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Edith Cowan University
Research Online
ECU Publications Post 2013

2014

The Internet and the Google Age: Introduction

Jonathan D. James
Edith Cowan University, [email protected]

10.14705/rpnet.2014.000175
This chapter was originally published as: James, J. D. (2014). The Internet and the Google Age: Introduction. In James, J. D. (Eds.). The Internet and
the Google Age: Prospects and Perils (pp. 1-25).Ireland: Research-publishing.net. Original book available here
This Book Chapter is posted at Research Online.
http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworkspost2013/720
The Internet and the Google age:
Introduction1 2
Jonathan D. James3

Imagine a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access
to the sum of all human knowledge (Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia).

1. Introduction

The World Wide Web celebrated its 25th anniversary on the 12th of March
2014, having radically transformed the way we socialize, work, shop and
engage in politics. Central to the critical role played by the Internet is its access
to information resources. Never in the history of mankind has there been such an
opportunity to access virtual libraries on a plethora of subjects in real time. And
search engines like Google offer an ever-increasing array of information. This,
along with the constant improvements in technology, ensures that information
sources and social networking opportunities via the Internet are “exponentially
increasing” (Edwards & Bruce, 2002, p. 180).

Research by the Mccrindle Group reveals some startling statistics about

‘generation z’, those born between 1995 and 2009, and ‘generation alpha’,
those born after 2010 (Mccrindle website, 2014). Worldwide, there are more
than 5 billion Google searches per day (hence we are living in the Google Age)

1. I use the word Internet (upper case), to refer to “the world-wide network of computer networks […] that operate using a standardized
set of communications protocols called TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol). An internet (lower case) is a network
of smaller computer networks” (The Linux Information Project website, n.d.).

2. Our focus in entitling the book The Google Age is to show the ubiquity of Google, the Internet’s largest search engine and not
necessarily to focus on Vaidhyanathan’s (2011) thesis in his book: The Googlization of Everything, a reference to Google’s “techno-
fundamentalism” ideology (p. 3).

3. E-mail address: [email protected]

How to cite this chapter: James, J. D. (2014). The Internet and the Google Age: Introduction. In J. D. James (Ed.), The Internet and
the Google age: Prospects and perils (pp. 1-25). Dublin: Research-publishing.net. doi: 10.14705/rpnet.2014.000175

1
Introduction

and more than 500 million tweets1 per day, mostly from but not restricted to
generation z (Mccrindle website, 2014). However, the downside to this activity
is the need for ‘googlers’ and ‘tweeters’ to sort treasure from trash (Tillman,
2003).

In this introductory chapter, I begin by looking at the Internet from an historical

and communication perspective in an effort to understand its significance in the
contemporary world. I then give an overview of the most searched topics on the
Internet and identify prospects that have opened up and perils that lurk in the
information highways of our Internet age. I conclude with a brief overview of
the chapters in this volume of studies.

2. Historical overview
and significance

It is important to view the Internet age historically, because every major

technological revolution in the past has impacted communication.
Communication scholar Innis predicted in 1949 that “it is difficult to
overestimate the significance of technological change in communication or the
position of monopolies built up by those who systematically take advantage of
it” (Innis, 1949, p. 47).

The pre-modern world was characterized by face-to-face communication, thus

most people were confined to family and village circles, and human interaction
was the only means of communication. The invention of the printing press in
the 15th Century, which later led to newspapers, brought a major change with
‘line by line’, propositional communication, written in words. The invention
of the telephone, and then the radio, added new dimensions as communication
was aurally relayed through sound waves. The invention of film and television

1. The word ‘tweets’ comes from the sounds made by birds. However, with the launch of Twitter, an online micro-blogging site,
‘tweet’ means an online post written by a Twitter user with 140 characters or less. The post usually gives a running commentary of
what the person has been doing, their future plans, and other personal information either serious or trivial in nature.

2
 Jonathan D. James

married the senses of sight and sound and brought about another phase in the
communication revolution1.

Today, we have the Internet –probably the most exciting phase of communication,
which is based on digital technology. In digital technology, data is expressed as
a series of digits starting from the number ‘0’ onwards, whereby “text, graphics,
audio and video can be easily transmitted over the Internet or computer networks”
(BusinessDictionary.com website, n.d.).

What makes this contemporary Internet age different from the communication of
previous ages? I have identified six characteristics.

2.1. Immediacy

Mehrabian (1967, 1971), while illustrating interpersonal communication,

described immediacy in terms of how certain aspects of communication
behaviour, especially non verbal aspects, can enhance physical and psychological
closeness:

“People are drawn toward persons and things they like, evaluate highly,
and prefer; and they avoid or move away from things they dislike, evaluate
negatively, or do not prefer” (Mehrabian, 1971, p. 1).

Immediacy is expressed in terms of speed and psychological factors, allowing

the meaningful exchange of information through email, Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, blogging and a host of technological platforms. Furthermore, virtual
communities are being formed through common interests and desires. For
example, social media sites allow people to join networks with relative ease and
swiftness, a reality that was unimaginable in previous generations.

Adam Kramer, a social scientist and one of the many Facebook researchers
working with Facebook said that in the past “he would have had to get papers

1. For a thought-provoking analysis of how communication technology shapes and is shaped by social processes, read Flichy (1995).

3
Introduction

published and then hope that someone noticed. At Facebook, ‘I just message
someone on the right team and my research has an impact within weeks, if not
days’” (cited in Albergotti, 2014, p. 25).

Just like academic research, news on the Internet is made available almost
instantaneously (MDIA1001 website, n.d.). Today’s technology, located at our
fingertips allows for breaking news and events to be posted online, seconds after
they occur. According to De Wolk, “News is like bread – it is best served fresh
and quickly goes stale” (cited in MDIA1001 website, n.d.). In keeping with this
adage, more and more people are accessing news online because they want it
fresh and fast. According to a UK-based study, Communications Market Report,
“over 48 percent of 24-34 year olds use the Internet to keep up with news, and
one in five trust that websites contain accurate and unbiased content” (Ofcom
website, 2010).

This response is typical of how today’s generation get their news:

“On the day that King of Pop Michael Jackson died just over a year ago,
I didn’t find out from reading the newspaper, nor did I find out from
any online news website. I found out through the many status updates
on Facebook and Twitter. I read more about it through links to blogs
and websites that were holding their own cyberspace memorial service.
I didn’t once question the authenticity of this shocking update; I somehow
figured that if everyone was talking about it, it should be true” (MDIA1001
website, n.d.).

Contemporary journalism is built on the premise that news should be disseminated

to the public as soon as possible and the Internet helps fulfill this as an immediate
platform. However, does immediacy in regard to news and journalism come at
the expense of accuracy? What is the priority among today’s generation z?

Another matter of concern is that the sense of immediacy that pervades the
Internet age gives us little room to reflect and weigh up the pros and cons in any
given situation because emails, Facebook invitations and the like come with the

4
 Jonathan D. James

expectation of instant responses. These, no doubt, are areas for contemporary

researchers to grapple with.

2.2. Interactivity and participation

The Internet is by definition an interactive medium between networks of

computer users (Rust & Varki, 1996), and the primary means for interactivity is
the availability of user–generated content (UGC), which is described as:

“any form of content such as video, blogs, discussion […] posts, digital
images, audio files, and other forms of media […] created by consumers
or end-users of an online system or service and is publically [sic] available
to other consumers and end-users” (Webopedia website, n.d.).

Jenkins (2009) asserts that the Internet makes it increasingly easier for ordinary
citizens to publish and distribute information to multiple audiences. He uses a
word coined by Toffler (1980), ‘prosumers’, to refer to contemporary individuals
who have blurred the traditional lines between producers and consumers of
content (Jenkins, 2006, p. 38). Hence Internet users are no longer just passive
consumers because they can just as easily participate by being producers –
YouTube being an excellent example of this.

And part of this shift in news journalism is the emergence of ‘citizen journalists’
–ordinary people who contribute to news making. Citizen journalism is a
reference to the

“countervailing ethos of the ordinary person’s capacity to bear witness,

thereby providing commentators with a useful label to characterize an
ostensibly new genre of reporting” (Allan, 2009, p. 18).

Jenkins (2009) also introduces another term, ‘participatory culture’, to depict the
way people create and share content that inspires the participants:

“Participatory culture is emerging as the culture absorbs and responds to

5
Introduction

the explosion of new media technologies that make it possible for average
consumers to archive, annotate, appropriate, and recirculate media content
in powerful new ways” (Jenkins, 2009, p. 8).

With this shift comes a new sense of power for the everyday citizen hitherto
reserved for the ‘gatekeepers’: professional journalists and broadcasters.

The 2004 Tsunami disaster was a significant time frame in the popularity
and acceptance of user-generated content (Allan, 2009). The new genre of
citizen journalism or “crowdsourcing” (obtaining data and information from
the public) challenged traditional journalism throughout the world because the
stories and footage about the tsunami used by media outlets were produced
by tourists and ordinary citizens on site (Akagi & Linning, 2013; PeaceWork
website, 2006). Media outlets were therefore dependent on ‘amateur’ content
for their media coverage of the unfolding drama. Media scholars recognize
2004 as a turning point: “Never before has there been a major international
news story where television crews have been so emphatically trounced in their
coverage by amateurs wielding their own cameras” (cited in Allan, 2009, p.
18).

Since the tsunami, a string of media events relied heavily on amateur content:
the 2005 London bombings, Arab Spring (2010 onwards)1, Occupy Wall Street
(2011)2, Kony 20123 and the Boston Marathon bombing (2013). Media analysts
share these extraordinary statistics of the London bombings:

“On the day of the London bombings, the BBC received more than 1,000

1. A series of political uprisings that began in the Middle East starting with Tunisia and moving into Egypt, Syria, Libya and other
nations.

2. Occupy Wall Street (OWS) is the name given to a protest movement that was launched in the financial district of New York City,
USA in 2011. Organized by an anti-globalization and anti-consumerist group, the OWS slogan, “We are the 99%” refers to the unequal
distribution of wealth in the USA compared to the 1% representing the rest of the world. The protests gained media attention both in
the traditional media agencies and on the Internet and social networking sites. For a fuller treatment on this movement read, “Occupy
Movement: Does the protest movement against inequality have staying power?” in CQ Researcher (2012). Retrieved from: http://
www.sagepub.com/ritzerintro/study/materials/cqresearcher/77708_8.1cq.pdf

3. Kony 2012 is a half-hour documentary that exposes Joseph Kony –a warlord in Uganda allegedly “responsible for the enslavement
of more than 30,000 children” (News.com website, 2012). The documentary was intentionally produced to get the attention of various
Internet platforms such as YouTube in order to reach a global audience (News.com website, 2012).

6
 Jonathan D. James

photographs, 20 pieces of amateur video, 4,000 text messages, and 20,000

e-mails, all in the first six hours” (Anbarasan, 2007, p. 266).

The volume and presumed accuracy of information from the public has prompted
the traditional media outlets like the BBC to change the rules of engagement and
embrace community expression.

It is believed that during the Boston Marathon bombings, an iPhone photograph

taken by a citizen journalist provided a clear image of one of the suspects
which later led to the arrest of the perpetrator in question (Akagi & Linning,
2013).

The public participation phenomenon is both amazing and convincing, but

there is a downside: self-mediation has entered the equation, and there is the
possibility that truth may now be compromised.

In education, online learning, interactivity and participation are changing the

structure of traditional education. There are several studies that show a nexus
between a positive online environment and the overall learning experience
(Rovai, 2002; Wegerif, 1998). Furthermore, collaboration with faculty and other
students can be a strong impetus for learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Online
teachers are encouraged to provide a helpful online presence, together with
useful content delivery (Palloff & Pratt, 1999). The relational dynamics in the
online setting have indeed taken on a new direction with the launch of the Open
University concept in various countries, which could lead to exponential growth
in all aspects of education. The University of the future could be one without
classrooms, walls and borders.

A study where students were assessed on the quality of articles they submitted
online to Wikipedia for an Economics assignment revealed that the students’
writing quality improved (Freire & Li, 2014). Furthermore, significant
improvements occurred in the overall discipline of writing with the inclusion
of strong, primary sources and an overall willingness to follow up on feedback
from Wikipedia editors (Freire & Li, 2014).

7
Introduction

Nicola Johnson describes in chapter 7 how the Internet, by virtue of its egalitarian
nature, is changing the traditional structures of information and knowledge,
privileging a new echelon of ‘experts’ and IT gurus.

The rapid increase of Internet users and consequently, increased interactivity,

have resulted in the amazing growth of business ‘start ups’ such as eBay,
Facebook, Google and Amazon. These businesses are built on the principle of
interaction. Facebook combined with Twitter have already enjoyed the reputation
of toppling government regimes, introducing brands, creating campaign
awareness and raising money for charities.

2.3. Visualization

Most web pages on the Internet use infographics, which is data presented in
visual form. Ofcom in the UK report that the Google Image Search (“Google’s
sister search site”) has become “a significant search engine in its own right”
compared to Google’s own main web search, and “other general search engines
such as Bing, Yahoo and MSN portal” (Ofcom website, 2010). YouTube, a vast
online video channel, although not listed in the Ofcom study, is a massive
platform for visualization. According to the Mccrindle Group, there are
4 billion YouTube searches listed worldwide per day (Mccrindle website,
2014). From Youtube you can learn how to do bungee jumping, play the guitar,
or wear a sari. So this is not the usual classroom ‘sit and listen’ approach. It
could be argued that the majority of YouTube users are seeking entertainment
rather than education; nevertheless we recognize new vistas opening up for
visual learners. Visual learner Aimee Boucher, now a visual teacher, shares her
methodology:

“To help me support visual learners (and other learning styles), I use the
strategy teach around the wheel. Teaching around the wheel refers to
using multiple modalities throughout your lesson in an effort to present
content using students’ preferred modality. Students develop a deeper
understanding of important concepts when information is present using a
variety of modalities” (Boucher, 2011, para 3).

8
 Jonathan D. James

Boucher (2011) then goes on to list specific web 2.0 tools1 besides YouTube,
that support and challenge visual learners: Glogster, Google Earth, Spezify,
GoAnimate, Bubble.us, Prezi, Microsoft Movie Maker and Photostory 3. Flickr,
yet another visual tool, is an online photo management and sharing site where a
logged-on user can view photographs taken by people all over the world and also
create online albums to share with others.

A noteworthy aspect of searching the web is the principle of Search Engine

Optimization (SEO). SEO is the process of optimizing the chances that a
particular site or image will appear first in a list of searched-for topics. For
example, a search for ‘fishing’ reveals images of all things related to fishing
(still photographs, videos, animation etc.) as well as text-based fishing material.
Naturally, people are more inclined to click on sites that display relevant images.
News-based organizations such as CNN, BBC and Al-Jazeera are alert to this
and have therefore created facilities to link up-to-date images in all their stories.
By optimizing their ranking and because of the popularity of images over text,
these organizations are reaping the benefits of attracting Internet traffic in the
process.

Skype video conferencing is another popular platform, enabling people from any
part of the globe to talk to each other in real time.

Google Earth, originally called EarthViewer 3D “is a virtual globe, map and
geographical information program that was created by Keyhole, Inc, a Central
Intelligence Agency funded company acquired by Google in 2004” (Wikipedia
website, Google Earth, n.d.). Here are some specific features of this incredible
online facility:

“You can zoom and glide over stitched together satellite photos of the
world. Use Google Earth to find driving directions, find nearby restaurants,

1. Web 2.0 is a reference to the upgraded technology of the Internet as opposed to Web 1.0 which is a “read only”, static version of
the Internet. Therefore Web 2.0 is described as a “read and write”, interactive Internet. For more information see http://oreilly.com/
web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html.

9
Introduction

measure the distance between two locations, do serious research, or go on

virtual vacations” (About.com Google website, n.d.).

Real time visualizations, like Google Earth, are powerful purveyors of reality
and its technological wonders are yet to be fully realized. They surpass the
quality of infographics and point to the Internet as the “living organism that it
is” (Motherboard website, 2013).

2.4. Multiplicity of information sources

Whereas traditional textbooks remain a valuable source of information on

any given subject, the Internet has multiple virtual ‘textbooks’ immediately
on hand. And the information in these online texts goes far beyond textbook
facts and figures to include the drama of real life experience, adventure and
even experimentation. Online texts may not necessarily be written in a logical
and sequential fashion following the traditional Euro-American models of
epistemology. Stahl, Hynd, Britton, McNish, & Bosquet (1996) studied student
learning experiences in the USA and found that using multiple-text sources are
effective, but cautioned that users need to be taught the skills of using the vast
array of materials effectively. Stahl et al. (1996) also revealed that users tend to
choose short, well-constructed texts over lengthy documents.

Etáin Watson, in chapter 6 describes the effectiveness of Internet Search engines

in advancing language acquisition and learning skills while Carmel O’Reilly
illustrates in chapter 5 how Google searches are somewhat of a dilemma as
there are both benefits as well as limitations, especially for students trying to sift
through large amounts of information.

The most popular source of encyclopedic knowledge is Wikipedia, with its

millions of articles that can be edited by any member of the public at any time.
It is based on the concept that by using people’s “brainpower and harnessing
collective intelligence”, the Internet can have a comprehensive encyclopedia
that is constantly being updated (BBC website, n.d.).

10
 Jonathan D. James

Wikipedia platforms exist in the following languages: Spanish, Dutch, French,

Polish, Chinese, English (nearly 4 million articles) Japanese, Italian and
Portuguese (BBC website, n.d.). Wikipedia claims to have more than 80,000
contributors and has approximately 400 million visitors around the world each
month (BBC website, n.d.).

Wikipedia and other websites use the tool of hyperlinks –a reference to the web
commands in the various sites that allow you to jump to a related site. Every
web page is filled with several hyperlinks, with each one sending you to a related
website, picture or file:

“Hyperlinking is the foundation of the web. As users add new content,

and new sites, it is bound in to the structure of the web by other users
discovering the content and linking to it. Much as synapses form in the
brain, with associations becoming stronger through repetition or intensity,
the web of connections grows organically as an output of the collective
activity of all web users” (O’Reilly website, n.d.).

Whereas Wikipedia is a research encyclopedia for the common person, Google

Scholar is a specialized search engine within Google Search to help scholars
locate scholarly articles, theses, books, abstracts “from academic publishers,
professional societies, online repositories, universities and other websites.
Google Scholar helps you find relevant studies across the world of scholarly
research” (Google Scholar website, n.d.).

Can every published work be conveniently catalogued in one website? This is

the ambition of Google Books Library Project and Google World Catalog, a
massive electronic catalog of the world’s library:

“We’re working with several major libraries to include their collections in

Google Books and, like a card catalog, show users information about the
book, and in many cases, a few snippets – a few sentences to display the
search term in context” (Google Books website, n.d.).

11
Introduction

2.5. Anonymity

Anonymity and pseudonymity are not exclusive characteristics of this digital

age and, as can be seen in chapter 8, privacy is not guaranteed. An IP address1
can be tracked, whereby the computer from which a certain post was made can
be located, even though the actual user may not be that easily detected. However,
by virtue of Internet technology it is easier for people to distribute anonymous
and pseudonymous messages through email, chat rooms and blogging:

“Sites such as Chatroulette and Omegle, which pair up random users

for a conversation, capitalize on a fascination with anonymity. They
are examples of anonymous chat or stranger chat. Other sites, however,
including Facebook and Google+, require users to sign in with their legal
names. In the case of Google+, this requirement has led to a controversy
known as the nymwars” (Wikipedia, website, n.d.).

Palme and Berglund (2002) give an example of the above phenomenon by using
a simple case involving emails:

“[A] person sends an e-mail or writes a Usenet news article using a

falsified name. Most mail and news software allows the users to specify
whichever name they prefer, and makes no check of the correct identity.
Using web-based mail systems like Hotmail, it is even possible to receive
replies and conduct discussions using a pseudonym” (Palme & Berglund,
2002, section 5, para 2).

The online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, is a collaborative effort of many individuals

who can remain anonymous, although all articles require unidentifiable
pseudonyms or IP addresses.

A European Union Internet report (1999) shows that EU officials are aware of
the issues surrounding anonymity, that is, the need for anonymity (especially in

1. IP refers to Internet Protocol. To connect with the Internet, a unique series of numbers is provided to each computer.

12
 Jonathan D. James

several repressive nations) and its inherent dangers; this is a reference to people
who use the Internet for illegal activities (cited in Palme & Berglund, 2002).

What is perhaps more important in the discussion on anonymity is the online

experience of users: users are known to experience a sense of pleasure and
euphoria that they are entering a new realm anonymously and are involved in
activities such as chatting, searching, gaming or researching. Psychological
research by Suler (2004) reveals that people say and do things in cyberspace that
they would not do in face-to-face communication. Just as some people socialize
with an ‘alcohol fix’, when others enter cyberspace they “loosen up, feel more
uninhibited, and express themselves more openly” (Suler, 2004, p. 323). This is
called the ‘disinhibition effect’:

“It’s a double-edged sword. Sometimes people share very personal things

about themselves. They reveal secret emotions, fears, wishes. Or they
show unusual acts of kindness and generosity. We may call this benign
disinhibition.

On the other hand, the disinhibition effect may not be so benign. Out spills
rude language and harsh criticisms, anger, hatred, even threats. Or people
explore the dark underworld of the internet, places of pornography and
violence, places they would never visit in the real world. We might call
this toxic disinhibition” (Suler, 2004, p. 324).

2.6. Convergence1

A mobile or cellphone today is more than a simple device for making phone calls
from one person to another. It is also a camera and an audio-visual recorder that
can transmit images, text and sound to any number of people who are on the net.
In short, convergence has taken place, which is explained in the following way:

1. Harry Jenkins (2008) sees convergence as a cultural rather than a technological process. The prospect of every “story, image,
sound, idea and relationship being retold across different media channels tells us something about what we value today in our culture”
(section 1, para 1).

13
Introduction

“Media convergence is the merging […] of previously distinct media to

create entirely new forms of communication expression. Convergence
is at the heart of today’s digital media revolution and includes such
technologies and software applications as the Internet and electronic
commerce, smartphone technology, digital-film animation, DVD (digital
video disc) music and high-definition television (HDTV), and video game
systems to name only a few” (Gershon, n.d., para 1).

Digital technology is all about how data is transferred, be it text, images,

sound and all the possible permutations. Instagram, an amazing new feature on
Smartphones, is described as

“an online photo-sharing, video-sharing and social networking service

that enables its users to take pictures and videos, apply digital filters
to them, and share them on a variety of social networking services,
such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr and Flickr” (Wikipedia website,
Instagram, n.d.).

A prime example of convergence is Internet protocol television, IPTV, that is,

the practice of watching TV on the Internet, a growing phenomenon with various
brands in the market like Apple TV, FetchTV, Foxtel and GoogleTV offering this
service (Brook, 2012). Research indicates that 30 percent of Australian residents
in Sydney and Melbourne, aged between 25 to 54 years watch TV through the
Internet (Brook, 2012).

If pre-modern culture was a ‘hearing’ culture and the modern world was
a ‘reading’ and then a ‘seeing’ culture, the postmodern, Internet age, can be
described as a ‘multi-sensate’ culture, where almost all the senses are called
upon to engage in the activity of everyday living.

A recent report about the future of the Internet by the UK’s national innovation
agency; Technology Strategy Board predicts the future Internet as

“an evolving convergent Internet of things and services that is available

14
 Jonathan D. James

anywhere, anytime as part of an all-pervasive omnipresent socio-economic

fabric, made up of converged services, shared data and an advanced
wireless and fixed infrastructure linking people and machines to provide
advanced services to business and citizens” (MacManus, 2011, para 2).

Therefore, there is the likelihood that the Internet as we know it today will
become more convergent, incorporating more diverse media and consequently
increasing the richness of its characteristics. This will continue to challenge the
traditional boundaries between private and public space, between home and
work, and even between humans and non humans (robots).

3. Internet use
and what people are searching

In all the morass of information, it may be helpful to pause and ask: what are
people using the Internet for? Recent studies on what people want from the
Internet show that users are “goal-oriented”: they are not aimless ‘surfers’ but
rather they wish to accomplish something specific online, such as information or
association with other individuals or groups (Carton, 2000).

The Pew Research Center study in 2000 (as part of its Pew Internet and
American Life Project) disclosed that people who use the net regularly are
more in touch with their circle of friends and family than those who are not
regular Internet users (Carton, 2000). This finding is ‘fleshed out’ in chapter
2, where Facebook is described as a tool to connect friends and families in
transnational locations. Some other significant findings about Internet users in
the Pew Study are1

• nearly 75 percent of users went online to search for information about

their hobbies, or about purchases;

1. There is overlap in the usage, so the figures do not total up to 100 percent.

15
Introduction

• 64 percent of respondents visited travel sites;

• 62 percent visited weather-related sites;

• over 50 percent did educational research;

• 54 percent were hunting for information about health and medicine;

• 47 percent regularly visited government websites;

• 38 percent researched job opportunities (Carton, 2000).

Pornography and religion seem to be two highly searched topics on the Internet.
Whereas definitive studies in these two topics are not easily available, a few
studies suggest that pornography is growing. As noted on Webroot website (2014),

• 25 percent of all search engine queries are related to pornography, or

about 68 million search queries a day;

• 40 million American people regularly visit porn sites;

• 35 percent of all internet downloads are related to pornography.

The technology of convergence has made pornography more accessible: “data

from the video porn website Pornhub –which had nearly 15 billion views in
2013– suggest that the adult entertainment sector is a leader in the shift to the
mobile phone as well”, that is, people are accessing pornography on their mobile
phones (Online Services News website, 2013).

Also noteworthy is that in 2013, the USA “earned the distinction of being the first
country tracked by Pornhub to watch the majority of its online ‘porn’ on mobile
phones because about 52 % of ‘porn’ consumption was on mobile phones in
2013, compared to 46 % in 2012, making this significantly higher than anywhere
else” (Online Services News website, 2013).

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 Jonathan D. James

Users of the Internet may not be aware of the place religion occupies on the
Internet. The Pew, Internet & American Life Survey’s Cyberfaith reported
responses of 1309 church-based congregations across the United States:

“Nearly two-thirds of online Americans use the Internet for faith-related

reasons. The 64% of Internet users who perform spiritual and religious
activities online represent nearly 82 million Americans. Among the most
popular and important spiritually-related online activities measured in
a new national survey: 38% of the nation’s 128 million Internet users
have sent and received email with spiritual content; 35% have sent or
received online greeting cards related to religious holidays; 32% have
gone online to read news accounts of religious events and affairs; 21%
have sought information about how to celebrate religious holidays; 17%
have looked for information about where they could attend religious
services; 7% have made or responded to online prayer requests; and 7%
have made donations to religious organizations or charities” (Hoover,
Clark, & Rainie, 2004, pp. i-ii).

Paul Emerson Teusner reveals in chapter 3 how religion is establishing

a presence on the Internet as faith is mediated for a largely post-modern
audience. In line with this, Michael Jaffarian, in chapter 4, takes an
extraordinary snapshot revealing how computer technology has advanced
the mission of the Church.

4. Perils

Studies by Buzzell (2005a) suggest that in comparison with other media such
as theater, VCR and websites, Internet technology has made a difference in the
access of pornography and accounts for its consequent higher use over recent
years. Further studies by Buzzell (2005b) reveal the emergence of what he
terms ‘hyperpornography’, a reference to how technology has “changed the
variety, sophistication and means of the distribution of pornography to a wider
market” (p. 112).

17
Introduction

‘Sexting’, the practice of sending sexually explicit messages or images via

cellphone or instant messenger has increased, not just among teens but also with
adults (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010). The study shows that “the images are often
initially sent to romantic partners or interests but can find their way into the
hands of others, which ultimately is what creates the problems” (Hinduja &
Patchin, 2010, para. 2).

Cyberbullying refers to individuals using ‘stand over’ tactics to disempower

other people through the use of “digital technologies such as mobile phone text
messages, emails, phone calls, internet chat rooms, instant messaging and social
networking websites such as Facebook” (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004, p. 325).

Cyberbullying is a fast growing trend and some experts “believe [it] is more
harmful than typical schoolyard bullying” (Webster, n.d., para 1). Adolescent
girls are named as the ones more at risk because they “are significantly more
likely to have experienced cyberbullying in their lifetimes” (Hinduja & Patchin,
2013, p. 715).

Cyberbullying and sexting are not new social occurrences, but have gained
attention due to the fact that in some cases these phenomena have led to suicides
and the unceremonious fall from grace of some celebrities.

The Australian Institute of Criminology (2013) reveals that there is a

marked increase in cybercrime over the last decade: “cybercrimes range
from fraud, hacking, money laundering and theft, through to cyberstalking,
cyberbullying, identity theft, child sexual exploitation and child grooming”
(para 2).

The Infosec Institute, in their study of Cybercrime, reveals that close to 80

percent of cybercrime acts are based on organized activity (Infosec Institute
Website, 2013). The study predicts, however, that with increased Internet
penetration and skill development in users, new players not linked with
organized crime could be attracted into Cybercrime as a business (Infosec
Institute website, 2013).

18
 Jonathan D. James

According to Freedberg (2013), electronic warfare is the next phase of military

research and development:

“With their eyes on future adversaries more technologically sophisticated

than the Taliban, commanders want new capabilities to shut down enemy
electronic networks and protect their own. It’s a challenge intimately
interwoven with but distinct from the higher-profile field of cyber
warfare…The [US] Army’s Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC)
is drafting a new field manual for ‘Cyber-Electromagnetic Activity’”
(Freedberg, 2013, para 1-2).

The Internet is not without its dangers. However, on balance, it must be pointed
out that ethical issues have always been around with or without technology so
it is not technology per se that should be blamed for ethical problems.Today’s
technology has the potential to magnify moral and ethical issues.

5. Chapter summaries

This book seeks to explain the new digital world, ‘warts and all’. It marvels
at the benefits and notes the obstacles and threats involved in contemporary
Internet usage.

Asia is poised to take the lead in the Internet revolution and so in chapter 1,
Iremae Labucay zooms in on the Philippines (a nation whose citizens spend the
highest share of time on Social Networking sites across world markets)1 to seek
an understanding of the particular patterns and habits of Internet users in this
nation. The digital divide in the Philippines, as outlined in the chapter, is perhaps
a reality in many developing nations around the world.

Social media and Facebook, one of the most successful business ventures of the
Internet, is examined in chapter 2 as Anne Rice describes how it plays a role in

1. See http://www.comscoredatamine.com/tag/philippines/

19
Introduction

maintaining family ties among the Irish diaspora. Interestingly, it also highlights
the fact that in rural communities, by and large, the older males are unconnected
to the Internet.

Chapters 3 and 4 pick up the point that was broached earlier, that religion is
one of the most highly searched topics. Paul Emerson Teusner, in chapter 3,
researches online religious advertising and how religious groups are repackaging
the faith in ways that will attract members of generation z. Michael Jaffarian, in
chapter 4, outlines in a narrative style, some astounding research breakthroughs
that the Church has achieved in its efforts to reach the world through Internet
technology.

The educational implications of the Internet are revealed in chapters 5 and 6

featuring French civilization (by Carmel O’Reilly) and Italian Studies (by Etáin
Watson).

This is followed in chapter 7 with Nicola Johnson’s use of the theoretical

perspectives of French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to explore how the Internet
operates as a field, with several sub fields mediating knowledge and expertise
and giving birth to a new set of non-hierarchical experts.

The book closes with chapter 8 which contains a summary of some of the
ambiguities and pitfalls of the Internet age, such as how our privacy and
confidentiality is impacted, and also how the Internet is looked upon with
suspicion by certain nations with authoritarian ideologies. The chapter concludes
with a quick snapshot of the Internet of the future.

6. Conclusion

We have progressed from several phases in the history of communication and

technology –from an agrarian society to a manufacturing society and now,
to a knowledge society where information has become the new currency of
our time (James, 1992). Is it any wonder then that global agencies such as

20
 Jonathan D. James

the World Bank allude to the fact that information literacy is the new key
to unlock empowerment and learning in the knowledge society: “Knowledge
accumulation and application have become major factors in economic
development and are increasingly at the core of a country’s competitive
advantage in the global economy” (World Bank, 2002, p. xvii).

In essence, whether we like it or not, the Internet is here to stay –we are in the
Google age. Furthermore, it seems likely that the future of our world depends on
the Internet and all its offerings.

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25
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The Internet and the Google Age: Prospects and Perils

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