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Prof. Hilaria M. Barsabal Cagayan State University

This document discusses key concepts in biostatistics including: 1. Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biology and involves collecting, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting biological data. 2. An example is given of using biostatistics to study whether women exposed to toxins at work have more difficulty conceiving compared to unexposed women. 3. Key elements that make for a good quantitative research design include freedom from bias, confounding, control of extraneous variables, and statistical precision to test hypotheses.

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Darlene Andres Ponce
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436 views35 pages

Prof. Hilaria M. Barsabal Cagayan State University

This document discusses key concepts in biostatistics including: 1. Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biology and involves collecting, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting biological data. 2. An example is given of using biostatistics to study whether women exposed to toxins at work have more difficulty conceiving compared to unexposed women. 3. Key elements that make for a good quantitative research design include freedom from bias, confounding, control of extraneous variables, and statistical precision to test hypotheses.

Uploaded by

Darlene Andres Ponce
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Prof. Hilaria M.

Barsabal
Cagayan State University
“No amount of experimentation
can ever prove me right; a
single experiment can prove me
wrong.”

Albert Einstein (1879-


1955)
a word made from biology and statistics)
The application of statistics to a wide range of topics
in biology.
It is the science which deals with development and
application of the most appropriate methods for
the:
Collection of data.
Presentation of the collected data.
Analysis and interpretation of the results.
Making decisions on the basis of such analysis
Example: Infertility
Suppose you are concerned about the
difficulties some couples have in
conceiving a child.
It is thought that women exposed to a
particular toxin in their workplace have
greater difficulty becoming pregnant
compared to women who are not exposed
to the toxin.
You conduct a study of such women,
recording the time it takes to conceive.
Example: Infertility

 Of course, there is natural variability in time-


to-pregnancy attributable to many causes
aside from the toxin.
 Nevertheless, suppose you finally determine
that those females with the greatest exposure
to the toxin had the most difficulty getting
pregnant.
 Frequently used in referral to recorded
data
 Denotes characteristics calculated for a set
of data : sample mean
 To guide the design of an experiment or
survey prior to data collection

 To analyze data using proper statistical


procedures and techniques

 To present and interpret the results to


researchers and other decision makers
Sources of
data

Records Surveys Experiments

Comprehensive Sample
Constant
Variables
Types of variables

Quantitative variables Qualitative variables

Quantitative Qualitative
continuous nominal

Quantitative Qualitative
descrete ordinal
Data and Data Sets
 Data are the facts and figures collected,
summarized, analyzed, and interpreted.
 The data collected in a particular study are referred
to as the data set.
Elements, Variables, and Observations

 The elements are the entities on which data are


collected.
 A variable is a characteristic of interest for the elements.
 The set of measurements collected for a particular
element is called an observation.
 The total number of data values in a data set is the
number of elements multiplied by the number of
variables.
Scales of Measurement

Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Numerical Nonnumerical Numerical

Nomina Ordina Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio


l l
Scales of Measurement
Scales of measurement include:
Nominal Interval
Ordinal Ratio

The scale determines the amount of information


contained in the data.

The scale indicates the data summarization and


statistical analyses that are most appropriate.
Scales of Measurement
 Nominal

Data are labels or names used to identify an


attribute of the element.

A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.


Scales of Measurement

 Nominal

Example:
Students of a university are classified by the
cources they enrolled. BSLMS, BSRT, BSPH,
BSEd and so on.
A numeric code can be used for
the school variable (e.g. 1: BSLMS, 2: BSRT
3: BSPH, and so on).
Scales of Measurement
 Ordinal

The data have the properties of nominal data and


the order or rank of the data is meaningful.

A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.


Scales of Measurement

 Ordinal

Example:
Students of a university are classified by their
class standing using a nonnumeric label such as
Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, or Senior.
A numeric code can be used for
the class standing variable (e.g. 1 denotes
Freshman, 2 denotes Sophomore, and so on).
Scales of Measurement

 Interval

The data have the properties of ordinal data, and


the interval between observations is expressed in
terms of a fixed unit of measure.

Interval data are always numeric.


Scales of Measurement

 Interval

Example: Average Starting Salary Offer 2018


For Nurses, Medical Technologies, Pharmacist
And other health care professionals
Scales of Measurement
 Ratio

The data have all the properties of interval data


and the ratio of two values is meaningful.

Variables such as distance, height, weight, and time


use the ratio scale.

This scale must contain a zero value that indicates


that nothing exists for the variable at the zero point.
Scales of Measurement

 Ratio

Example:
The salaries of Policemen is 2.5 times higher
than the salaries of nurses in the Philippines
Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Data can be qualitative or quantitative.

The appropriate statistical analysis depends


on whether the data for the variable are qualitative
or quantitative.

There are more options for statistical


analysis when the data are quantitative.
Qualitative Data
Labels or names used to identify an attribute of each
element. E.g., Black or white, male or female.

Referred to as categorical data

Use either the nominal or ordinal scale of


measurement

Can be either numeric or nonnumeric

Appropriate statistical analyses are rather limited


Quantitative Data

Quantitative data indicate how many or how much:


Discrete, if measuring how many. E.g., number
of 6-packs consumed at tail-gate party
Continuous, if measuring how much. E.g., pounds
of hamburger consumed at tail-gate party

Quantitative data are always numeric.

Ordinary arithmetic operations are meaningful for


quantitative data.
Cross-Sectional Data

Cross-sectional data observations across individuals


at the same point in time.
Example: the growth rate from 1960 to 2004 of
each country in the world (about 182 of them).
Example: wages for head of household in
Indiana
Data Sources
 Existing Sources

Within a firm – almost any department


Business database services – Dow Jones & Co.
Government agencies - U.S. Department of Labor
Industry associations – Travel Industry Association
of America
Special-interest organizations – Graduate Management
Admission Council
Collect your own
Data Sources
 Statistical Studies

In experimental studies variables of interest


are identified. Then additional factors are
varied to obtain data that tells us how
those factors influence the variables.

In observational (nonexperimental) studies we


cannot control or influence the
variables of interest.
a survey is a
good example
The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio Absolute zero

Interval Distance is meaningful

Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest


Independent Variable: The variable in
the study under consideration. The
cause for the outcome for the study.

Dependent Variable: The variable being


affected by the independent variable.
The effect of the study

y = f(x)
Which is which here?
Key Factors for High Quality
Experimental Design
 Data should not be contaminated by poor
measurement or errors in procedure.

Eliminate confounding variables from study or


minimize effects on variables.

Representativeness: Does your sample


represent the population you are studying?
Must use random sample techniques.
What Makes a Good Quantitative
Research Design?

4 Key Elements

1. Freedom from Bias


2. Freedom from Confounding
3. Control of Extraneous Variables
4. Statistical Precision to Test
Hypothesis
 Bias: When observations favor some
individuals in the population over others.

Confounding: When the effects of two


or more variables cannot be separated.

Extraneous Variables: Any variable


that has an effect on the dependent
variable.
Need to identify and minimize these variables.
e.g., Erosion potential as a function of clay
content. rainfall intensity, vegetation &
duration would be considered extraneous
variables.

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