons.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Finally for temperature, consider how much throttling range, or thermostat drift, will be al-
lowed . Also consider the amount of temperature swing allowed. Swing is the intentional offset in
space temperature above the thermostat setting. These two items are how much above or below
the selected control setting a temperature can be and still be considered in range . Typically, no
more than 3 degrees should be allowed for either of these two items.
In a similar manner the humidity requirements for the space need to be determined. Consider
here special requirements that may exist because of materials in the space or activity. In some
cases, even though the prime function of the design is comfort, materials and processes in the
space require certain temperature and humidity ranges. In selecting humidity requirements, use
caution that a maximum of 60 percent or less can be maintained to help avoid indoor air quality
probkms. On the lower end of the humidity scale, consider if humidification might be required.
In typical office spaces, conditions within the comfort chart are normally acceptable. Humidity
levels can be specified in terms of relative humidity or a dew point. Dew point is more appropri-
ate when the absolute level of humidity in the space must be held to a set limit.
Next, consider the air motion. If it is traditional office space, then the range of 15 to 45 fpm is
acceptable. But, if greater air motion can be used to compensate for the temperature level this is a
time to consider it.
Ventilation requirements are often dictated by building codes. This phase of the design is a
good time to check the requirements and determine the required airflows . ASHRAE requirements
allow for airflows to meet both the building requirements and the requirements for people. The
building requirement is air to purge the gases that outgas from building materials and mainte-
nance activities . The people requirement is for oxygen replacement and odor dilution. This is
addressed in greater detail in other TDP modules. These are minimums and greater rates may be
required in some instances. Also, be sure to note any air that is being exhausted directly from the
space. Lab and kitchen hoods, bath and kitchen fans and exhaust fans from processes may remove
air from the space. Ventilation air, by definition, must at least replace this amount of air.
Any special requirements in terms of filtration should be addressed in the selection of com-
fort criteria. An example is activities occurring in the space that generate some type of particulate
or gaseous contaminant that needs to be filtered. This is a good time to define these issues and
what levels of filtration may be required. Filters can be used for particulate, gaseous, and biologi-
cal contaminants.
In this phase of the design, it is a good time to evaluate if some of the surfaces may present
radiant problems in either heating or cooling. Calculate surface temperatures for the surfaces that
may present a problem. Since the HVAC systems can only be designed to compensate for this
problem, it may be early enough in design that the building materials or design can be modified to
help overcome potential problems.
Finally, consider any acoustical requirements of the space. This issue is covered more com-
pletely in TDP-90 1, Vibration and Acoustics. All six of the conditions related to comfort have
now been considered for the project.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Defining Comfort Conditions
First, let's look at defining the comfort conditions in a typical office environment. Temperatures
are selected based on the ASHRAE comfort chart. Notice a 5-degree difference is maintained be-
tween heating and cooling, and a lower winter temperature is selected to account for typical
clothing difference in the two seasons. It has been determined that this project does not need to
provide unoccupied cooling in the winter and does not require heating in the summer.

Space I Acti v ity Office
Tempe ratu re Occupi e d Un o ccupied ifhrottling Swin g
Desi g n Min De s ign Min Range
Su m me r 75 70 85 0 1 1/2 0
W inte r 70 68 0 60
S u m m er 50 60
Win t e r None None
Air Mo t i on Max Min Note s
fpm 30 15
Ve nti la tion Occupied Unoccupied Note s:
De s ign Min Min
cfm 20 IP 0.25 I ft 2 0
Direct Ex ha ust 0.25 I ft 2
F iltration Co nditi on MERV Type Other
Standard 6 Pleat
Ra di an t S u rfa ces G lass W all Floor Roof Other
Su m m e r 84F@ 95F
Wi nter 38F @HOF 35 % glass
Acoust ics Ro om RC Other Note s:
RC 35 - N
Notes:
Figure 37
Example of Comfort Requirements for an Office
Humidity requirements are again from the ASHRAE comfort chart. Typical of many office en-
vironments the design team has decided that humidification will not be provided.
Air motion is the typical design range of 15 to 45 ±pm.
Ventilation air provides 20 cfm/person in the occupied period and 0.25 cfm/ft2 during the un-
occupied period. The bathroom fans exhaust the same amount as the building ventilation
requirement.
The building has no special filtration requirements .
The glass selected has a summer design surface temperature of 84° F or 9 degrees above the
room, about half the maximum allowed. However, the winter temperature has a 30-degree differ-
ence and this is a potential problem. Maybe better glass could be specified. If not, the winter
heating set point may need to be increased .
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ABCs OF COMFORT
In a diffenmt application we have a light manufacturing area. In this case the manufacturing
area is working with cardboard boxes. Again the primary goal of air conditioning is the comfort,
and productivity of the workers. However, because of the paper boxes and the process, a fow spe-
cial requirements are necessary.
Higher temperatures are allowed because the workers are more active than the office workers
in the last example. Humidity, however, has a lower limit because of handling paper; in this case
winter humidification may be required.
Other special requirements are that an exhaust hood on the curing oven requires 300 cfm of
exhaust air, and because of the curing process of the glue, continuous ventilation is required. The
boxes also generate a lot of paper particle dust. To control this, a better filtration system is re-
quired. With this information, a comfort design chart similar to the one for the office can be
generated.
After going through this process for all the building spaces the designer has a good picture of
what the total air-conditioning design must do to maintain comfort. In the next section the two
interdependent elements of the air-conditioning system and the components of each will be exam-
ined.
This completes our coverage of basic human comfort. Before you continue, please complete
the Work Session 1. Work session answers can be found in the back of the book.

Space I Activity I Box Manufacturing Area
Temperature Occupied ·Unoccupied Throttling Swing
Design Min Design Min Range
Summer 78 70 0 0 2 3
Winter 68 65 0 55
Summer 45 55 Storage Requires Min of 25 %
Winter 30 25
Air Motion Max Min Notes
fpm 30 15
Ventilation Occupied Unoccupied Notes:
\
Design Min Min
cfm20 I P 0.5 I ft 2 .025 I ft 2 O v en Exhaust
-
Direct Exhaust
300 cfm
Filtration Condition MERV Type Other
High Particle 10 Bags
Radiant Surfaces Glass Wall Floor Roof Other
Summer 84F @l 95F 83F@ 95F
Winter 38F @ -10F 35 % glass
Acoustics Room RC Other Notes:
RC 50 - N
Notes:
Figure 38
Example of Comfort Requirements for Light M anufacturing
.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Air-Conditioning Systems
Now that comfort has been addressed, as well as the controllable space conditions that deter-
mine comfort, we will tum our attention to the air-conditioning system. First we will present the
systems approach to air-conditioning design. Then we will deal with the air system to show how
load is absorbed by conditioned
air as well as how air is treated to
provide air motion, ventilation,
filtration, heating, cooling and
dehumidification. Finally, the
mechanical refrigeration system,
which provides the capacity nec-
essary to cool and dehumidify
the air supplied to the condi-
tioned space, will be discussed.
Many air-conditioning sys-
tem designers think in terms of
components. However, the sys-
tems that provide the maximum
comfort for the money invested
are those designed by people
who think in terms of systems Figure 39
and subsystems rather than
Interaction of Comfort to Air and Refrigeration Systems
components.
Not only does a systems approach benefit the customer, but it also makes air-conditioning de-
sign easier to understand. Once the basic systems, subsystems, and components are understood,
the large array of options offered in our industry can be easily recognized as variations on a few
basic themes .
The residential air-
conditioning system
shown here illustrates
1. Furnace these concepts quite
2. Evaporator well. Many types of air
3. Humidifier handlers and condens-
ing units exist. But even
4. Electronic Air Cleaner
though their size, shape
5. Condensing Unit
and location may
6. Heat Recovery Ventilator change, these compo-
7. Supply Diffusers nents provide the same
8. Return Grilles function and relate to
9. Comfort Controls other components in
• Thermostat their respective systems
• Humidistat the same way whether a
• HRV Controller 3-ton residential system
or a 60-ton commercial
Figure 40
system is considered.
Typical R esidential System Components
<tft@.>
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Since several components are interconnected as a system, the action of one component affects
many or all of the others in some way. Thus, decisions made in selecting or installing one com-
ponent affect the other components. Trade-offs are involved when making system decisions.
What is beneficial for one component may be disadvantageous for another. The designer who
uses a systems approach makes choices which produce the greatest benefit for the system overall.
Some components belong to more than one system. For example, the evaporator (cooling
coil) is part of three systems: the air system, the mechanical refrigeration system, and the cooling
system. Since such components have multiple purposes, they must perform acceptably in all sys-
tems in which they occur and
in all modes of operation.
System Components Subsystems
As a part of the air system, Air System Furnace Ductwork
Evaporator Electrical Power Wiring
the evaporator must be selected Electronic Air Cleaner Electrical Control Wiring
and installed in a way that per- Humidifier
Heat Recovery Ventilator
mits an even flow of supply air Supply Diffusers
Return Grilles
through it. Also, its air pressure Mechanical Evaporator Refrigerant Piping
drop, when wet, must be in- Refrigeration Compressor Condensate Piping
System Condenser Electrical Power Wiring
cluded in the summary of Metering Device Electrical Control Wiring
resistances to airflow that the Heating Furnace or Fan Coil Ductwork
System Humidifier Gas/Oil Piping
fan must overcome. Thermostat Flue Gas Venting
Humidistat Electrical Power Wiring
As part of the mechanical Heat Recovery Ventilator Electrical Control Wiring
HRV Controller Condensate Piping
refrigeration system, the Cooling Furnace or Fan Coil Ductwork
System Evaporator Condensate Piping
evaporator must be piped cor- Metering Device Refrigerant Piping
rectly to the refrigerant Condensing Unit Electrical Power Wiring
Thermostat Electrical Control Wiring
metering device and condens- Heat Recovery Ventilator
HRV Controller
ing unit to ensure reasonable
internal operating temperatures Figure 41
for the evaporator at both full
Comfort systems consist of systems, components and subsystems.
and partial cooling loads.
As a part of the cooling system, the evaporator must combine with the metering device and
condensing unit to produce adequate, but not excessive, capacity. Both sensible and latent cooling
loads must be met. The condensate, which accumulates as the evaporator cools the air, must be
removed from the coil and properly disposed .
...
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Air System
Let' s start our study of the air-conditioning system with the air system .
When we are outside, we depend on clothing and weather patterns for our comfort. If the
combination of temperature, relative humidity, air motion, and clothing is within a reasonable
range, we feel comfortable. Our bodies reject just the right amount of heat to maintain our inner
temperature in a stable way. But
if the combination of these condi- ..
tions is not right, discomfort
results. If clothing cannot solve
the comfort problem, there is
nothing we can do to change the
outside conditions. Comfort is
not achieved.
Figure 42
Th e air system controls jive conditions of space comfort.
Building Loads
When we seek shelter in an

enclosed space, we can control the
air conditions in a way that as-
sures comfort over a very broad
range of outside conditions. If the
building was perfectly isolated
from outside effects, and only
people were present, we could
maintain comfort by simply re-
moving the heat given off by the
people. But, in reality, the situa- Figure 43
tion is not that simple. No matter
In a p erfect world, only heat generated by people would need to be re-
how diligently the building de-
moved.
signer strives to insulate the
building from outside effects, it is
still influenced.
27
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ABCs OF COMFORT
In addition to body heat, other

heat gains enter the space from • People
within the building. Electric lights, • Lights
appliances, computers, copy ma- • Motors
chines, heated food and drinks, and • Appliances
any equipment that is motor-driven • Cooking
adds heat to the air within the build-
ing. All these items tend to increase • Computers
the temperature and some of them • Process
increase the humidity of the indoor
air, slowing down the body's ability Figure 44
to reject heat, and eventually causing Internal Heat Gains
discomfort. The problem does not
end with internal effects.
No building is perfectly isolated
from outside etfocts. Sunlight enters Solar 90° F Outside
the space in the form of radiant heat ...-~----~~~~~~~~~~~ .....
energy through windows or glass 75° F
walls, and glass doors. Once sunlight
strikes an object inside, it turns into
heat that moves into the air by con-
duction and convection. Sunlight
also strikes some parts of the exte-
rior of the building. Outside walls
and roofs that are sunlit warm up
and conduct heat into the building.
All these effects are called solar Figure 45
loads.
External Heat Gains
Likewise, when the outside air temperature is higher

than the inside temperature, heat is conducted inward,
through all exterior building barriers, adding further to the
' heat entering the building. Heat transferred in this way is
called transmission load.
Outdoor air infiltrates (leaks) into the building through
cracks around windows and doors. Fans that mechanically
ventilate the space also bring in outdoor air. Since the tem-
perature and humidity of the outdoor air is often quite different than the indoor air, infiltration
and ventilation can change indoor temperature and humidity in a significant way. The air-
conditioning system must offset the outdoor air load in order to maintain comfortable inside con-
ditions.
<@@.> Introduction to HVAC

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ABCs OF COMFORT
Together, the outside effects of solar, transmission, infiltration and ventilation, along with the
inside effects of peopk, lights and equipment determine the amount of heat entering or leaving
the building per unit of time. This rate
of heat transfor is called the load of
the building. It is expressed in British 90° F Outside
thermal units per hour (Btuh). Just as 75°F /
the total of all these effects is called
load, each of the outside and inside
components that make up the total
load also is called a load (e.g. solar
load, transmission load, lighting load, Cooling loads
• Roof
equipment load, people load, and out- • SunlltWall
• Window (Solar)
door air load). • Lights
• People
• Equipment
Any effect that increases space • Infiltration
• Ventilation
temperature or humidity is called a
cooling load. Solar load, people, Figure 46
equipment, and lighting are always Building Loads - Internal Gains P !us External Gain
cooling loads, as shown in the exam-
ple illustrated in Figure 46.
Any effect that decreases space
temperature is called a heating load.
Transmission, infiltration and ventila-
tion are heating loads when the
outside temperature is below the in-
side temperature. Transmission,
infiltration, and ventilation are cool- Cooling Loads
• Roof
ing loads when the outside •
•
Sunlit Wall
Window (Solar)
temperature is above the inside tem- •
•
Lights
People
• Ventilation
• ShadedWall
perature • Equipment
Figure 47
Cooling Loads - If Heat Gains are Greater than Heat Losses
The total load of the building is the combined result

Cooling load vs. heating load
of all the individual load components working together.
Often, inside and outside conditions combine in such a
way that cooling load components exist at the same time
as heating load components as shown in Figure 4 7.
If the combined result causes heat to enter the build-
ing more rapidly than it leaves, the entire building is said
to have a cooling load. The space temperature and hu-
midity will climb unless something is done to reject heat
and moisture from the indoor air. This is the case in the
example illustrated.
Introduction to HVAC <tflll1ti!>

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ABCs OF COMFORT
Since it is 50° F outside, the outside wall that is not sunlit has a heating load. Likewise, out-
door air that comes into the building represents a heating load since the outside air temperature is
below the inside air temperature. At the same time, the sunlit glass, wall, and roof present a cool-
ing load, as do the computer (equipment), lighting, and the person in the room. In this case, the
cooling loads outweigh the heating loads.
Likewise, if the combination of all load components causes heat to leave the building more
rapidly than it enters it, the entire building has a heating load. The space temperature and humid-
ity will fall unless something
is done to add heat and hu-
midity to the indoor air.
In the example, the lights,
people and any equipment
provide cooling loads. How-
ever, the heating load
components outweigh the
cooling load components. The
roof, walls, window, and any
outdoor air that comes into • Ventilation
the building are all heating • Walls
• Roof
loads. Since it is nighttime, • Window
there is no solar load. The
building has a heating load Figure 48
under these conditions.
Heating Loads -If Heat Losses Exceed Heat Gains
Air System - Components
The job of the air-conditioning system is to match the heating or cooling load with heating or
cooling capacity necessary to maintain desirable inside conditions. Many heating-only systems ac-
complish this by using a boiler with convective baseboard heaters. No fan is required. The same
thing is accomplished with baseboard electric resistance heat.
When cooling, dehumidifying, filtering and direct control of air motion are required, how-
ever, an air system becomes essential. Only with the air system can the space temperature,
humidity, and air motion be simul-
taneously controlled, year round.
Actually, a comfort air-
Air conditioning system must simulta-
System neously maintain, within a
reasonable range, all three air condi-
tions affecting the rate of heat loss
from our bodies: temperature, hu-
midity, and air motion. The system
Figure 49 also must provide adequate air qual-
ity by properly ventilating and
Air systems maintain air motion, temperature, and humidity. filtering the indoor air.
'ft@Mt> Introduction to HVAC

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ABCs OF COMFORT
A comfort air-conditioning system controls these parameters by moving air through the build-
ing. The air system accomplishes this task. The air system is usually made up of three
subsystems: the room air distribu-
tion system, the ductwork system
and the air handler. The air handler
circulates the proper quantity of
air, at the right temperature, hu-
midity, and purity to maintain the
desired conditions.
The following section shows
how the air system maintains com-
fort conditions 111 the air-
conditioned spaces within the
building . 1. Room Air Distribution System
2. Ductwork System
3. Air Handler
Figure 50
An air system is made up of the room air distribution system, the duct-
work system, and the air handler.
Room Air Distribution

The room air distribution system is made up of the supply air outlets and return air inlets in the
conditioned spaces of the building. The air motion in a room is affected by the openings through
which conditioned air is supplied. These supply air outlets are usually called diffusers or registers.
The number, size, shape, and location of the supply air diffusers all affect room air motion
significantly. The air distribution aspect of comfort air-conditioning design is very important, yet
it is often neglected. The very best
equipment will perform only as well
as the air distribution system that
supports it. Proper design of duct-
work and return openings are also
vitally important but will not offset
errors made in the selection and
layout of the supply diffusers.
Figure 51
Supply Diffusers and Registers
<t'tfi't>
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Return air openings are usually called grilles. The total airflow capacity, measured in cubic
foet per minute (cfm) of the return grilles must be at least equal to the total airflow capacity of the
supply diffusers because the air returned becomes supply air after being conditioned by the air
handler. The performance of the return grilles is less sensitive to location and number than supply
diffusers.
At the air handler, air returned Total Return Grilles cfm* = Total Supply Diffuser cfm*
from the conditioned space is mixed
with outdoor air (ventilated), filtered
and heated or cooled, as the building
load indicates. The first treatment the ......
Q)
return air receives when it enters the 'O
c
air handler is an improvement of its ro
I
quality by mixing it with outdoor air.
I*cfm =cubic feet per minute= Air Quantity

Figure 52
Return Grilles - air provided must be equal to air removed.
Ventilation
The process of mixing outdoor air with return air at an air handler and supplying it to the build-
ing spaces is called mechanical ventilation. It dilutes odors and pollutants in the conditioned spaces
of the building. It also replaces oxygen used by people as they breathe the air in the space.
Many residential systems lack mechanical ventilation. They rely on infiltration to do the job
instead. Ventilation is considered so important that some commercial systems are supplemented
by a separate system that provides
~--Ro'- .o.=m~
only ventilation air. Also, ventilation
is being included on an increasing
number of tightly constructed resi- Air,-
dences.
While mechanical ventilation is
not the nonn on residential systems ¢:J outdoor Air
or some small-zone commercial
equipment, it is required on commer- Mechanically controlled introduction of outdoor air.
cial systems.
Figure 53
Mechanical ventilation replaces oxygen and dilutes odors.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Filtration
After return and outdoor air are mixed to provide ventilation, it is drawn through a filter, which
purifies the air. Many types of filters
are available. At the least, they remove
dust and dirt from the air before condi-
tioning and supplying it to the space.
More efficient filters that remove pol- Room Air
Jen, bacteria, smoke and even hannful
and irritating gases, are available. Af-
ter mixing and filtration, the air is ¢2 outdoor Air
ready to be heated or cooled, and hu-
midifo;d or dehumidified. Filters remove particles and gas from the mixed air.
Figure 54
Heating Filtration purifies the mixed return and outdoor air.
If there is a heating load, heat must be added to the air to make up for the heat lost from the
room. A heating coil within the air handler adds this heat, raising the temperature of the supply air
above the room temperature. Air typically leaves the supply diffusers at a temperature of 90 -
140° F. As shown here, the heat ex-
120° F _/__,.,,.
changer that adds heat to the air can be Blow-Thru
located on the discharge side of the fan ~=1¢f fiID[-~-
in a blow-thru configuration. It also
can be located on the inlet side of the Heating Load
Heat Pump
fan in a draw-thru configuration. ...._ l~lllii':i!!l'\irect-Fired Heater
Residential air handlers usually put the
IJ!l~~j Draw-Thru
heat exchanger in the blow-thru ar-
rangement. Commercial products vary Figure 55
the heat exchanger's location based on
size and style of equipment. Heating Locations - before (draw-thru) or after (blow-thru) the fan
1. Hot Water or Steam Coil ___. There are four common methods
To Boiler of heating air within an air handler.
One way is to pass air through a hot
water or steam coil that is connected
to a boiler. As the air passes over the
surlace of the coil, it absorbs heat
from the coil. The heat in the air will
be used to offset heat loss as it circu-
lates through rooms with a heating
load.
Figure 56
...
Hot Water or Steam Heating Coils
Introduction to HVAC . )
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Another way to
2. Electric Resistance Heating Coil
heat the air is with an
electric resistance
.....---./ Electric Heater
heating coil. The wire
elements of the heater Blower Assembly
heat up due to resis-
tance when electricity Cooling Coil
'
passes through them.
As the air passes over
them, it absorbs the ;/
/t-"";
'-::C::::::::..J
Filter
heat and carries it to // Return Duct

the conditioned space.
Electrical Resistance
Heating Coil
Figure 57
Electric R esistance Heating Coil
Another popular way to heat electrically is with a heat pump coil. It uses much less electricity
than electric resistance heaters. The heat pump indoor coil looks just like a cooling coil. In fact, it
does double duty,
serving as a cooling 3. Heat Pump Indoor Coil (Heat/Cool)
coil in the cooling
mode and as a heating Cooling Cycle
coil in the heating !"Reverse Cycle" Heatingj
Hot Gas
mode. It accomplishes
Supplementary
this by a reversal of /;; Electric
the refrigerant flow in Resistance
the mechanical refiig-

eration system. An
0
Heater
Indoor
electric resistance "Condenser"
heater usually accom- '--1111•---""fi't."""...J Coil
panies the heat pump
r_,
Thermostatic Expansion Valve
indoor coil for the
times when the heat
Heating Cycle
pump coil cannot sup-
ply the needed heating Figure 58
capacity. Reverse Cycle H eat Pump
,.... )

Introduction to HVA C
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Finally, air may be heated by a flame within a heat exchanger over which the air flows. This
approach is called direct-fired or fossil fuel-fired heating since fossil fuels are burned in the heat
exchanger over which
4 . Direct-Fired Heat Exchanger (Natural Gas, Oil, LP Gas) the air handler circu-
lates air. Oil, natural
Primary gas, and liquefied
~ Intake propane (LP) gas are
Heat Exchanger
the fossil fuels used.
Direct-fired heat ex-
changers are usually
located on the dis-
charge side of the air
Condensing handkr fan. This
Heat Exchanger approach is popular
for residences and
small commercial
applications using
CONDENSING upflow, downflow or
TYPE SHOWN horizontal furnaces. It
Condensate _ _.., is also popular for
commercial jobs
Figure 59 usmg roof-mounted
Gas Heaters - Direct-Fired, Gas, Oil, LP packaged equipment.
Cooling
When there is a cooling load, air must be supplied at a lower temperature and humidity than the
air in the conditioned space. This allows the supply air to absorb heat and humidity while maintain-
ing acceptable space conditions. The air supplied to the space absorbs heat added by solar,
transmission and infiltration loads from outside as well as from people, equipment, and lights from
inside. It also absorbs humidity added by the infiltration of outdoor air, plus humidity added from
the inside by people, hot foods, and liquids. The air handler must remove this heat and humidity so
that the air can be used to condition the space again.
The air handler removes heat
and humidity by passing the air
through a cooling coil. The coil is
made up of metal tubes with thin,
metal sheets, called fins , attached to
them. Cool refrigerant or water flows
through the cooling coil, absorbing
heat from the air passing over its
tubes and fins , thus cooling the air.
This module covers the internal
workings of the refrigerant evapora-
tor, not the chilled water type of Figure 60
,...
cooling coil. Cooling Air Handler
)
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.ABCs OF COMFORT
Moisture is removed from the air

that flows over the cooling coil be-
cause some of the water vapor in the
air turns into liquid as it hits the cold
coil. As the water vapor condenses,
the air is dehumidified and the con-
densate (liquid water) is collected
and drained away from the air han-
dler. The following example helps to
demonstrate why this dehumidifying
process takes place.
Figure 61
Cooling and Dehumidifying Coil
If a residential system uses no

ventilation air, the air enters the cool-
: ing coil approximately at room
:
Relative Humidity= R*100 = 49% conditions. Assume that the return air
146
conditions are 78° F and 72 grains
per pound. Air at 78° F can hold 146
grains per pound of moisture when
saturated with water vapor. There-
fore, the relative humidity (rh) of the
air entering the cooling coil is ap-
proximately 49 percent (72/146 *
100). As it enters the cooling coil, the
Figure 62 return air is not even close to being
Relative Humidity of Return Air saturated.
However, as the return air begins to pass through the cooling coil, the air temperature drops.
Colder air can hold less water vapor than warmer air, so the relative humidity of the air climbs as
it passes through the cooling coil. Air at 72 grains per pound (gr/lb) will have a relative humidity
of 100 percent at about 58° F. At that
temperature, the air will be saturated. Entering Air Leaving Air
So, if the air leaves our coil at 55° F, 78° F 55° F
49% rh 100% rh
it will be saturated, but its specific
72 gr/lb 64 gr/lb
humidity at 55° F will be 64 gr/lb at
100 percent rh. That's about 8 gr/lb 8 grains less
below tht: entering air condition of (72 - 64)
72 gr/lb. Therefore, moisture was
removed from the air by the coil.
Now the supply air can enter the
room and absorb more moisture.
Let' s see how the coil removed the Condensation
moisture.
Figure 63
Cooling and Dehumidifying - Relative humidity increases, but actual
moisture (grains) decreases.
<•A>
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ABCs OF COMFORT
At peak cooling load, most cool-

ing coils run at a surface temperature Entering Air Leaving Air
of about 52-58° F. The air leaves the 78° F 55° F
cooling coil at about 53-60° F. A
typical leaving air temperature is
55° F, which will be used for this
example.
The saturation temperature of
the air entering the cooling coil is
58° F, as noted. At 58° F, all of the 1""tm1$1mml> C
64° F/84%
water is held within the air as vapor.
If the air temperature drops below Coil Surface Temp. = 53° F
the saturation temperature of the en- Figure 64
tering air (58° F), some of the
moisture within it will change from .-4ctual coil p eiformance is a mixture of severa l airstreams.
vapor into liquid.
The air leaving the coil is really a mixture of several air streams at various conditions. Air
that comes in closer contact with the coil tubes and fins mixes with air that slips by farther away.
The air that is farther away from the tubes and fins is less affected by the coil surface than the air
that contacts it more directly.
In reality, none of the air is brought all the way down to the surface temperature of the coil
and none of it slips through totally unaltered. However, the illustration helps to show that the
leaving air condition is a mixture of several airstreams treated to vaiious degrees. The illustration
also shows why various air-cooling coils have different efficiencies.
Airstream "A" comes in direct contact with a
coil tube. It drops to the coil surface temperature,
53 ° F. This is well below the saturation tempera-
ture of the entering air (58° F). Therefore, moisture
is condensed on the coil tube and fin(s) connected
to it. This air leaves the coil at 53 ° F, saturated.
Airstream "B" goes through the coil without touch-
ing a fin or tube. It may come out just about the
way it went in, at 78° F/49% rh with a 58° F satu-
ration temperature . Airstream "C" leaves the coil
at a condition somewhere between "A" and "B."
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Air cooling coils are designed so that the vast majority of the air passing through them comes
in direct contact with the coil tubes and fins. As demonstrated in the example, the leaving air
temperature (55° F) is much closer to the coil surface temperature (53° F) than it is to the entering
air temperature (78° F).
The air that passes through without contacting the coil is called bypassed air. It can be ex-
pressed as a decimal fraction or percent of the total air, in which case it is called bypass factor.
In our example, about 92 percent of the air is directly contacted by the coil smface:
([78° F - 55° F]-:- [78° F - 53° F]). Only 8 percent passes through without contacting the coil surface:
([55 ° F -53 ° F] __,_ [78° F - 53 ° F]), making
(78 ° F - 55° F)
its bypass factor 0.08. A lower bypass Contact Factor = = 0.92 = 92%
(78 ° F - 53° F)
factor means that more of the air passing
through the coil comes in direct contact (55° F - 53° F)
Bypass Factor = = 0.08 = 8%
with the coil surface, improving cooling (78° F - 53° F)
and dehumidification efficiency. Higher Bypassed Air
bypass factors decrease cooling and de- 8%
humidification efficiency.
Figure 65
Bypass and Contact Factors
Bypass factors for comfort air-conditioning equipment vary from about 0.01 to about 0.20. A
typical figure for most applications is about 0.08. Anything that increases the amount of air in
contact with the coil surface will reduce the bypass factor and improve the heat absorbing effi-
ciency of the coil , especially its ability to dehumidify.
The speed, or velocity, in feet per minute (fpm), at which air travels through the coil affects
bypass factor. The slower the air moves through the coil, the better chance the air has to come in
contact with the coil surface. Therefore, lower air velocity means lower bypass factor. Air veloc-
ity through the cooling coil can be reduced by selecting a larger coil or by selecting a system that
can provide the necessary cooling capacity at lower airflow quantity (cfm). Bypass factor is sel-
dom considered directly when selecting cooling equipment. Instead, the manufacturer' s capacity
ratings include the effect of bypass factor, without directly mentioning it. Nevertheless, the by-
pass factor concept helps you to understand why systems with oversized evaporators perform
most efficiently.
For all cooling equipment, reduced airflow (cfin) means reduced coil velocity and total cool-
ing capacity. However, the coil's ability to remove moisture (its latent cooling capacity) increases
at lower airflow and velocity while its ability to reduce the supply air temperatun: (its sensible
cooling capacity) decreases .
<
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ABCs OF COMFORT
The closer together the coil tubes and fins are, the less air passes through untreated. This re-
duces bypass factor. When selecting applied commercial air handlers, the air-conditioning
designer can select various types of mixing boxes, filkrs , heating coils, cooling coils, fans , and
accessories for any given unit size. This allows the designer the ability to select various types of
cooling coils, with a differing number of coil tube rows and fin spacing, which directly affects
bypass factor. So, to a limikd extent, the engineer using an applied air handler can directly select
bypass factor. When using other types of air handlers, there is only one coil type offered for each
capacity size . There is no choice of bypass factor.
Now compare the supply air conditions entering the room with the conditions in the example
room. This shows how the supply air absorbs heat and humidity from the room in the cooling
mode. For the sake of simplicity, we will assume that the conditions of the air supplied to the
room are the same as the conditions leaving the cooling coil.
Figure 66
Supply A ir Absorbing Heat and Humidity
The 55 ° F supply air is cooler than the 78° F room air. Therefore, the supply air absorbs heat
in the room as it rises to 78° F. The supply air is also drier than the room air. It enters at 64 gr/lb,
allowing each pound of air circulated to absorb 8 grains of water vapor from the room before ar-
riving at the 72 gr/lb room condition.
In summary, when there is a cooling load in the space, cool, dry, clean air is circulated
through the room where it absorbs heat and moisture. The same quantity of air is returned to the
air handler that is supplied to the room. The air entering the air handler is mixed with outdoor
ventilation air, when ventilation is provided, then filtered and sent to the cooling coil (evapora-
tor), which removes heat and moisture. The condensate water goes down the drain, and
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ABCs OF COMFORT
the cooling coil ab-

sorbs the heat. As
long as there is a
cooling load on the
conditioned space and
cooling capacity is
provided to match
that load, the cycle
repeats itself.
Figure 67
Air System Components
This completes our review of the air system, which is part of the air-conditioning system. As
you read the next section, keep in mind that the cooling coil in the air system is the same as the
evaporator coil described in the next section, the mechanical refrigeration system. This completes
our coverage of the air system. Before you continue, please complete the Work Session 2 found at
the back of the book.
Mechanical Refrigeration System
The mechanical refrigeration system is the portion of

the air-conditioning system that provides cooling capac-
ity. It can also provide heating capacity if a reverse cycle
heat pump is used.
When studying comfort air condi- Cooling Coil or

Evaporator Coil
tioning, a question that often arises is,
"What makes the cooling coil cold?"
The answer is, the mechanical refrig-
eration system. This section explains
the process going on within the coil
that makes the coil cold. Q - What makes the cooling coil cold?
A - The Refrigeration Cycle
Figure 68
The refrigeration cycle provides cooling capacity and
dehumidification.
''*"
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Change of State Provides the Capacity
The cooling coil is cold because refrigerant is boiling at a low temperature inside the coil.
The basic physical principle be-
hind the heat absorption by the
cooling coil in a mechanical refrig-
eration system can be illustrated by
heating a pot of water. As the water
absorbs heat, its temperature rises
until it reaches the boiling point. At
sea kvel, water boils at 212° F. The
heat absorbed by the water, while its
temperature is rising, is called sensi-
ble heat. We can measure sensible
heat processes with a thermometer.
Figure 69
Sensible heat can be directly measured.
Latent Heat
As the water boils, it absorbs still
more heat, but the temperature does
not change. The heat absorbed when a
substance changes state at a constant
temperature is called latent heat. You
cannot measure latent heat with a
thermometer because it happens at a
constant temperature . Yet, it is a
much bigger heat addition than the
sensible heat addition required to
Total Heat= Sensible Heat+ Latent Heat
raise its temperature to the boiling
point.
Figure 70
Latent heat changes the state and cannot be directly measured.
Instead of raising the temperature of the water, latent heat causes the water to change state
from a liquid to a vapor. This process can be observed by watching bubbles form within the body
of the liquid. The vapor rising up from the pot contains both sensible and latent heat. The total
heat of any fluid (liquid or gas) is its sensible heat plus its latent heat.
The first principle that makes mechanical refrigeration possible is the ability of a liquid to ab-
sorb a large amount of latent heat as it changes state at a constant temperature to become a vapor.
In simple, everyday terms, this is the boiling process, but it is called evaporation in mechanical
refrigeration terminology.
Conversely, a vapor must reject a large amount of heat when changing state at a constant
temperature to become a liquid. This process is called condensing.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Instead of water, as used in the illustration, a chemical compound, called a refrigerant is the
fluid used in the mechanical refrigeration system to accomplish this latent heat transfer. Also,
instead of using an unsealed pot as a container, the mechanical refrigeration system uses a sealed
cooling coil, called the evaporator, where the boiling process takes place. Instead of a burner pro-
viding the heat necessary to boil the water in the pot, air or water flowing over the evaporator
provides the heat necessary to cause the refrigerant to boil. As a result, the air or water gives up
heat to the refrigerant within the evaporator. The air or water leaves the evaporator at a cooler
temperature than when it began to flow over it.
The second principle that makes mechanical refrigeration possible is that changing its pres-
sure can change the boiling temperature of a liquid. The pressure scale most commonly used to
measure refrigerants is pounds per square inch gauge (psig). It is the pressure read on the service
technician' s gauge manifold set.
Water can be used to illustrate
how boiling point is determined by 20 psig
pressure .
258° F
W att:r, at a pressure of 20 pounds
per square inch above atmospheric
pressure (psig) boils at 258° F, instead
of 212° F. If the pressure is equal to
standard atmospheric pressure (0
psig), it boils at less than 212° F.
Water has the same characteristics
of a rt:frigerant, but the boiling point Figure 71
of water is much too high for conven- Pressure affects the boiling point.
tional mechanical refrigeration.
However, absorption refrigeration equipment uses an absorbing chemical and heat to create a re-
frigeration cycle that allows water to be used as a refrigerant (R-718) at very low pressures.
Raising the pressure of a fluid increases its boiling
Four principles of mechanical point and lowering it decreases its boiling point. The boil-
refrigeration: ing point of a fluid used as a refrigerant is called its
saturation temperature. Whether it is evaporating from a
liquid into a gas or condensing from a gas into a liquid, it
does so at the saturation temperature that matches the pres-
sure for the refrigerant used.
Refrigerants used in the mechanical refrigeration cycle
are chemical compounds that have much lower boiling
points at standard atmospheric pressure than water.
42
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ABCs OF COMFORT
R-134a (HFC-134a) boils at -15° F. HFC-134a is designed for automotive air conditioning,
household refrigerators and freezers, comfort air conditioners, and transport and commercial re-
frigeration. R-22 (HCFC-22), pres-
ently the most commonly used
refrigerant for comfort air condition- Water 212° F
ing, boils at -41 ° F. Refrigerant HFC-134a -15° F
HFC-41 OA, a replacement for
HCFC-22 -41° F
HCFC-22, boils at -62° F. Because
HCFC-22 is still a commonly used HFC-410A -62° F
refrigerant for both commercial and
residential comfort work, it is used in
the following sections to illustrate
the mechanical refrigeration system.
Comparisons are made to HFC-41 OA
where appropriate. The mechanical
refrigeration systems will function Figure 72
the same, however, pressures are
much higher. Refrigerants and Boiling Points at rltmospheric Pressure
Components of the System
In most systems, the cooling coil is also called the evaporator because the refrigerant boils, or
evaporates, inside the coil as it absorbs heat from the air passing over it. The refrigerant absorbs a
great deal of heat as it changes state from a liquid into a vapor. The refrigerant continues to boil as it
travels through the coil, until it is completely vaporized. Thus, it changes from a cold liquid to a
cold vapor as it absorbs heat. The
cooling action of the refrigeration 60° F
cycle results from this latent heating
of the refrigerant by the air, called
evaporating.
The desired boiling point, or
saturated evaporator temperature, is
maintained by the proper combina-
tion of refrigerant type and pressure
maintained in the evaporator. The
manufacturer provides capacity rat-
ing data for the appropriate
refrigerant at various saturation tem-
peratures that match certain Figure 73
pressures. The combined action of An evaporator absorbs the heat from the air.
the compressor and the metering de-
vice maintain the desired pressure in
the evaporator.
43
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ABCs OF COMFORT
If the environment or cost was not a concern, we could keep adding refrigerant to the evapo-
rator in proportion to the cooling load and no other parts would be needed for the refrigeration
cycle. However, our environment is
such a major concern that such a strat- Refrigerant~
Under ~~~'-..
egy is illegal. Additionally, refrigerant Pressure
prices prohibit such a wasteful action.
The rest of the mechanical refrig-
eration system makes it possible to use
the same refrigerant over and over
again. In addition to the evaporator, the
major components of any mechanical
refrigeration system include the com-
pressor, a condenser and a metering
device. In this case, the metering device
is a thermostatic expansion valve
(TXV), but many other types exist. Figure 74
An open cycle would require only an evaporator.
The same refrigerant that changes
state from a vapor to a liquid in the
condenser, condensing at about 120° F,
also changes state from a liquid into a Refrigeration Cycle
vapor in the evaporator, evaporating at Thermostatic Expansion Valve
about 40° F. In order for the refrigerant
to have such different saturation tem-
peratures in two areas of the same
system, there must be two different
pressure zones.
The compressor and metering de-
vice work together to create a high-
pressure zone, called the high side of Condenser Compressor
the system, and a low-pressure zone,
Figure 75
called the low side of the system. The
high side includes the compressor dis- A closed cycle requires four basic components.
charge, hot gas line, condenser, liquid
line, and the inlet side of the metering
device. The low side includes the outlet Typical conditions
side of the metering device, evaporator, at peak load for:
suction line, and compressor inlet. HCFC-22

HFC-410A
For an HCFC-22 system operating
at an outside temperature of 95° F and High Side
supplying 55° F air to the conditioned Metering -----------
space, a typical low side saturation Device
temperature is about 40° F, which

matches a pressure of about 68 psig. A
typical high side saturation temperature
45° FI 90.8 psia
is about 120° F, which matches a pres- 45° F / 144.5 psia
sure of about 260 psig.
Figure 76
....
High Side/Low Side - Two Pressure Zones
44
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ABCs OF COMFORT
For comparison, ifHFC-410A is used, it will have the same condensing and evaporating tem-
peratures but higher pressures for both.
Now we will follow the refrigerant flow around the system. Once it has changed into a vapor
in the evaporator, it goes to the compressor.
__...
Many types of compressors are used for comfort air conditioning: reciprocating compressor,
scroll compressor, screw compressor, rotary compressor and centrifugal compressor. The recip-
rocating type will be used in this dis-
cussion to demonstrate the function of Suction Line
the compressor. The first function of
the compressor is to draw refrigerant 120 psig
vapor away from the evaporator as the & 40° F
vapor is formed. The vapor is carried HFC-410A
to the compressor through a refriger-
ant pipe called the suction line. By 68 psig
removing vapor as it is formed, the & 40° F
HCFC-22
compressor maintains the evaporator
at the pressure necessary to boil re-
frigerant at the proper temperature, in
this case 40° F, at 68 psig (120 psig
for HFC- 410A).
Figure 77
A compressor draws vapor from the evaporator - suction.
The other function of the com-

Suction Line
pressor is to raise the pressure, and
thus the saturation temperature of
419 psig 120 psig the refrigerant, high enough to re-
& 120° F & 40° F
HFC-410A HFC-410A ject the heat contained in the
refrigerant at the condenser. The
260 psig 68 psig
compressor is a dividing line in the
& 120° F & 40° F mechanical refrigeration cycle for
HCFC-22 HCFC-22 two pressure zones. It separates the
low side that is the low-pressure,
High Low low-temperature zone to which the
Side Side
evaporator belongs, from the high
side, which is the high-pressure,
Figure 78 high-temperature zone to which the
condenser belongs.
The compressor then raises the pressure - discharge
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ABCs OF COMFORT
The high-pressure, high-temperature gas leaving the compressor travels through a refrigerant
pipe called the hot gas line into the condenser. The purpose of the condenser is to do just the op-
posite of the evaporator. The condenser rejects heat from the refrigerant that was absorbed in the
evaporator. It also rejects the heat added by compressing the gas at the compressor. In order to
have the heat flow from the refriger-
ant within the condenser to the air or
water flowing over it, the refrigerant
must be hotter than the air or water.
For example, with an air-cooled
condenser, if the outdoor air tempera-
ture is 95° F, the refrigerant
temperature has to be about 25° F
higher, or 120° F. HCFC-22 boils at
120° F at a pressure of about 260 psig
(419 psig for HFC-410A). At this
pressure, the refrigerant gas can reject
heat to the cooler air (95° F) flowing
Figure 79
over the condenser coil, condensing
back into a liquid so that it can be The condenser removes the heat and condenses the refrigerant to a
reused in the evaporator the next time high temperature liquid.
around the cycle. Like the evaporator,
the condenser is designed primarily to
do a latent heat transfer process that
changes the state of the refrigerant.
Water-cooled condensers come in various forms, but they work on the same principle as the
air-cooled variety. Since water-cooled condensers are more efficient, the condensing temperature
of the refrigerant only needs to be
about 15 ° F higher than the average
condenser water temperature. Since Hot Gas Line To Tower 95° F
the example shows cooling tower
condenser water entering at 85° F and 105° F
leaving at 95° F, the average con-
denser water temperature is 90° F.
Therefore, the required condenser
Liquid Line
refrigerant (saturation) temperature is
105° F (90 + 15° F). The condenser
105° F
water rises about 10° F, from 85° F to From Tower 85° F
95° F, as it absorbs the heat rejected
by the condenser. The leaving con-
denser water is re-cooled for reuse by Figure SO
a device called the cooling tower. Water-Cooled Condenser Examvle
At this point in its journey through the mechanical refrigeration system, the refrigerant has
been changed back into a liquid in the condenser, but it is still too hot (120° F in the air-cooled
example) to be used in the evaporator (40° F) .
<§!It>> .
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ABCs OF COMFORT
The liquid refrigerant flows from the condenser to the metering device, in this case a thermo-
static expansion valve, by way of a refrigerant pipe called the liquid line. At the metering device
the refrigerant undergoes a rapid pressure reduction, from about 260 psig in the condenser to 68
psig in the evaporator (120 psig and 419 psig for HFC-4 lOA, respectively) .
As a result, the saturation temperature of the refrigerant drops from 120° F to 40° F. Now the
refrigerant is ready to absorb heat, once again, in the evaporator. The refrigerant leaves the meter-
ing device as a low-pressure, low-
temperature mixture of mostly liquid TXV: Thermostatic Expansion Valve
with a bit of vapor mixed in. Just as the
compressor divided the high side from HCFC-22
the low side of the system, the metering 68 psig
40° F
device also separates the two pressure
zones .
In summary, the refrigerant boils
into vapor in the evaporator as it ab- HFC-410A
sorbs heat from the air passing over its 419 psig
120° F
tubes and fins. The compressor takes
that vapor and raises its pressure and
temperature . The refrigerant changes Figure 81
back into a liquid in the condenser as Metering Device
its heat is rejected to the air or water
flowing over the condenser tubes and fins . The metering device reduces the pressure and tem-
perature of the refrigerant to the level found in the evaporator. The refrigerant cycle repeats as
long as the mechanical refrigeration system is operating to provide capacity for the air-
conditioned space.
You can see how air is cooled and dehumidified by
the mechanical refrigeration system within an air- Mechanical refrigeration requires:
conditioning system. The air and mechanical refrigera-
tion systems work together to provide the sensible and
latent heat removal capacities necessary to maintain ac-
ceptable temperature and humidity levels in the occupied
Refrigeration Cycle
Thermostatic Expansion Valve
area.
Condenser Compressor
Figure 82
The refrigeration cycle works to cool and dehumidify air.
47
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Summary
This module has covered foundational information about heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning design and service work. These same principles hold true for air-conditioning systems
that vary in size from a room air conditioner to the largest commercial system. The style, size, and
design of each component or system will vary from system to system, but the basic principles still
hold true for each.
When a comfort air-conditioning system is designed, the engineer should decide what the
goals are for maintaining the variables in the conditioned area that most directly affect comfort.
Temperature, humidity, and air motion are always important. The surface temperature of the con-
ditioned space is also very important but usually beyond the influence of the air-conditioning
engineer. Each of these variables influences the rate at which heat is rejected from our bodies by
conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation, thereby affecting human comfort.
The design of the air system will determine whether the capacities of the heating and humidi-
fying equipment and the mechanical refrigeration system are properly delivered to the areas being
conditioned. If the capacity is not properly distributed, the temperature, humidity, and air motion
goals the designer determined would not be achieved. Systems thinking during the system selec-
tion, load estimating, equipment selection, room air distribution design, duct design, and piping
design steps of the design process will help to ensure good system performance at a reasonable
cost.
This completes our coverage of the mechanical refrigeration system. Please complete Work
Session 3.
\
\
\
\
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\
Thermostatic - 4
Expansion Valve
Condenser Compressor
Figure 83
Systems work together.
-.
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Work Session 1
Multiple-choice questions may have more than one correct answer; identify all correct selections.
1. True or False? The two reasons for conditioning air are for people or things. Comfort air
conditioning is for people. Process air conditioning is for things.
2. A total comfort air-conditioning system maintains which of the following air conditions
within a comfortable range? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
a) Temperature c) Air motion

b) Humidity d) Air purity
3. A typical comfort design goal for indoor temperature is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _° F. (Give

one number or range.)
4. A typical comfort design goal for indoor relative humidity in the summer is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ percent (Give one number or range.)
5. Which of the following methods of heat transfer is not used by our bodies to maintain
comfort? - - - - - - - - -
a) Evaporation c) Convection
b) Insulation d) Conduction
6. Which of the following space conditions affect(s) heat loss from our body by conduction?
a) None, our bodies do not lose heat by c) Surface temperature of walls, win-
conduction. dows, and ceiling
b) Relative humidity d) Air temperature
7. Which of the following space conditions affect(s) heat loss from our bodies by evaporation?
a) None, our bodies do not lose heat by c) Relative humidity

evaporation.
d) Surface temperature of walls, ceiling
b) Air motion and windows
8. True or False? The only significant disadvantage of a poorly insulated building is high-
energy usage. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
<t'@@> .
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ABCs OF COMFORT
9. Relative humidity tells you:
a) the exact amount of moisture in each c) how much more moisture the air is able
pound of dry air in grains/pound. to hold, expressed as a percent.
b) how close the air is to being saturated d) the amount of moisture in the air com-
with water vapor. pared to what it could hold at its
maximum.
10. Air with a water content of 55 grains/pound has a relative humidity of 50 percent at 70° F but
only 25 percent at 92° F because:
a) the grains change as temperature c) cooler air can hold more water vapor
changes. than warmer air.
b) as temperature increases, air becomes d) wanner air can hold more water vapor
denser. than cooler air.
11. True or False? Increasing relative humidity makes one feel warmer, all other conditions be-
ing equal.
12. Which combination will make a person feel warmest? __________
a) Decrease temperature, increase humidity, c) Increase temperature, decrease humid-

decrease air motion. ity, decrease air motion.
b) Increase temperature, increase humidity, d) Increase temperature, increase humid-
increase air motion. ity, decrease air motion.
, ... )

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ABCs OF COMFORT
Work Session 2
1. True or False? With proper air conditioning, comfort can be assured over a broad range of
outside conditions for people located in an enclosed shelter. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2. True or False? Internal loads always add to the heat in a building. They are always heating
loads.
3. Which of the following internal effects produce load in a building? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
a) Furniture c) People
b) Ventilation d) Lights
4. Which of the following external effects can create either a cooling or heating load in a build-
ing depending on the weather? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
a) Transmission c) Infiltration
b) Equipment d) Solar load
5. A building has a cooling load when the:
a) Outside temperature is above 40° F. c) Thermostat is turned down.

b) Combined load components cause heat to d) Combined load components cause heat
enter the building more rapidly than it to leave the building more rapidly than
leaves. it enters.
6. Air system design requires decisions about which of the following building conditions?
a) Building insulation c) Temperature

b) Humidity d) Air quality
7. Room air distribution design is the process of:
a) selecting and make the air ductwork. c) locating the thermostat(s).

b) predicting how the fan will operate. d) selecting and locating supply and
return air openings.
8. True or False? Moisture is removed from the air that flows over the cooling coil because
some of the water vapor in the air turns into liquid as it hits the cold coil.
,.,..)
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ABCs OF COMFORT
9. The difference between infiltration and ventilation is that infiltration is:
a) mechanically controlled while ventilation c) the outward leakage of air from the
just happens. building while ventilation is the inward
leakage from the outside.
b) something that just happens, but
ventilation is mechanically controlled. d) a way to dilute indoor odors and
pollutants and to replace oxygen, but
ventilation is not.
10 . In heating mode, at about what temperature should the air leave the supply diffusers? _ __
a) 80° F c) 160° F
b) 110° F d) 200° F
11. Which of the following methods are commonly used to heat air in the air handler? - - - -
a) Heat wheel c) Absorber

b) Hot water coil d) Gas-fired heat exchanger
e) Solar grid
12. To maintain the desired temperature and relative humidity in an air-conditioned space with a
cooling load, the supply air must have its temperature:
a) equal to the space temperature, but its c) below the space temperature, but its
humidity below it. humidity equal to it.
b) and humidity equal to the space d) and humidity below the space
temperature and humidity. temperature and humidity.
13. To dehumidify the air returning from a building, the cooling coil must have its surface tem-
perature:
a) below the temperature of the return air. c) equal to the saturation temperature of
the room air.
b) below the saturation temperature of the
return air. d) below the temperature of the fluid
running through it.
14. Which of the following actions can a system designer take to change the efficiency with
which a cooling coil cools and dehumidifies the air returned from a building?
a) Change the fan speed. c) Turn up the thermostat.

b) Choose a different coil. d) Insulate the ductwork.
<•@ Introduction to HVAC

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ABCs OF COMFORT
Work Session 3
1. Latent heat is:

---------
a) measurable with a thermometer. c) what happens when water boils.

b) what happens when you heat water from d) more important in the refrigeration
55° F to 210° F. cycle than sensible heat.
2. As the pressure on a fluid (liquid or gas) increases, its boiling point:
a) increases. c) remains unchanged.

b) decreases. d) may or may not change.
3. The four basic components of the mechanical refrigeration cycle include the:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,and
4. The evaporator:
a) rejects heat as refrigerant boils from a c) rejects heat as refrigerant changes from
liquid into a vapor within it. a vapor into a liquid within it.
b) absorbs heat as refrigerant boils from a d) absorbs heat as refrigerant changes
liquid into a vapor within it. from a vapor into a liquid within it.
5. Which of the following components divides the high side from the low side of the system?
a) Receiver c) Suction line accumulator

b) Compressor d) Metering device
6. To provide cooling, why isn't refrigerant just pumped from a tank through an evaporator and
out into the air?
---------
a) It is too damaging to our environment. c) It is too complicated.
b) It would not work for cooling. Without d) It is too expensive.
being enclosed, the evaporator would not
cool the air flowing over it.
<
< -)
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ABCs OF COMFORT
7. The refrigerant line entering the compressor is the :
a) suction line. c) hot gas line.

b) liquid line. d) condensate line.
8. The refrigerant line leaving the condenser is the: ~~~~~~~~~
a) suction line . c) hot gas line .

b) liquid line. d) condensate line.
9. The compressor:
a) pumps liquid refrigerant. c) draws refrigerant out of the condenser.

b) lowers the pressure and temperature of d) raises refrigerant pressure and tempera-
the refrigerant within the cycle. ture .
10. A typical high side saturation temperature at peak cooling load for a system using a water-
cooled condenser is about:
a) 50° F. c) 105° F.
b) 70° F. d) 120° F .
11 . A typical low side saturation temperature at peak cooling load is about:
a) 50° F. c) 30° F.
b) 40° F. d) 20° F .
,..,.). Introduction to HVAC

54
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Appendix
Comfort Conditions Form
Table of Design Conditions
Glossary
Work Session Answers
<••).
55
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Comfort Conditions Form
.Space/Activity
Temperature ' Occupied. d . ' ' ., . Thfottl.ihg
Unoccupied
I•
"" , .Syving ,
Min . .; Range
I 1 ti "
Design . Min Design '
Summer
I , '
I
:! · ·Wi l'lter
Humidity· Design Max Min
11
·· Summer
'
.. ... · ·, .
... ,, ti/f/u. •(i''·t• · Winter
Air Motion .' ''if
Max Min Notes
. ,.
" fpm
..
VentHation Occupied Unoccupied Notes:
,, •;; J
bW . j
Design Min '.
Min
'
I//
!t·:
I' I
''j'. j1'
!
, .. u
j ·. efrn·
. Direct IE~Must
,,
Filtration Condition MERV Type Other .,
. " •i;
Radiant .Surfaces Glass Wall Floor Roof ·other '

I•
''
Summer
"
' Winter
'
Acoustics Room RC Other Notes

"'
..
. ... .. "
,; .;; Ill ;;;

i
Notes:
56
:::i Temperature Suo1>lvAir Sound Ventilation Occuoancv Filters Exhaust ~
...... Relative Humiditv ~
0 Category Summer Winter Summer Winter Speed Changes NC or cfm I cfm I Default People I Eff. % cfm or O"'
0..
c: OF OF % % fpm I hour RC(N) Person w I Person 1000 ft2 MERV cfm/ft' ~
-
a 0
(5' Lodging (Hotels, Motels, Resorts, Dormitories) ~
:::i
Bedroom I ~
74- 78 74- 76 50- 60 30- 35 25- 45 4-10 25- 35 5 0.06 11 10 10-15% 20 - 50/rm ~
0
- livinq room Ill
:::r: Barracks 74- 78 74- 76 50-60 NR 25-45 4 -10 25-35 5 0.06 8 20 10-15%
.....
20-50/Fixture crci
~
(")
Conference
74- 78 70 - 74 20-30 30- 50 12 -15 40-50 5 0.06 6 50 MERV6 NS
50 - 60 ('1
=
room
0
Kitchen
82-88 70- 74 65 max NR 30-50 12 - 1.5 40-50 5 0.06 6 10 MERV6 0.70 I tt2 Q..
~eneral =
.....
Kitchen 2 .....
"""'"
76 70-74 65 max NR 30-50 12-15 40-50 5 0.06 6 10 MERV6 0.70 I ft 0
loastrv
Ill
=
Lobbies 80 72 50-60 20-30 30-45 NS 35-45 5 0.06 11 10 MERV8 NS
Kitchen
74-78 70-74 6.5 max NR 30-50 12-15 40-50 5 0.06 6 2 MERV6 0.30 /ft2
private
Hallways 80 72 50-60 20-30 30-45 NS 35-45 5 0.06 11 10 MERV8 NS
Guest rooms 74-78 74-76 50-60 30-35 25-45 4-10 25-35 5 0.06 11 10 10-15% 20-50/rm
CJl
-.J Multi-puroose 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 30-50 12-15 40-50 5 0.06 6 120 MERV6 NS
www.HVAC-ENG.com
25-45
Office areas 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 0.7-2 4-10 30-45 5 0.06 17 5 30 - 60 NS
cf miff
Laundry 85 65 60 NR 50 + 10-12 NR 7.5 0.06 11 20 8 As Req.
Office Buildinqs
25-45
Office 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 0.7-2 4-10 30-45 5 0.06 17 5 30-60 NR
cf miff
25-45
)>
OJ
Reception 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 0.7-2 4-10 30-45 5 0.06 7 30 30-60 NR ()
cfmftr Ul
Data entry 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 5 0.06 6 60 30-60 NR 0
"'Tl
Lobbies 80 72 50-60 20-30 30-45 NS 35-45 5 0.06 11 10 30-60 NR
()
Computer 0
74 - 78 70-74 50-60 20-30 5 0.06 20 4 30-60 NR
6 rooms ~
rToilets 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 30-45 NS NR NS 0.12 NS NS 50-70/Fixture "'Tl
~~ ,~
0
i!::I • ;o
"" -;
c:
)>
Temperature Relative Humiditv Supply Air Sound Ventilation Occupancy Filters Exhaust IJJ
Category Summer Winter Summer Winter Speed ChanQes NC or cfm I cfm I Default People I Eff. % cfmor 0
(/)
OF OF % % fpm I hour RC(N) Person ft' I Person 1000 ft 2 MERV cfmlft'
[I
;I
ii Conf. Room 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 30-50 12-15 40-50 5 0.06 6 50 30-60 NR
0
,,
"'' Storage 80 72 50-60 20-30 30-45 NS NR NS 0.12 NS 1 10-15 1.00 0
Parking 0
80-100 40-55 NR NR 30-75 4-6 35-50 NR NR NR NS 10-15 0.75
GaraQe ,,:;;::
Break room 74-78 70-74 55-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-40 7.5 0.18 9 100 35 + 0.30 0
50-60 30-45
:;u
Corridors 80 72 20-30 NS 35-45 5 0.06 11 10 MERV8 NS -I
Residence - Single Family Multi-Family Apartment. M.anufactured Housing
Living areas 74-78 74-76 50-60 30-35 25-45 4-10 25-35 5 0.06 11 10 10-15% 20-50/rm
Kitchens 74-78 74-76 50-60 30-35 25-45 4-10 25-35 5 0.06 11 10 10-15% 0.30
50 cfm int
Baths 74-78 74-76 50-60 30-35 25-45 4-10 25-35 5 0.06 11 10 10-15% 20cfm
cont.
Retail
Sales-main 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.60 16 15 MERV6 NR
Sales-upper 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.60 16 50-100 MERV6 NR
(.11
CXl Mall common
74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.06 9 40 MERV6 NR
soaces
Barber shop 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.06 10 25 MERV6 0.50
Salon 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 20 0.12 25 25 MERV6 0.60
Clothing
74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25 - 30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.06 11 20 MERV6 NR
stores
Drug store 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 MERV6
www.HVAC-ENG.com
5 0.18 23 10 NR
Pet shop 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.18 26 10 MERV6 0.90
Banks 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-1 2 35-50 7.5 0.60 17 30 MERV6 NR
Photo Studio 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 5 0.12 17 10 MERV6 1.00
::s
..... Supermarket 74-78 70 - 74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.06 15 8 MERV6 NR
.., ,.... .
0 vOin-Op
Q. 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.06 11 20 MERV6 NR
r: laundries
(')
Convenience
74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.60 15 10 MERV6 NR
....5·
stores
....::s0 Bakeries 74-78 70-74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.60 19 13 MERV6 NR
::c Public
74-78 70 -74 50 -60 20-30 25-30 8-12 35-50 7.5 0.60 NS NS MERV6 50-70/Fixture
restrooms
;;0
~
..... Temperature Relative Humiditv Suoolv Air Sound Ventilation Occupancv Fi lters Exhaust
00.. Category Summer Winter Summer Winter Speed Changes NC or cfm I cfm/ Default People I Eff. % cfm or
2
c: OF OF % % fpm I hour RC(N) Person ff I Person 1000 ft MERV cfm!W
0
:!: Florists
0 74- 78 70- 74 50-60 20-30 25- 30 8 -12 35- 50 7.5 0.60 11 20 MERV6 NR
~
..... Gift shop 74- 78 70- 74 50-60 20-30 25-30 8 - 12 35- 50 7.5 0.60 11 20 MERV6 NR
0 Jewelry store 74- 78 70- 74 50-60 20- 30 25 - 30 8 - 12 35- 50 7.5 0.60 11 20 MERV6 NR
:I:
Restaurants MERV6 NR
~
(") Kitchen 82- 88 70- 74 65 max NR 30- 50 12 -15 40-50 5 0.06 6 10 MERV6 0.70 I ft2
Fast food 78 70- 74 50 20- 30 50 12 -15 40- 50 7.5 0.18 9 100 MERV8 NR
Formal 74- 78 70 - 74 55-60 20 -30 25- 30 8 - 12 35- 40 7.5 0.18 9 70 MERV8 NR
Bars 74- 78 70- 74 50 - 60 20-30 30 15-20 35- 50 7.5 0.18 9 100 MERV8 NR
Cafeterias 78 70- 74 50 20-30 50 12 - 15 40- 50 7.5 0.18 9 100 MERV8 NR
Sports and Entertainment
Auditoriums 74- 78 70- 74 50- 60 20- 30 30 6-8 35- 50 5 0.06 5 150 35+ 0.50
Bowling
75- 78 70- 74 50- 55 20- 30 50@6' 10 -15 40- 50 10 0.12 13 40 10-15 0.50
alleys
Gym I Sports
74 - 78 70- 74 50- 60 20-30 30 6-8 35- 50 NS 0.30 NS NS 35 0.50
(J1 !Complex
CD Spectator
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74- 78 70- 74 50 - 60 20-30 30 6-8 35- 50 7.5 0.06 8 150 35 NS

areas
Gambling
74 - 78 70- 74 50-60 20-30 30 6-8 35- 50 7.5 0.18 9 120 35 NS
Casinos
Libraries 68- 72 68- 72 40- 55 40-55 25 8-12 35- 45 5 0.12 17 10 35- 60 NS
Museums-
68- 72 68- 72 40- 55 40 - 55 25 8 - 12 35- 45 7.5 0.12 11 40 35-60 NS
children's
Museums -
68 - 72 68 - 72 40- 55 40- 55 25 8-12 35- 45 7.5 0.06 9 40 35 - 60 NS
galleries
Swimming )>
75- 85 75- 85 50- 60 50- 60 30 4-6 35- 50 NS 0.48 NS NS SR NS OJ
pools
()
Dance floors 74 - 78 70- 74 50- 60 20- 30 30 6-8 35- 50 20 0.06 21 100 35 NS CJ)
Health clubs 0
Aerobics 74- 78 70- 74 50-60 20- 30 30 6-8 35- 50 20 0.06 22 40 35 0.50 "Tl
()
Weight 74- 78 70- 74 50- 60 20- 30 30 6.-8 35- 50 20 0.06 26 10 35 0.50
0
Arcades 74- 78 70- 74 50- 60 20-30 30 6-8 35- 50 7.5 0.18 17 20 35 NS ~
Stage I studio 74 - 78 70- 74 50- 60 20-30 30 6-8 35- 50 10 0.06 11 70 35 NS "Tl
0
;:;o
"'' -I
II
~
Temperature Relative Humiditv Sur>~lv Air Sound Ventilation Occupancv Filters Exhaust OJ
0 .. ()
Categbry Summer Winter Summer Winter Speed ChanQes NC or cfm I cfm/ Default People I Eff % cfm or
~ C/J
~
OF OF % % fpm I hour RC(N) Person ff I Person 1000 ft 2 MERV cfm/fe
~ ,.
il;:< • 0
Transportation Centers I Correctional Facilities 'Tl
"" Waiting area 74- 78 70- 74 50-60 20-30 25- 30 8-12 35- 50 7.5 0.06 8 100 MERV8 NS ()
0
Correctional ~
Cell 78 72 50 30 25- 30 6 35- 50 5 0.12 10 25 MERV8 1.00 'Tl
Day room 78 72 50 30 25- 30 6 35- 50 5 0.60 7 30 MERV8 NS 0
;;o
puard -I
78 72 50 30 25- 30 6 35-50 5 0.60 9 15 MERV8 NS
Station
Booking 78 72 50 30 25 - 30 8 35-50 7.5 0.60 9 50 MERV8 NS
!Assembly Buildings
Places of
78 72 60 30 30- 45 NS 30-40 5 0.06 5 150 MERV8 NS
worship
Courtroom 78 72 60 30 30- 45 NS 30-40 5 0.06 6 70 MERV8 NS
Post office 78 72 60 30 30- 45 NS 30-40 5 0.06 6 70 MERV8 NS
Education
O') Classrooms
0
Aqe 5- 8 78 75 50-60 20-30 30- 45 NS 30-40 10 0.12 15 25 MERV8 NS
Age9+ 78 72 50- 60 20-30 30 - 45 NS 30-40 10 0.12 13 35 MERV8 NS
Lecture 78 72 50- 60 20-30 30- 45 NS 30-40 7.5 0.06 8 65 MERV8 NS
Fixed-seat
78 72 50- 60 20-30 30 - 45 NS 30-40 7.5 0.06 8 150 MERV8 NS
lecture
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Art 78 72 50- 60 20-30 30- 45 NS 30 - 40 10 0.18 19 20 MERV8 0.70

Science Lab 78 72 50-60 20 - 30 30- 45 NS 35-45 10 0.18 17 25 MERV8 1.00
Wood I metal
78 72 50-60 20-30 30 - 45 NS 35-45 10 0.18 19 20 MERV8 0.50
shops
:::i
..,..... Computer lab 78 72 50- 60 20-30 30- 45 NS 30-40 10 0.12 15 25 MERV8 NS
0
Q. Media center 78 72 50-60 20-30 30 - 45 NS 30 - 40 10 0.12 15 25 MERV8 NS
c:
....5·n Hallways 80 72 50-60 20-30 30- 45 NS 35-45 5 0.06 11 10 MERV8 NS
Daycare 78 75 50-60 20-30 30- 45 NS 30 -40 10 0.18 17 25 MERV8 NS
....0:::i Music 78 72 50-60 20 - 30 30- 45 NS 30- 40 10 0.06 12 35 MERV8 NS
:r: Multi-use 78 72 50-60 20- 30 30 - 45 NS 30- 40 7.5 0.06 8 100 MERV8 NS
~
C')
....:::i-- Temperature Relative Humidity Suo:>ly Air Sound Ventilation Occuoancv Filters Exhaust
aa. Category Summer Winter Summer Winter Speed ChanQes NC or cfm/ cfm I Default People I Eff. % cfm or
t:: OF OF % % fpm I hour RC(N) Person tf I Person 1000 ft 2 MERV · cfm/tf
(')
.... Health
cs·
:::i Dr. Office 74-78 70- 74 50-60 20- 30 25-45 4 - 10 30-45 5 0.06 17 5 30-60 NS
0
- Exam rm. 75 75 60 30 NS 6 35-45 15 NS NS 20 MERV8 NS
:c Hospital
~ Patient room 75 75 50 30 NS 6 25-35 25 NS NS 10 MERV8 25 to 50
C')
Hallways 78 75 60 30 NS 4 35-45 5 0.06 11 10 MERV6 NS
Exam room 75 75 60 30 NS 6 35-45 15 NS NS 20 MERV8 NS
!Waiting room 74 74 60 30 NS 6 35-45 5 0.06 11 10 MERV8 NS
Pperating
62-80 62-80 45-55 45 -55 NS 25 35-45 30 NS NS 20 SR* SR*
rooms
Recovery I
75 75 45-55 45-55 NS 6 35-45 15 NS NS 20 SR* SR*
ICU
!Autopsy 74 74 60 30 NS 6 35-45 NS .5 NS 20 SR* SR*
Physical
72-80 72-80 60 30 NS 6 35-45 15 NS NS 20 SR* SR*
herapv
(j)
__.. Industrial
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LiQht MfQ 78 72 Max60* *** NS *** To50 15 NS 15 10 MERV6 ***

Med Mfq 78 60 Max60* *** NS *** To 50 15 NS 15 5 MERV6 ***
Heavy MfQ 78 65 Max 60* *** NS *** To75 15 NS 15 3 MERV6 ***
Warehouse 80 - 100 40- 55 Max60* *** NS 1-4 To75 NS 0.12 NS NS 10 - 35 ***
Data in this table is provided as a guideline only, local codes and standards must be complied with. The data is extracted from ASHRAE Standards, the
ASHRAE handbook and a number of internal sources, and by no means covers all situations.
SR - Depends on activity, material or process in the space
NS - Not specified )>
NR- Not required OJ
()
(/)
0
"Tl
()
0
~
"Tl
~ 0
'O
J,.
"
it. .. :::0
-I
www.HVAC-ENG.com
ABCs OF COMFORT
Glossary
Word Definition
air handling unit (AHU) I air equipment, usually connected to ductwork, to move and condition air; con-
handler tains components such as fans, cooling coils, heating coils, filters and
dampers to control return, outdoor and exhaust air
air system the components of a comfort air-conditioning system that treat the air to a
space; generally these include the fan, supply duct system, exhaust, ventila-
tion dampers, mixing dampers, filtration, cooling coils, heating devices, and
humidification capabilities
apparatus dew point (ADP) the dew point temperature that corresponds to the average effective coil sur-
face temperature
blow-thru air systems where the fan is located before the cooling coil and air is blown
through the coil; the coil is under positive pressure
British thermal unit (Btu)) measure of heat energy; the heat energy of a Btu is approximately that re-
quired to raise the temperature of a pound of water from one degree
Fahrenheit, from 59° F to 60° F
bypass.factor the ratio of the air that does not contact the coil to the total airflow
centrifUgal compressor nonpositive displacement refrigeration compressor, which depends for pres-
sure rise, at least in part, on centrifugal forces developed by a rotating
impeller.
circulate Function of a comfort air-conditioning system to provide air motion within a
space which is uniform and provides adequate mixing of supply and return
air at room air velocities which would not be described as drafty or stuffy
CLO unit of clothing insulation, defined as the thermal insulation necessary to
keep a sitting person comfortable in normally ventilated room at 70° F and
50 percent relative humidity. In physical terms, the thermal resistance of one
CLO = 0.88° F·ft2 ·h/Btu
comfort (air conditioning) Controlling simultaneously space conditions of temperature, humidity, air
motion, mean radiant temperature, air purity, and air quality (ventila-
tion/exhaust), for the purpose of satisfying the physical needs of the space
occupants
compressor a component in a refrigerating system that "pumps" the refrigerant and raises
its temperature by increasing the pressure above the temperature of the con-
densing media
condenser a device in a refrigerating system where refrigerant rejects the heat to the
condensing media, either air or water
conduction heat transfer by which heat is moved from molecule to molecule of a sub-
stance or between substances by a chain collision of those molecules
convection heat transfer within a fluid by the movement of heated molecules from one
place to another as the result of density differences
convective baseboard heaters which create air motion by natural convective heat transfer without
any fan; nonnally electric or hot water and located along the perimeter walls
cool function of a comfort air-conditioning system to remove heat energy from a
space adequate to overcome heat gains and maintain comfort levels
cooling load the heat gains to a space above the heat losses that the cooling system needs
,....
to remove to maintain space temperature; includes both sensible and latent
heat gain elements
62
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ABCs OF COMFORT
dehumidifier air cooler, absorption or adsorption device used to lower moisture content
dehumidify function of a comfort air-conditioning system to remove moisture from the
air in a space at a quantity that maintains space relative humidity at levels
within the comfort envelop or as required for a process
diffeser an air distribution component in the space or air outlet that delivers supply
air such that appropriate mixing, conditioning and air motion occurs
draw-thru air systems where the fan is located after the cooling coil and air is drawn
through the coil; the coil is under negative pressure
ductwork series of interconnected ducts and fittings that delivers air to a space from a
remotely located fan then returns it to the fan
effective temperature a set of temperature and humidity conditions that feel the same as the dry
bulb temperature and 50 percent relative humidity
evaporation change of state from liquid to vapor, from the body regulation of body tem-
perature by the process of evaporation of perspiration
evaporator a heat exchange coil within a mechanical refrigeration system where the
refrigerant is evaporated to absorb heat from the contacting heat source
filter function of a comfort air-conditioning system to remove particles, gaseous,
and biological contaminants which may be in circulation
grille a covering over the opening of a duct system, normally return air; does not
greatly affect the room air distribution.
heat a form of energy that can be transferred by conduction, convection, or radia-
tion; only transferred from a warmer substance to a colder substance;
function of a comfort air-conditioning system to provide heat energy to a
space adequate to overcome heat losses and maintain comfort levels
heat pump air conditioning heating/refrigerating system that will transfer heat; the con-
denser and evaporator may change roles to transfer heat in either direction
by receiving the flow of air or other fluid; a heat pump is used to cool or
heat.
heating load the heat losses from a space above the heat gains that a heating system needs
to add to maintain space temperature; it is only sensible
high side parts subjected to approximately the condenser pressure; discharge side,
from compressor discharge to metering device inlet
human comfort space in which more that 80 percent of the occupants describe the space as
comfortable with regard to temperature, humidity, air motion, air purity, air
quality and effects of radiant temperature; conditions are a function of activ-
ity level, clothing, and time in the space
humidifier device to add moisture to air
humidify, humidification function of a comfort air-conditioning system to add moisture to the air in a
space at a quantity that will maintain a space relative humidity at levels
within the comfort envelope or as required for a process
humidity the moisture content of air, measured in pounds/pound of dry air, or
grains/pound of dry air
HVAC heating, ventilating and air conditioning; standard abbreviation
infiltration the leakage of outside air into a structure through doors, cracks, windows,
and other openings.
63
...)
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ABCs OF COMFORT
low pressure side (low side) portion of a refrigerating system operating at approximately the evaporator
pressure; suction side, from metering device outlet to compressor suction
mechanical refrigeration a system that transfers heat from a colder place to a warmer place by raising
system the pressure and temperature of a volatile fluid above its condensing tem-
perature; system consists of a refrigerant (volatile fluid), an evaporator (heat
absorber), a condenser (heat rejector), a compressor (vapor pump), and a
metering device (pressure reducing valve)
MET unit of metabolic rate of people defined as 18.4 Btu/h·ft2, which is equal to
the energy produced per unit surface area of a seated person at rest. The sur-
face area of an average man is about 19 ft2
process air conditioning controlling simultaneously, space conditions to provide temperature, humid-
ity, air motion, air purity, air quality (ventilation/exhaust), and mean radiant
temperature, primarily for the purpose of a product or production process in
the space; if human comfort is provided, it is a secondary benefit
psychrometrics the study of air and moisture mixtures.
radiation transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves due to temperatures in the
two surfaces; is a function of temperature difference, distance, angle be-
tween surfaces, and surface absorption
reciprocating compressor positive-displacement compressor in which the change in internal volume of
the compression chamber(s) is accomplished by the reciprocating motion of
one or more pistons.
refrigerant the medium of heat transfer which picks up heat by evaporating at a low
temperature and pressure, and giving up heat on condensing at a higher tem-
perature and pressure
refrigerant metering device device that controls the flow of liquid refrigerant to an evaporator
register combination grille and damper assembly over a supply air opening; normally
located in the floor or wall
relative humidity a measure of the moisture content in the air as a percentage of the maximum
amount of moisture the air could hold at that dry bulb temperature
room air distribution the process of providing proper air motion and proper air mixing of room,
supply, and ventilation air in a space
rotary compressor positive displacement compressor in which the change in internal volume of
the compression chamber(s) is accomplished by the rotary motion of a posi-
tive displacement member(s).
screw compressor rotary compressor relying on the intermeshing of two helical rotors to pro-
duce compression.
scroll compressor positive-displacement compressor in which the reduction in internal volume
of the compression chamber is accomplished by an orbiting scroll (involute
spiral) within a mating stationary scroll.
sensible heat the energy of molecular motion, measured with a standard thermometer;
heat which causes a change in temperature
setback reduction of space temperature for heating during hours when a building is
unoccupied, or during periods when lesser demand is acceptable
setup Increasing the space temperature setpoint for cooling during hours when a
building is unoccupied, or during periods when lesser demand is acceptable
specific humidity ratio of the mass of water to the total mass of dry air in a volume of moist air
64
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ABCs OF COMFORT
swing change in temperature above the cooling setpoint that is allowed for calcula-
tion such that the system is still considered to be in control of the space
temperature
thermostat temperature-sensitive device that automatically opens and closes an electric
circuit to regulate the dry bulb temperature of the space with which it is as-
sociated
thermostatic expansion valve control device for regulating the flow of refrigerant into a cooling unit, actu-
(TXV) ated by the changes in evaporator pressure and superheat of the refrigerant
leaving the cooling unit; the basic response is to the superheat
throttling range change in controlled variable (temperature) required to move the thermostat
from one of its extreme limits of travel to the other
transmission load the heat gain or loss to a space that occurs due to a temperature difference
between space and outdoor conditions or adjacent room conditions; may be
a cooling or heating load
ventilation process of supplying or removing air by natural or mechanical means to or
from any space for the purpose of oxygen replacement or odor dilution; such
air may or may not have been conditioned
<tMfiP> .
Turn to the Experts:
65
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ABCs OF COMFORT
Work Session Answers
Work Session 1
1. True
2. a), b), c), d)
3. 75° For 68-78° F (range)
4. 50 percent or 30-60 percent (range)
5. b)
6. d)
7. b) and c)
8. False, comfort is also compromised
9. b), c), d)
10. d)
11. True
12 . d)
Work Session 2
1. True
2. False
3. c), d)
4. a), c)
5. c)
6. b), c), d)
7. d)
8. True
9. b)
10. b)
11. b), d)
12. d)
13. b)
14. a), b)
Work Session 3
1. c), d)
2. a)
3. evaporator, compressor, condenser, metering device
4. b)
5. b), d)
6. a), d)
7. a)
8. b)
9. d)
10. c)
11. b)
<fli'ft!t».> Introduction to HVAC

66
www.HVAC-ENG.com
Prerequ isites :
None required.
Learn ing Objectives:

At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to:
Describe the six conditions that influence human comfort.
List the four processes the body uses to transfer heat.
• Describe how a system designer can control the environment to maintain comfort condi-
tions.
Describe what environmental control parameters are required from comfort air-
conditioning systems.
• List a reasonable range for each of the comfort parameters.
• List the basic components of the air system and the function of each.
• List the four principles that are used to make a mechanical refrigeration system work.
• List the four components of a mechanical refrigeration system and the principles used to
create the refrigeration process.
Explain what measurements can be done to calculate each of the environmental factors.
Calculate the relative humidity.
Explain the principle of effective temperature.
Determine the CLO (clothing insulating value) and MET (Activity- metabolic rate) values.
List the typical operating parameters of the components of an air system.
• Explain the difference between sensible and latent heat.
Create a list of comfort design conditions for a project.
Supplemental Material:
Instructor
Form No. Color Book Titl e
Presentation
TDP-103 796-027 797-027 Concepts of Air Conditioning
TDP-104 796-028 797-028 Equipment Introduction
TDP-105 796-029 797-029 Comfort Design Steps
TDP-400 796-037 797-037 Principles of Mechanical Refrigeration
TDP-201 796-030 797-030 Psychrometrics, Level 1, Fundamentals
TDP-507 796-048 797-048 Room Air Distribution
Instructor Information:
Each TOP topic is supported with a number of different items to meet the specific needs of the
user. Instructor materials consist of a CD-ROM disk that includes a PowerPoinf" presentation
with convenient links to all required support materials required for the topic. This always includes:
slides, presenter notes, text file including work sessions and work session solutions, quiz and
quiz answers. Depending upon the topic, the instructor CD may also include sound, video,
spreadsheets, forms, or other material required to present a complete class. Self-study or
student material consists of a text including work sessions and work session answers, and may
also include forms, worksheets, calculators, etc.
www.HVAC-ENG.com
Carrier Corporation
Technical Training
800 644-5544
www.training.carrier.com
Form No. TDP-102 Cat. No. 796-026

Supersedes TDP-1 Supersedes 791-407

TDP-102 ABCs of Comfort

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system and the mechanical refrigeration system. Finally, • Air purity

Why Do We Need Air Conditioning?

Process Air Conditioning

Comfort Air Conditioning

An explanation of how the

Body Temperature Control

Turn to the ExpertS.

Forced-convection: convective motion is caused

Just as the radiant heat of the

Therefore, quality construction reduces discomfort

residential construction with outside tem- Single Glass

Commercial construction guide- Barrier Minimum

common commercial construction, R-15

space in both summer and winter. Floor Slab

<ri•». Introduction to HVAC

Relative Humidity and Comfort

Since each pound of water evapo- Higher Humidity = Slower Evaporation

up a space the size of a cube that T ••••• .··

1 lb water = 7000 gr 160

(maximum amount of water vapor) 120 w

grains of water vapor. Psychromet- Dry Bulb Temperature,• F

The air sample is not satu-

During the heating season, evapo- Figure 24

.Introduction to HVAC «<Mtii.>

Body Regulation and Space Control

Now we will summarize human comfort as it pertains Conditions designers control:

tivity, and localized conditions to Figure 29

The Comfort Chart

ASHRAE has plotted, on

Conditions that Impact Comfort

While air motion helps with the cooling • Head-to-Toe difference of 5° F

from the person the less • Requires temperature

Comfort System Requirements

Comfort Design Standards

Radiant Surfaces Glass Wall Floor Roof Other

Defining Comfort Conditions

Comfort Design Standards

Comfort Design Standards

When we seek shelter in an

In addition to body heat, other

Likewise, when the outside air temperature is higher

<@@.> Introduction to HVAC

The total load of the building is the combined result

Introduction to HVAC <tflll1ti!>

Air System - Components

'ft@Mt> Introduction to HVAC

Room Air Distribution

I*cfm =cubic feet per minute= Air Quantity

Turn to the ExpertS:

Turn to the ExpertS.

heat and carries it to // Return Duct

the mechanical refiig-

Turn to the ExpertS:

Moisture is removed from the air

If a residential system uses no

At peak cooling load, most cool-

Introduction to HVAC •Mho.>

LiQht MfQ 78 72 Max60* * NS * To50 15 NS 15 10 MERV6 ***