Literature Review
Literature Review
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Theoretical Background
1. Pragmatics
a. Definition of Pragmatics
how the hearer gets the implicit meaning of the speaker’s utterances. The
assumed as the study of the relationship between linguistics forms and the
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pragmatics can be seen as a way to solve problems which can arise, both
from the perspective of a speaker and a hearer. For example from the
produce an utterance. On the other hand, from the hearer’s point of view,
able to interpret the possible reason that makes the speaker saying the
utterance.
human language uses’ condition, which has a close relationship with the
utterance to deliver his or her intention and how the listener interprets it.
speech acts.
1) Deixis
states that the word deixis comes from from a Greek word, to point
(1996: 10-14):
a) Person Deixis
pronouns for first person (‘I’), second person (‘you’), and third
b) Spatial Deixis
point to location. The examples are the adverbs ‘here’, ‘there’, ‘this’
and ‘that’.
c) Temporal Deixis
2) Cooperative Principle
usually performs between the speakers and hearers when they are
principle in which a speaker and hearer are connected into the same
a) Maxim of Quality
They should not make statement for which they have no evidence.
b) Maxim of Quantity
informative (neither too little, nor too much) to make sure that the
d) Maxim of Manner
clear and brief statement. He or she also has to avoid absurdity and
ambiguity of expression.
3) Implicature
speaker can imply, suggest or mean as distict from what the speaker
speaker delivers information more than what she or he is really said. The
speaker may deliver the message both explicitly and implicitly. Grice (in
a) Conventional Implicature
words and those words may carry additional conveyed meaning when
they are used (Yule, 1996: 45). In addition, this type is not based on
pragmatic principles or maxims, and it does not need special context
b) Conversational Implicature
meaning can differ from what is said, depending on the context of the
Doobie asks Mary whether she invites her friends Bella and Cathy
Doobie automatically knows that Mary only invites Bella and she
4) Presupposition
Meanwhile, Givon (in Brown and Yule, 1983: 29) writes that the notion
meaning of a sentence.
5) Speech act
speech act refers to an utterance and also the total situation in which the
utterance is issued (1960:52). The more explanation about the speech act
c. Context of Situation
utterance. Through the context, the speaker and the addressee share
their background in understanding the utterances. Malinowski (in
environment of the text that includes the verbal and the situational
They are the participant, the setting or social context of interaction, the
2. Speech Act
structure and words when they speak, but also perform action through
speech act (Yule, 1996:47). Similarly, Austin (in Tsui, 1994:4) states that
of the speech act itself is to state the speaker’s intention to the hearer.
event may consist of one or more speech acts (Hymes in Fasold, 1999:42).
same time. For this reason, he or she proposes three kinds of acts, they are:
In the other word, locutionary act is the simple act of saying words
and the meaning of those words which are spoken by the speaker. While,
finally perlocutionary act is the effect that arises when the speaker is saying
something.
In (1), the speaker states that the hearer wears a seatbelt. In (2),
the speaker asks a question to the hearer whether the hearer wears the
seatbelt or not. In (3), the speaker commands the hearer to wear the
seatbelt.
indirect speech act. Allan states that in an indirect speech act, there is an
When people use indirect speech act, they will be able to create a
tend to use indirect speech act better than direct speech act.
c. Speech Act Classification
1) Representative
2) Directive
inviting, are all the examples of how the speaker expressing his or her
wants.
3) Commisive
or she will commit some future action. Basically, it expresses what the
refusals.
4) Expressive
dislike, joy, or sorrow. In this case, the speaker makes the words fit
with the situation which his or her feeling also includes in it. Acts of
speaker feels.
5) Declaration
and resign.
3. Directive
Directive is used when the speaker wants the hearer to do things for
him or her. Searle (in Levinson, 1983:241) gives the notion of directive as the
requesting that lead for further actions of the hearers, and the actions are in
accordance with the speaker’s instruction. Based on the theory of Gordon and
Lakoff (in Bovillain 2003:119) to employ directive, a speaker must fulfill the
action.
there is no request.
asking someone, the speaker can use interrogatives and declaratives forms.
There are many factors that influence the use of a certain form of
directive, such as social distance between the participants, their status, and the
formality of the context. To get what he or she wants from someone else, a
speaker must know the rule in expressing his or her desire and it should be
4. Commands
a. Definition of Commands
to catch the criminals. Even, in the modern technology, people can send
commands only by clicking their computer’s mouse. Every time they click
operating system.
command
b. The recipient of the command has the responsibility to carry
It means that, the person who has the right to command usually has a
someone asks him or her a question about why he or she issued a certain
command.
order are different. The difference between both of them is in the level of
politeness, in which the request form is more polite than the order form.
Lyon (in Tsui, 1994:92-93) adds that the crucial difference between
means that the speaker assumes that the hearer will do the action in the way
that the speaker has commanded. Whereas a request has the conditional
feature, or, in other words, the speaker assumes that the request will only
situation. The duty or obligation to carry out a command does not proceed
only from status of the speaker, but it may proceed from the physical
c. Types of Commands
1) Direct Commands
command:
2) Indirect Commands
Richards and Schmidt, 1975:96), also provide a rule for the interpretation
d. Forms of Commands
follows:
1) Imperatives
Here are the six structural variants of directive speech acts in the
example, “Speak up” and “Put your hands down”. The words
b) You + imperatives
your work”.
form of verb. For example, “Hands up” and “Now this one”.
e) Imperative + modifier
phrase, e.g., I, me, she, her, he, his, we, us, you, they, them,
“Let’s finish there”, “Let’s try it”, and “Let’s find her”.
2) Declaratives
There are the two variants of directive speech acts which include
a) Embedded agent
fact that the agent and the required activity are expressed
to draw a picture”.
b) Hints
5. Politeness
person’s face (Yule, 1998:60). The same opinion also stated by Holmes
(1992:306). He says that a polite person makes other people are able to feel
comfortable. So politeness involves how one can make others feel more
has to make sure that he or she is able to create a polite command. It is not
only because he or she usually expects a positive result from the hearers
(which the form is in compliance) but also because a speaker cannot employ
Bonvillain also adds that the above factors are very important because
namely compliance; but because of the fact that sometimes there is a social
relationship exists between the speaker and the addressee (even if the
feeling (2003:120).
of face. Face means as a public self image, it refers to the emotional and social
sense of self that every person has and expects to be recognized by everyone
(Yule, 1996:134). From a film, a public self image can be found from the
Brown and Levinson (in Bonvillain, 2003:127) state that there are two kinds
of “face”, namely:
that the others also want to have and share his or her desire.
someone’s action.
for accomplishing FTA in order to reduce the risk of damaging hearer’s face.
a. Bald-on-record
reasons to ignore the face risk of the hearer. They do not do any
speak directly so the speakers ignore face risk. For example, if there
attempt is made to mitigate the face risk are found where the power
1) An emergency: HELP!
doing).
b. Positive Politeness
hearer. It is the positive self image that he or she claims for himself
some respects, the speaker wants the hearer’s wants (for example
interlocutor.
2) Avoid disagreement
us?”
4) Give (or ask for) reasons: “Why don’t you lend us your
record player?”
c. Negative Politeness
addressee’s negative face wants and will not interfere with the
fence?”
d. Off-record
the responsibility for doing it, he or she can do it in the form of off
interpret it.
communicative intent.
1) Give hints: “it’s cold here.”
responsible.”
tonight!”
with the same title written by Tasha Alexander. This film is a sequel to the
by Universal Pictures and Working Title Films. The screenplay was written
by William Nicholson and Michael Hirst, while the designer of the costume
is Alexandra Byrne. As a film that won two Academy Awards for the best
costume design and best actress, this film costs around USD50-60 million.
This film is starred by Cate Blanchett as the Queen Elizabeth I of
England and Clive Owen as a pirate and explorer who has just recently
returned from the New World. Elizabeth: the Golden Age tells about an
Walter Raleigh at the height of the queen's power. The film starts in 1585
where Roman Catholic Spain is the most powerful country in Europe, with
heir by her advisor, Sir Francis Walsingham. The Queen is presented with
many portraits of crowned heads of Europe and princes; these include Ivan
conducted several times. Since the meanings of speech acts are based on the
context, the findings of every research are different from one to another. Here
commands.
After conducting the research, Sukasih found that there were five types
of commands, used by the characters of The Sound of Music. They are base
form of verb, you + imperatives, verb ellipsis, imperative + modifier, and let +
first person pronoun. According to the research, direct speech acts are
proposed by the characters in this film. Then, at last she found that there were
her article The Role of Negative Politeness in Request: The Strategies that
Non-Native Speakers Apply and Fail to Apply when Performing Request. She
investigates whether the non native speakers were aware of the use of
speech acts to examine her data. The results are first the sub strategies be
the hearer are friend, the last bald on record strategy when the speaker has a
higher authority. Her final conclusion is that on one hand, nonnative speakers
are conscious of the concept of negative politeness since in fact they managed
to apply some of the strategies this theory proposes. On the other hand, they
strategies in this film in terms of the linguistic form, the context of utterance,
and the relationship between the speaker and the hearer. She employs
politeness strategies theories to examine her data. The result of this research is
cynical old colonel talked with a nice junior and a beautiful girl respectively
and friendship.
tries to observe not only the types of speech acts of commands but also the
Pragmatics
Speech Acts
The Ways of
Forms Expressing
Types
Politeness
Base Form You + Present Verb Imperative Let + First Embedded Hints
of Verb Imperative Participle Ellipsis +Modifier Person pronoun Agent
Form of
Verb 36