Two-Dimensional Space - Wikipedia

Two-dimensional
space
Two-dimensional space (also known as

bi-dimensional space) is a geometric
setting in which two values (called
parameters) are required to determine the
position of an element (i.e., point). The set
ℝ2 of pairs of real numbers with
appropriate structure often serves as the
canonical example of a two-dimensional
Euclidean space. For a generalization of
the concept, see dimension.
Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system
Two-dimensional space can be seen as a

projection of the physical universe onto a
plane. Usually, it is thought of as a
Euclidean space and the two dimensions
are called length and width.
History
Books I through IV and VI of Euclid's
Elements dealt with two-dimensional
geometry, developing such notions as
similarity of shapes, the Pythagorean
theorem (Proposition 47), equality of
angles and areas, parallelism, the sum of
the angles in a triangle, and the three
cases in which triangles are "equal" (have
the same area), among many other topics.
Later, the plane was described in a so-

called Cartesian coordinate system, a
coordinate system that specifies each
point uniquely in a plane by a pair of
numerical coordinates, which are the
signed distances from the point to two
fixed perpendicular directed lines,
measured in the same unit of length. Each
reference line is called a coordinate axis or
just axis of the system, and the point
where they meet is its origin, usually at
ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates can
also be defined as the positions of the
perpendicular projections of the point onto
the two axes, expressed as signed
distances from the origin.
The idea of this system was developed in

1637 in writings by Descartes and
independently by Pierre de Fermat,
although Fermat also worked in three
dimensions, and did not publish the
discovery.[1] Both authors used a single
axis in their treatments and have a variable
length measured in reference to this axis.
The concept of using a pair of axes was
introduced later, after Descartes' La
Géométrie was translated into Latin in
1649 by Frans van Schooten and his
students. These commentators introduced
several concepts while trying to clarify the
ideas contained in Descartes' work.[2]
Later, the plane was thought of as a field,

where any two points could be multiplied
and, except for 0, divided. This was known
as the complex plane. The complex plane
is sometimes called the Argand plane
because it is used in Argand diagrams.
These are named after Jean-Robert
Argand (1768–1822), although they were
first described by Danish-Norwegian land
surveyor and mathematician Caspar
Wessel (1745–1818).[3] Argand diagrams
are frequently used to plot the positions of
the poles and zeroes of a function in the
complex plane.
In geometry
Coordinate systems …
In mathematics, analytic geometry (also
called Cartesian geometry) describes
every point in two-dimensional space by
means of two coordinates. Two
perpendicular coordinate axes are given
which cross each other at the origin. They
are usually labeled x and y. Relative to
these axes, the position of any point in
two-dimensional space is given by an
ordered pair of real numbers, each number
giving the distance of that point from the
origin measured along the given axis,
which is equal to the distance of that point
from the other axis.
Another widely used coordinate system is
the polar coordinate system, which
specifies a point in terms of its distance
from the origin and its angle relative to a
rightward reference ray.
Cartesian coordinate system
Polar coordinate system
Polytopes …
In two dimensions, there are infinitely
many polytopes: the polygons. The first
few regular ones are shown below:
Convex …
The Schläfli symbol {p} represents a

regular p-gon.
Name Triangle Square Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octago
(2-simplex) (2-orthoplex)
(2-cube)
Schläfli {3} {4} {5} {6} {7} {8}
Image
Name Nonagon Decagon Hendecagon Dodecagon Tridecagon Tetradeca
Schläfli {9} {10} {11} {12} {13} {14}
Image
Name Pentadecagon Hexadecagon Heptadecagon Octadecagon Enneadecagon Icosago
Schläfli {15} {16} {17} {18} {19} {20}
Image
Degenerate (spherical) …
The regular monogon (or henagon) {1} and

regular digon {2} can be considered
degenerate regular polygons and exist
nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces
like a 2-sphere, 2-torus, or right circular
cylinder.
Name Monogon Digon
Schläfli {1} {2}
Image
Non-convex …
There exist infinitely many non-convex

regular polytopes in two dimensions,
whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational
numbers {n/m}. They are called star
polygons and share the same vertex
arrangements of the convex regular
polygons.
In general, for any natural number n, there
are n-pointed non-convex regular
polygonal stars with Schläfli symbols
{n/m} for all m such that m < n/2 (strictly
speaking {n/m} = {n/(n − m)}) and m and n
are coprime.
...n-
Name Pentagram Heptagrams Octagram Enneagrams Decagram
agrams
Schläfli {5/2} {7/2} {7/3} {8/3} {9/2} {9/4} {10/3} {n/m}
Image
Circle …
The hypersphere in 2
dimensions is a circle,
sometimes called a 1-sphere
(S1) because it is a one-
dimensional manifold. In a Euclidean
plane, it has the length 2πr and the area of
its interior is
where is the radius.
Other shapes …
There are an infinitude of other curved

shapes in two dimensions, notably
including the conic sections: the ellipse,
the parabola, and the hyperbola.
In linear algebra
Another mathematical way of viewing two-
dimensional space is found in linear
algebra, where the idea of independence is
crucial. The plane has two dimensions
because the length of a rectangle is
independent of its width. In the technical
language of linear algebra, the plane is
two-dimensional because every point in
the plane can be described by a linear
combination of two independent vectors.
Dot product, angle, and length …
The dot product of two vectors A = [A1, A2]

and B = [B1, B2] is defined as:[4]
A vector can be pictured as an arrow. Its
magnitude is its length, and its direction is
the direction the arrow points. The
magnitude of a vector A is denoted by
. In this viewpoint, the dot product of
two Euclidean vectors A and B is defined
by[5]
where θ is the angle between A and B.
The dot product of a vector A by itself is
which gives
the formula for the Euclidean length of the
vector.
In calculus
Gradient …
In a rectangular coordinate system, the

gradient is given by
Line integrals and double integrals …
For some scalar field f : U ⊆ R2 → R, the

line integral along a piecewise smooth
curve C ⊂ U is defined as
where r: [a, b] → C is an arbitrary bijective

parametrization of the curve C such that
r(a) and r(b) give the endpoints of C and
.
For a vector field F : U ⊆ R2 → R2, the line

integral along a piecewise smooth curve C
⊂ U, in the direction of r, is defined as
where · is the dot product and r: [a, b] → C
is a bijective parametrization of the curve
C such that r(a) and r(b) give the endpoints
of C.
A double integral refers to an integral

within a region D in R2 of a function
and is usually written as:
Fundamental theorem of line

integrals
…
The fundamental theorem of line integrals

says that a line integral through a gradient
field can be evaluated by evaluating the
original scalar field at the endpoints of the
curve.
Let . Then
Green's theorem …
Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise

smooth, simple closed curve in a plane,
and let D be the region bounded by C. If L
and M are functions of (x, y) defined on an
open region containing D and have
continuous partial derivatives there,
then[6][7]
where the path of integration along C is
counterclockwise.
In topology
In topology, the plane is characterized as
being the unique contractible 2-manifold.
Its dimension is characterized by the fact

that removing a point from the plane
leaves a space that is connected, but not
simply connected.
In graph theory
In graph theory, a planar graph is a graph
that can be embedded in the plane, i.e., it
can be drawn on the plane in such a way
that its edges intersect only at their
endpoints. In other words, it can be drawn
in such a way that no edges cross each
other.[8] Such a drawing is called a plane
graph or planar embedding of the graph. A
plane graph can be defined as a planar
graph with a mapping from every node to a
point on a plane, and from every edge to a
plane curve on that plane, such that the
extreme points of each curve are the
points mapped from its end nodes, and all
curves are disjoint except on their extreme
points.
See also
Picture function
References
1. "Analytic geometry". Encyclopædia
Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica
Online ed.). 2008.
2. Burton 2011, p. 374
3. Wessel's memoir was presented to the
Danish Academy in 1797; Argand's
paper was published in 1806.
(Whittaker & Watson, 1927, p. 9)
4. S. Lipschutz; M. Lipson (2009). Linear
Algebra (Schaum’s Outlines) (4th ed.).
McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-154352-1.
5. M.R. Spiegel; S. Lipschutz; D. Spellman
(2009). Vector Analysis (Schaum’s
Outlines) (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-161545-7.
. Mathematical methods for physics
and engineering, K.F. Riley, M.P.
Hobson, S.J. Bence, Cambridge
University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-
521-86153-3
7. Vector Analysis (2nd Edition), M.R.
Spiegel, S. Lipschutz, D. Spellman,
Schaum’s Outlines, McGraw Hill (USA),
2009, ISBN 978-0-07-161545-7
. Trudeau, Richard J. (1993).
Introduction to Graph Theory
(Corrected, enlarged republication.
ed.). New York: Dover Pub. p. 64.
ISBN 978-0-486-67870-2. Retrieved
8 August 2012. "Thus a planar graph,
when drawn on a flat surface, either
has no edge-crossings or can be
redrawn without them."
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Two-dimensional

Two-dimensional space (also known as

Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system

Two-dimensional space can be seen as a

Later, the plane was described in a so-

The idea of this system was developed in

Later, the plane was thought of as a ﬁeld,

Polar coordinate system

The Schläﬂi symbol {p} represents a

Schläﬂi {3} {4} {5} {6} {7} {8}

Name Nonagon Decagon Hendecagon Dodecagon Tridecagon Tetradeca

Schläﬂi {9} {10} {11} {12} {13} {14}

Name Pentadecagon Hexadecagon Heptadecagon Octadecagon Enneadecagon Icosago

Schläﬂi {15} {16} {17} {18} {19} {20}

The regular monogon (or henagon) {1} and

Name Monogon Digon

Schläﬂi {1} {2}

There exist inﬁnitely many non-convex

Schläﬂi {5/2} {7/2} {7/3} {8/3} {9/2} {9/4} {10/3} {n/m}

where is the radius.

There are an inﬁnitude of other curved

Dot product, angle, and length …

The dot product of two vectors A = [A1, A2]

where θ is the angle between A and B.

The dot product of a vector A by itself is

In a rectangular coordinate system, the

Line integrals and double integrals …

For some scalar ﬁeld f : U ⊆ R2 → R, the

where r: [a, b] → C is an arbitrary bijective

For a vector ﬁeld F : U ⊆ R2 → R2, the line

A double integral refers to an integral

Fundamental theorem of line

The fundamental theorem of line integrals

Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise

Its dimension is characterized by the fact

Last edited 4 months ago by Omnipaedista

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