Unit 1: Introduction To Communication Systems Historical Notes-Communication Systems
Unit 1: Introduction To Communication Systems Historical Notes-Communication Systems
The basic components of a communication system are information source, input transducer, transmitter,
communication channel, receiver, output transducer, and destination.
• Input transducer converts the message to an electrical signal.
• The transmitter converts the input signal to transmitted signal suited for the transmission channel.
• Transmission cannel is the electric medium that bridges the distance from source to destination.
• The receiver converts the received signal in a form appropriate for the output transducer.
• Output transducer converts the output electrical signal the desired message form.
Communication Channels
1. Telephone Channels (twisted pair of wires)
2. Coaxial Channel (50Ω, 75Ω)
3. Optical Fiber (single mode, multimode)
Enormous potential bandwidth (70 x 1012 Hz)
Low transmission losses (0.158 db/km at 1.55μm)
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Small size and weight
Ruggedness and flexibility
4. Wireless broadcast channels (AM,FM,TV)
super heterodyne receivers
5. Mobile radio channels
multipath fading, dispersive
6. Satellite channels (geosynchronous , low orbit)
Broad-area coverage
reliable transmission links
wide transmission bandwidth
Further Classification of channels
Linear (e.g. telephone) or nonlinear (e.g. satellite)
Time invariant (e.g. optical fiber)) or time variant (mobile radio channel)
Bandwidth limited (e.g. telephone channel)
Power limited (e.g. optical fiber link abs satellite)
Bandwidth
Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. It is also the
frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic circuit operates. More specifically, bandwidth is
the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal or the equipment operation range.
Suppose, the bandwidth of the voice frequency range from 300 to 3000 Hz. The upper frequency is f 2 and
the lower frequency is f1. The bandwidth, then, is BW = f2 - f1 = 3000-300 =2700 Hz
NOTE: A signal cannot be both (either one) energy and power simultaneously.
a. Power of energy signal = 0
b. Energy of power signal = ∞
[Energy=Ability to work. 8 types of energy. 1) Potential, 2) Kinetic, 3) Gravitational, 4) Chemical,
5) Nuclear, 6) Elastic, 7) Motion and 8) Thermal and temperature
Work= Force x Distance (Joules)
Power= How Fast/Slow doing the work =Work/Time (Watts)]
6. Real and Imaginary Signals- A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x*(t).
A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x*(t)
Note: For a real signal, imaginary part should be zero. Similarly for an imaginary signal, real part
should be zero.
Continuous systems
The type of systems whose input and output both are continuous signals or analog signals are called
continuous systems.
Discrete systems
The type of systems whose input and output both are discrete signals or digital signals are called digital
systems.
Analog versus Digital comparison chart
Analog Digital
Signal Analog signal is a continuous signal which Digital signals are discrete time signals
represents physical measurements. generated by digital modulation.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
Representation Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or discontinuous values to
represent information represent information
Example Human voice in air, analog electronic Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital
devices. electronic devices.
Technology Analog technology records waveforms as Samples analog waveforms into a limited
they are. set of numbers and records them.
Data Subjected to deterioration by noise during Can be noise-immune without
transmissions transmission and write/read cycle. deterioration during transmission and
write/read cycle.
Response to More likely to get affected reducing Less affected since noise response are
Noise accuracy analog in nature
Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in
implementation.
Uses Can be used in analog devices only. Best Best suited for Computing and digital
suited for audio and video transmission. electronics.
Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs
Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be done in There is no guarantee that digital signal
real time and consumes less bandwidth. processing can be done in real time and
consumes more bandwidth to carry out the
same information.
Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit
Power Analog instrument draws large power Digital instrument drawS only negligible
power
Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable
Impedance Low High order of 100 megaohm
Errors Analog instruments usually have a scale Digital instruments are free from
which is cramped at lower end and give observational errors like parallax and
considerable observational errors. approximation errors.
Baseband transmission sends the information signal as it is without modulation (without frequency
shifting). Ethernet refers to baseband transmission.
Almost all sources of information generate baseband signals. Baseband signals are those that have
frequencies relatively close to zero such as the human voice (20 Hz – 5 kHz) and the video signal from a TV
camera (0 Hz – 5.5 MHz).
Pass-band (or Band-pass) transmission shifts the signal to be transmitted in frequency to a higher
frequency and then transmits it, where at the receiver the signal is shifted back to its original frequency.
The process of shifting the baseband signal to pass-band range for transmission is known as
MODULATION and the process of shifting the pass-band signal to baseband frequency range at the receiver
is known as DEMODULATION.
Modulation
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a
periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that typically contains information to
be transmitted.
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a carrier wave is varied in accordance
with an information-bearing signal.
Modulator is a device that performs modulation
Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. This new signal,
conceivably, will have certain benefits over an un-modulated signal. f (t ) A sin(t ) , this sinusoid has
3 parameters (Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency) that can be altered.
'Mo' in Modem stands for Modulation and 'dem' stands for demodulation. Only the MoDem whose name
itself denotes Modulator-Demodulator
Need for Modulation
Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system because of the following reasons:
1. Avoids mixing of signals
2. Increase the range of communication
3. Wireless communication
4. Reduces the effect of noise & distortions
5. Reduces height of antenna
For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4, where λ is the
wavelength. λ = c /f;
Where c: is the velocity of light & f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted
6. Reduce band width. Narrow banding the signal
7. Multiplexing is possible. Multiplex more number of signals
8. Improves quality of reception
9. To reduce equipment complexity
Modulation Processes
1. Analog- Continuous-Wave (CW) modulation
amplitude modulation ( AM )
frequency modulation ( FM )
phase modulation ( PM )
2. Analog Pulse modulation
pulse-amplitude modulation ( PAM )
pulse-duration modulation ( PDM )
pulse-position modulation ( PPM )
3. Digital -Pulse modulation
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM)
Delta modulation (DM)
Adaptive delta modulation (ADM)
4. Digital Multiplexing modulation
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM )
Time-division multiplexing (TDM )
Code-division multiplexing (CDM )
Analog Modulation Techniques: AM, FM, PM
Analog modulation refers to the process of transferring an analog baseband (low frequency) signal,
like an audio or TV signal over a higher frequency signal such as a radio frequency band.
1. Amplitude Modulation
A type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated (changed) in proportion
to the message signal while the frequency and phase are kept constant.
Several variants of AM are used as Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) Modulation,
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) Modulation and Vestigial Sideband Amplitude
Modulation (VSBAM).
2. Angle Modulation
In Angle Modulation, the message signal's amplitude is used to control the frequency or phase of the
carrier signal. This rise to the two methods FM & PM.
Frequency modulation a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated
(changed) in proportion to the message signal while the amplitude and phase are kept constant.
Phase modulation a type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is varied accordance to
the low frequency of the message signal is known as phase modulation.
Model-1
Model-3
Electromagnetic spectrum
c t Ac cos ct
Ac Amplitude
c frequency
c t phase
- The modulation process is a frequency translation process that translates a low frequency base band signal into
a high frequency band pass signal.
- Since a linear device cannot provide frequency translation. So, the modulation process can only be generated
by a non-linear device.
1. Avoids mixing of signals: The modulation process translates different base band signal at different
carrier frequencies. So, that the spectrum overlapping does not takes place and the mixing of signals can
be avoided.
3. Reduces height of antenna: The height of antenna required for transmission and reception of radio waves
in a radio transmission is a function of frequency used. The minimum height of antenna is given as
.
4
4. Increases range of communication: At low frequencies the radiation is poor and the signal gets highly
attenuated therefore base band signals cannot be transmitted directly over longer distance. Modulation
effectively increases the frequency of the signal to be radiated and thus increases the distance over
which signals can be transmitted faithfully.
5. Improves Quality of reception: The signal communication using modulation techniques such as FM and
PCM reduces the effect of noise to great extent. Reduction in noise improves quality of reception.
- In AM, the amplitude of high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with instantaneous value
of base band modulating signal keeping frequency and phase constant.
- In AM, a low frequency baseband signal is translated into a high frequency narrow band signal.
1. Simple Amplitude Modulation [AM] or Double side band with carrier [DSB-C, DSB-FC]:
Let
1
X AM Ac c c M c M c
2
Bandwidth BW c m c m 2m
BW 2m rad/sec
BW 2 f m Hz
Notes:-
1. In AM, three components are transmitted i.e. the carrier signals, upper side band [USB] and lower side
band [LSB].
2. The information is contains in simultaneously by upper as well as lower side band. The carrier does not
contain any information.
3. The information bandwidth of AM signal is 2m in rad/sec and 2 f m in Hz.
4. Since, the bandwidth 2m is very small as compared to higher cutoff frequency c m . So, Am
signal is a high frequency narrow band signal.
- Sinusoidal AM:
m t Am cos mt
c t Ac cos c t
x AM t Ac Am cos mt cos c t
A
= Ac 1 m cos mt cos c t
Ac
A
Where, modulation index m m
Ac
Then,
x AM t = Ac 1 m cos mt cos c t
= Ac cos c t mAc cos m t cos c t
Ac 2 m 2 Ac 2 m 2 Ac 2
Pt
2 8 8
Ac 2 m 2 m2
= 1 Pc 1
2 2 2
m2
Pt Pc 1
2
Where, Pt Total power, Pc Carrier power
m2
Pt Pc 1
2
m2
I R I R 1
t
2 2
c
2
m2
I I 1
t
2 2
c
2
It m2
1
Ic 2
Where, I t = Current across antenna or transmitter when modulated output is transmitted,
I t = Current across antenna or transmitter when unmodulated carrier is transmitted,
R=Resistance of antenna or transmitter
-Transmission efficiency in AM :
- Modulation index gives the depth of modulation to which modulation has occurred.
-for m>1, overlapping of envelope take place that results in distortion of envelope. This condition is known as
over modulation and should always be avoided.
2. Double side band - suppressed carrier [DSB-SC]:
- Since, the carrier is also transmitted which does not contain any information.
- For m=1, only 2/3 rd of total transmitted power appears in the carrier which is a complete wastage.
So, instant of transmitting full AM signal, the carrier is suppressed before transmission and such type of
modulation is known as Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier modulation [DSB-SC].
c t Ac cos ct
S DSB SC t y t Ac m t cos ct
Ac
Y M c M c
2
BW 2m rad/sec
=2f m Hz
-Ring Modulator:
- During +ve half cycle of carrier, diode D1 & D2 are forward biased and D3 & D4 are reverse biased.
- During -ve half cycle of carrier, diode D1 & D2 are reverse biased and D3 & D4 are forward biased.
- In any case the output is always equal to zero because the current flowing in opposite direction. So,
output is always zero until message signal is applied.
- In case of DSB-SC modulation, the two side bands are transmitted which contains the same information. So,
DSB-SC transmission is further redundant. Instead of transmitting both the side band only one side band can be
transmitted to achieve maximum efficiency. Such type of modulation in which only one side band is transmitted
is known as single side band – suppressed carrier [SSB-SC].
A. Frequency Discrimination method: - It is also known as filter method. In this method band pass filter
is used to generate SSB-SC signal from DSB-SC signal.
Disadvantage- In case of frequency discrimination method, the band-pass filter should be as ideal as
possible.
Ideal filters are not practically possible. So, this method is suitable for the transmission of such signal
where upper and lower side band do not meet at carrier frequency such as voice signals.
B. Phase discrimination Method:
Hilbert Transform: It is a method of separating the signals with respect to their phase content and not
with respect to their frequency contents.
The easiest phase generation is 180 degree. Hilbert transformer is a special transformer that seperates the
signals with a phase shift of 90 degree.
The Hilbert transform of any arbitrary signal is given by
x
ˆx t d
t
1
xˆ t x t
t
Xˆ X j sgn
1
y1 t m t cos ct
FT
M c M c
2
1 ˆ
y2 t mˆ t sin ct
FT
M c Mˆ c
2j
Disadvantage- The shift method is based upon exact 0 degree phase shift between m t and m̂ t which
is not practically possible at high modulating frequencies. So, this method can only be used for
modulating frequencies up to few KHz.
# Demodulation of AM Waves:- The recovery of baseband signal from the modulated signal is known as
demodulation or detection of waves. There are two methods of detection of AM waves.
1. Synchronous Detection:- In this method, a local carrier is generated at the receiving end whose phase is
exactly synchronized with the transmitted carrier phase. The received signal is multiplied with this locally
generated carrier and the product is passed through a low pass filter to detect the original base band signal.
Consider a hypothetical classroom situation occurring early in a course at the end of a class
period. The professor makes one of the following statements to the class:
C. Everyone gets an A in the course, and there will be no more class meetings.
What is the relative information conveyed to the students by each of these statements, assuming
that there had been no previous discussion on the subject? Obviously, there is little information
conveyed by statement (A), since the class would normally assume that their regular professor
would lecture; that is, the probability 𝑃 (𝐴) of the regular professor lecturing is nearly unity.
Intuitively, we know that statement (B) contains more information, and the probability of a
colleague lecturing 𝑃 (𝐵) is relatively low. Statement (C) contains a vast amount of information
for the entire class, and most would agree that such a statement has a very low probability of
occurrence in a typical classroom situation. It appears that the lower the probability of a
statement, or event, the greater is the information conveyed by that statement.
INFORMATION
ENTROPY
In general, the average information associated with the outcomes of an experiment is of interest
rather than the information associated with a particular output. The average information
associated with a discrete random variable 𝑋 is defined as the entropy (𝑋). Thus,
Where, 𝑛 is the total number of possible outcomes. Entropy can be regarded as average
uncertainty and therefore achieves a maximum when all outcomes are equally likely.
DISCRETE CHANNEL MODELS
JOINT AND CONDITIONAL ENTROPY
INFORMATION RATE
Where (𝑋) is the source entropy in bits per symbol and 𝑟 is the symbol rate in symbols per
second.
SOURCE CODING
Each code word is constructed from an alphabet that is a collection of symbols used for
communication through a channel. For example, a binary code word is constructed from a two-
symbol alphabet, wherein the two symbols are usually taken as 0 and 1. The word length of a
code word is the number of symbols in the code word.
H ( x)
Efficiency of a code = , where L = average word length.
L
The entropy of the order 𝑛 extension of a discrete memory less source, denoted (𝑋𝑛), is given by
Consider for a moment an observer at the channel output. The observer’s average uncertainty
concerning the channel input will have value (𝑋) before the reception of an output, and this
average uncertainty of the input will typically decrease when the output is received. In other
words, (𝑋 ∣ 𝑌 ) ≤ 𝐻(𝑋). The decrease in the average uncertainty of the transmitted signal when
the output is received is a measure of the average information transmitted through the channel.
This is defined as mutual information (𝑋; 𝑌 ). Thus,
Or
Shannon’s channel capacity C is based on the average mutual information (average conveyed
information across the channel), and one possible definition is
• Let ti be the symbol duration for Xi and tav be the average time for transmission of a symbol, the
channel capacity can also be defined as
• C becomes maximum if H(Y |X) = 0 (no errors) and the symbols are equi-probable (assuming
constant symbol durations t i)