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LABORATORY : ENGINEERING GEOLOGY &
EFECTIVE DATE : 8/1/2007
GEOPHYSIC LABORATORY
TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS (LAB 1a) AMENDMENT DATE: 10/2/2012

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To familiar with the physical properties of minerals in laboratory by hand.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to identify various specimens of mineral by physical testing.
b) Students should able to identify minerals content in rock formation.

3.0 THEORY
Each mineral possesses certain physical properties or characteristics by which it may be recognized or
identified. Some are subjected to certain simple tests. Physical properties are useful in mineral identification.
A mineral can be defined as a natural inorganic substance having a particular chemical composition or range of
composition, and a regular atomic structure to which its crystalline from is related. To study rocks, it is necessary
to know the common minerals that formed the rock.

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

a) Minerals from Reference Set
b) Hardness Pens Set
c) Information & Hints
d) Eye dropper bottle with dilute HCI (appx. 10% solution)
e) Mineral Identification Chart

5.0 PROCEDURE
Students should learn to familiarize and observe the samples according by doing few physical tests and tabulate
the results from the observation in the Table 1.1 attached for:

a) Name of mineral
b) Colour
c) Luster
d) Hardness
e) Reaction with acid
f) Others/usage

Prepared by : Lecturer

Name : Aziman Madun

Signature :

Date : 10 February 2012

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EFECTIVE DATE : 8/1/2007
GEOPHYSIC LABORATORY
TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS (LAB 1a) AMENDMENT DATE: 10/2/2012

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

(a) MINERALS NAMES

Refer to the samples prepared (Mineral from reference set).

(b) COLOUR
The colour of the mineral is that seen by eye. Colour may be influenced by impurities in the sample, the light in
the room or strong reflective surfaces. Therefore, colour is a general rather than specific indicator.

(c) STREAK
Streak is the colour of a mineral in its powdered form. We can observe streak when we scraped a mineral
along a roughened surface such as unglazed pottery (porcelain slab – streak plate), that mark left behind can
be a characteristic feature of the mineral. The streak is not necessarily the same as the colour of the mineral.

(d) LUSTRE
Luster is reflected from the surface of a mineral, the amount of light is a function of the state of the surface.
Luster is described in terms of the degree of brightness.

Metallic Like polished metal

Submetallic Less brilliant
Dull e.g. chalk
Viterous Like broken glass

(e) HARDNESS
The resistance of a mineral to abrasion (scratching) is termed hardness. This property is determined by
rubbing the mineral to be identified against another mineral of known hardness. One will stretch the other
(unless they have the same hardness). Geologists used a standard hardness scale, called the Mohs scale
developed by German Mineralogist Friedrich Mohs (1773 – 1839) which assigns relative hardnesses to
several common and a few rare and precious minerals as given below.

Relative hardness Minerals Mineralogy

10 Diamond Carbon
9 Corundum Alumina
8 Topaz Aluminium silicate
7 Quartz Silica
6 Feldspar Alkali silica
5 Apatite Calcium phosphate
4 Fluorite Calcium fluoride
3 Calcite Calcium carbonate
2 Gypsum Hydrated calcium sulphate
1 Talc Hydrated magnesium silicate

(f) REACTION WITH ACID

When dilute hydrochloric acid (typically 10%) is capped on to some minerals a reaction takes place. On calcite
(CaCO3) bubbles of carbon dioxide are produced, in some iron sulphide ores, hydrogen sulphide is produced.
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TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS (LAB 1a) AMENDMENT DATE: 10/2/2012

7.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

(Each answer shall not more than 100 words)
1. Discuss the problem encountered while identify the minerals using field test technique (simple test).
2. Briefly describe how to identify minerals using laboratory technique (aided by equipments).

8.0 CONCLUSION
Conclude your results of the mineral samples in the Table 1.1 by rate its significance in construction industry, etc.
 TABLE 1.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS IDENTIFICATION

NAME COLOUR STREAK LUSTER HARDNESS REACTION WITH ACID SKETCH

Amphibole Dark green, White to Vitreous 5 to 6 (harder The reaction to acid is common
(Silicates) dark brown, gray (glassy) to than glass) among carbonate minerals.
black dull, opaque
NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2
Fe, Mg, and Al ions substitute freely
for one another

Brass yellow, Chalcopyrite can react to form

Chalcopyrite often with an Greenish Metallic 3.5 – 4, brittle stable cuprous ion and solids
(Sulfides) iridescent black to nature
tarnish that black
may give it a
green, blue, or Copper iron sulfide, CuFeS2.
purple cast.

The reaction order for leaching

Galena Lead gray Lead gray Metallic on 2.5 (about as galena in terms of the mean ionic
(Sulfides) fresh surfaces, hard as a activity of HCl is 3/2 over a wide
tarnishes dull fingernail) range of concentration. The
activation energy (58.5 kJ/mole) is
independent of the chloride used to
increase the activity of the
hydrochloric acid.

Lead sulfide, PbS

Hematite Black to silver Red brown Metallic, 5 - 6 (hard) in The reactions of hematite in
(Oxide) gray, in earthy to rusty red submetallic, most varieties, aqueous hydrochloric acid,
forms is red to earthy but earthy perchloric acid, and sulfuric acid
 brown variety is very
soft (<2) Ferric Iron oxide, Fe2O3

Magnetite Black to Black Metallic to 5.5 – 6.5 Magnetite reacts with oxygen to
(Oxide) silvery gray submetallic (harder than produce hematite
glass)
Iron oxide, Fe3O4

Removal by reactions with olivine is

Pale olive Massive or 6.5 to 7 (very an attractive option, because it is
Olivine green to White transparent to hard) widely available and reacts easily
(Silicate) yellow-green, translucent with the (acid) CO2 from the
occasionally crystals with a atmosphere.
brown glassy luster
Typically (Mg, Fe)2SiO4. Ca, Mn,
and Ni rarely occupy the Mg and Fe
positions

Fluorite Typically Crystals are

(Halides) purple, green, White vitreous 4 (relatively Does not react to dilute acid.
and yellow. (glass-like) soft)
Also colorless, Calcium Fluoride, CaF2
blue, red, and
black.

Pyrite Pale brassy Greenish Metallic. 6 – 6.5, brittle When exposed to water and
(Sulfide) yellow, will black or nature oxygen, it can react to form sulfuric
tarnish to brownish acid (H2SO4).
darker hues black
that may be Iron sulfide, FeS2
iridescent
Cinnabar Bright red to Red Adamantine to 2 to 2.5 (very Does not react chemically to
(Sulfide) brownish red, dull soft) anything except strong acids.
sometimes
gray Mercury sulfide, HgS

Muscovite Usually
(Silicate) colorless, White, often Pearly to 2.5 to 3 No reaction
white or silver, sheds tiny vitreous
occasionally flakes
yellow or Potassium aluminum silicate
brown. hydroxide fluoride,
KAl3Si3O10(OH,F)2
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GEOPHYSIC LABORATORY
AMENDMENT
TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCK (LAB 1b) 8/1/2007
DATE:

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To recognize, identified and observed distinguishing features of igneous rock specimen in the laboratory.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to recognize types of igneous rock formation in Malaysia and Worldwide.
b) Students should able to evaluate the physical properties of igneous rocks for civil engineering application.
c) Students should able to understand igneous rock forming on the earth.

3.0 THEORY
(a) Criteria for distinguishing igneous rock
In describing any rock, one should proceed from the general to the particular, nothing firstly its colour, behaviour on
weathering and any other striking features and then deciding whether it is igneous or other types of rock. The outstanding
characteristics of the igneous rocks is given below, but must be emphasized that one characteristic by itself proof positive
that the rock belongs to a certain class.

Rock Type Characteristic

Interlocking grains, massive structures
Texture such as glassy, prophyritic, phaneritic, aphantic
Igneous
High feldspar or ferromagnesian content
Absent of stratification or fossils

(b) Description

Physical characteristics Colour

Massive – rock is uniform in appearance showing no banding or other structural features
Structure Pegmatite – the rock is very coarse grained
Vesicular – the rock contains many cavities
Crystallinty or degree of crystallization
Holocrystalline – wholly crystalline
Hemicrystalline – partly crystals and partly glass
Holohyaline – wholly glass
Texture
Granularity, the size of crystals
Fine-grained when particles are 1 mm or less in diameter
Medium grained when particles are 1 – 5 mm or more in diameter
Coarse grained when the particles are 5 mm or more in diameter

Prepared by : Head of Engineering Geology and Geophysics Laboratory / Lecturer

Name : Mohd Hazreek Bin Zainal Abidin

Signature :

Date : 8 January 2007

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AMENDMENT
TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCK (LAB 1b) 8/1/2007
DATE:

4.0 EQUIMENT AND MATERIALS

a) Igneous rock from reference set
b) Igneous classification chart

5.0 PROCEDURE
Students should learn to familiarize and observe the samples by referring the igneous classification charts and tabulate the
results observation in the Tables 1.2.1 attached.

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

a) Rock name
b) Texture
c) Colour
d) Mineral composition
e) Chemical composition
f) Origin
g) Sketch / Others

7.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

(Each answer shall not more than 100 words)
(1) Briefly explain two (2) types of igneous rock
(2) Explain the igneous rock classification according to the texture and chemical and mineral composition.

8.0 CONCLUSION
Conclude your observation of the igneous rock in the given Table 1.2.1 by rate its significance in construction industry, etc.
 TABLE 1.2.1 IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCK

ROCK MINERAL CHEMICAL

TEXTURE COLOUR ORIGIN SKETCH
NAME COMPOSITION COMPOSITION
(Plutonic)
Phaneritic Orthoclase,
Granite (medium to Variable but plagioclase and It forms from
coarse typically quartz (generally 69%-77%. magma with a high
grained). light- more orthoclase than content of silica
coloured. plagioclase), often and alkali metal
with smaller amounts Acid oxides that slowly
(Light < 25% of biotite, muscovite solidifies
dark or amphibole underground. It is
minerals) ( hornblende). common in the
Earth's continental
crust,where it is
found in bodies
called plutons.
(Plutonic)
Plagioclase,
Diorite Phaneritic Typically amphibole It formed deep
(medium to speckled ( hornblende) and 52%-63%. within the Earth’s
coarse black and pyroxene ( augite). crust from cooling
grained). white. magma that never
made it to the
Intermediate surface and from
(25 – 50% magma that does
dark not contain a lot of
minerals) quartz (silica) or
the light coloured
minerals that make
up granite.
Groundmass (Volcanic)
Variable, but generally of
Dacite Generally generally plagioclase with It formed by the
porphyritic bluish-grey amphibole 63%-69%. subduction of
or pale grey. (hornblende),biotite, young oceanic
pyroxene Intermediate crust under a thick
(augite),quartz and felsic continental
 (25 – 50% glass, phenocrysts of plate.
dark plagioclase,amphibol
minerals) e and often quartz.
(Plutonic)
Predominantly
Phaneritic Dark grey to plagioclase and It formed from the
Gabbro (medium to black. pyroxene ( augite) 45%-52%. slow cooling of
coarse grained) with lesser olivine. magnesium-rich
(Dark and iron-rich
minerals Basic magma into a
precominant) holocrystalline
mass deep
beneath the
Earth's surface.
(Plutonic)
Generally olivine with
Peridotite Phaneritic Generally lesser pyroxene Peridotite have two
(coarse dark ( augite) (dunite is primary modes of
grained). greenish- dominantly olivine), < 45%. origin, as mantle
grey always contains rocks formed
some metallic during the
minerals, e.g. accretion and
(Dark, chromite, magnetite. Ultrabasic differentiation of
essentially the Earth, or as
all dark cumulate rocks
minerals) formed by
precipitation of
olivine ± pyroxenes
from basaltic or
ultramafic
magmas, these
magmas are
ultimately derived
from the upper
mantle by partial
melting of mantle
 (Volcanic)
Usually Groundmass
Rhyolite porphyritic but Variable but generally of quartz It formed from
can be light and plagioclase with 69%-77%. granitic magma
aphanitic (e.g. coloured. lesser amounts of that has partially
obsidian). orthoclase, biotite, cooled in the
amphibole subsurface and in
(Light < 25% ( augite), pyroxene Acid continental or
( hornblende) and continent-margin
dark
glass, phenocrysts of volcanic eruptions
minerals) plagioclase and where granitic
quartz,often with magma reaches
amphibole and the surface.
biotite, sometimes Rhyolite is rarely
orthoclase. produced at
oceanic eruptions.
Orthoclase with (Plutonic)
Phaneritic Variable but lesser to minor
Syenite (medium to typically light plagioclase, minor 60%-65%. It is found in
coarse coloured. mica, augite, continental settings
grained). hornblende, Intermediate and typically
(25 – 50% magnetite etc. results from partial
dark melting of the
minerals) lower crust.
(Volcanic)
Generally Variable but Orthoclase
Trachyte porphyritic (can often light phenocrysts in a It formed by the
be trachytic), coloured, groundmass of 60%-65%. rapid cooling of
sometimes generally orthoclase with minor lava enriched with
aphanitic. light plagioclase, biotite, silica and alkali
coloured hornblende, augite Intermediate metals.
phenocrysts. etc.

(25 – 50%
dark
minerals)
 Groundmass (Volcanic)
Variable, but generally of pyroxene
Andesite Porphyritic. typically (augite) and 52%-63%. It form after an
bluish-grey plagioclase,possibly oceanic plate melts
or grey with minor amounts during its descent
(lighter of amphibole Intermediate into the subduction
coloured (hornblende) and zone to produce a
than basalt). glass, phenocrysts of source of magma.
plagioclase and often
(25 – 50% pyroxene,
dark occasionally olivine
minerals) or amphibole.
(Volcanic)
Groundmass
generally of pyroxene Basaltic magmas
Basalt Aphanitic (can Dark grey to ( augite), plagioclase 45%-52% are thought to have
be porphyritic). black and olivine, possibly their origin in the
with minor glass,if Earth's upper
porphyritic the Basic mantle.
(Dark phenocrysts will be
minerals any of olivine,
precominant) pyroxene or
plagioclase.
IGNEOUS CLASSIFICATION CHART
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TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK AMENDMENT
8/1/2007
(LAB 1c) DATE:

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To recognize, identified and observed distinguishing features of sedimentary rock specimen in the laboratory.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to recognize types of sedimentary rock formation in Malaysia and Worldwide.
b) Students should able to evaluate the physical properties of sedimentary rocks for civil engineering application.
c) Students should able to understand sedimentary rock forming on the earth.

3.0 THEORY

(a) Criteria for distinguishing sedimentary rock

In describing any rock, one should proceed from the general to the particular, nothing firstly its colour, behaviour on
weathering and any other striking features and then deciding whether it is sedimentary or other types of rock. The
outstanding characteristics of the sedimentary rocks is given below, but must be emphasized that one characteristic by
itself proof positive that the rock belongs to a certain class.

Rock Type Characteristic

Stratification and sorting of grains into layers according to their size.
Fragmental texture.
Grains often rounded.
Sedimentary Structures such as bedding, ripple marks and mud cracks.
Presence of fossils.
Presence of minerals of chemical or organic origin, such as halite, gypsum, chert carbonates.
Absence of easily weathered minerals such as biotite and augite.

(b) Description

Physical characteristics Colour

Structure Massive, bedded or cross bedded
Note whether grain is uniform or uneven.
Grain and constituents To be uneven, there must be marked contras between larger and smaller grains. If
the rock is uniform, it is usually fine in grain and does not show definite fragments,
but may contain fossils.

Prepared by : Lecturer

Name : Aziman Madun

Signature :

Date : 8 January 2007

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8/1/2007
(LAB 1c) DATE:

4.0 EQUIMENT AND MATERIALS

a) Sedimentary rock from reference set
b) Sedimentary classification chart

5.0 PROCEDURE
Students should learn to familiarize and observe the samples by referring the sedimentary classification charts and
tabulate the results from the observation in the Table 1.2.2 attached.

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

a) Rock name
b) Texture
c) Mode of origin
d) Composition of clastic rock
e) Composition of crystalline rock
f) Sketch / others

7.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

(Each answer shall not more than 100 words)
(1) List the characteristics that distinguish sedimentary rocks from igneous and metamorphic rocks.
(2) Explain all the genesis of sedimentary rocks.

8.0 CONCLUSION
Conclude your observation of the sedimentary rock in the given Table 1.2.2 by rate its significance in construction
industry, etc.
 TABLE 1.2.2 IDENTIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK

MODE OF COMPOSITION
ROCK NAME TEXTURE CLASSIFICATION SKETCH
ORIGIN OF ROCK
Chemical Natural chalk
composition of chalk
is calcium carbonate Natural chalk occurs
Chalk Nonclastic, Biochemical and with minor in deep sea
Fine-grained about silt and clay conditions and
minerals. It is consists of gradual
formed in the sea by accumulation of very
sub-microscopic small calcite plates.
plankton, which fall These plates are
to the sea floor and poured from
are then microorganisms;
consolidated and microorganisms are
compressed during called
diagenesis into rock. kokkolithofors.
Natural chalk is
highly resistant to
erosion due to its
porous structure. It
is very often
associated with clay,
but is less resistant
to clay erosion and
weather conditions.
This is more
resistant and
limestone when the
clay is worn, mostly
where the chalk
ridges meet the sea,
steep rocks and
shelves. The best
example of this is
the white cliffs of
Dover. It is porous
and therefore can
hold a lot of water.
 This is a great
advantage for areas
that suffer from
drought and that
have large amounts
of limestone and
limestone, because
these rock types can
provide a natural
reservoir that
releases water
slowly.

Manmade chalk

The natural chalk

used in sport has
been replaced with
a man-made chalk
in most cases.
Artificial chalk is
called magnesium
carbonate. For this,
the empirical
formula is MgCO3.
Similar to natural
chalk, magnesium
carbonate has the
same properties and
properties; white
and soft solid.
Magnesium
carbonate can be
mapped or
produced under a
carbon dioxide
atmosphere by a
series of chemical
processes involving
the release of the
 mixture of
magnesium and
carbonate ions or
the release of the
magnesium
hydroxide slurry
under pressure.
Magnesium
carbonate has many
other uses other
than sports. Some
have already been
mentioned, ie
toothpaste.
Magnesium
carbonate may also
be present in laying,
non-flammable, fire-
extinguishing
compositions,
cosmetic products
and as a powdered
powder. The
versatility of the
substance also
means that it is used
as a drying agent,
as a laxative for
loosening the
intestines and as a
reinforcing agent for
neoprene rubber.
 Breccia has many Breccia can be
compositions. Its further divided
composition is according to:
Breccia Clastic (coarse- mainly determined
grained) by the rock and Class – may be
mineral material that divided into two
the angular huge lessons:
fragments were
produced from. The  Clast
climate of the supported –
source area can in which the
also influence clasts contact
composition. Most each different
breccias are a mix and the
of rock fragments matrix fills the
and mineral grains. voids.
 Matrix
supported –
where the
clasts are not
in contact
and the
matrix
surrounds
each clast.

Chert is in most There are many

Term is used to cases a biogenic varieties of chert,
refer generally to rock, it is made of that classified
Chert Non-clastic all rocks siliceous tests of visible,
sedimentary composed diatoms, microscopic and
rock primarily of radiolarians, physical
microcrystalline, siliceous sponge characteristics
cryptocrystalline spicules, etc. Flint is a high
and microfibrous Sometimes microcrystalline
quartz. microscopic quartz. It was
fossilized remains of originally the name
these sea creatures for chert found in
may be preserved in chalk or marly
these rocks. Their
 siliceous tests are limestone
not made of quartz formations formed
initially, but after by a replacement of
burial, compaction, calcium carbonate
and diagenesis, with silica.
opaline siliceous
sediments transform Known Common
to quartz. Although chert is a variety of
the material it is chert which forms in
made of ultimately limestone
came from siliceous formations by
tests of marine replacement of
species, the rock calcium carbonate
itself is often not with silica. This
deposited in situ. It chert type is most
may move as a abundant.
silica-rich liquid and
form nodules in Jasper is a variety of
rocks by replacing this rock formed as
the original (usually primary deposits,
carbonate) material. found in or in
So It is also connection with
sometimes said to magmatic
be a rock of formations which
chemogenic origin. owes its red color to
Bedded variety iron(III) inclusions.
seems to be often Jasper frequently
associated with also occurs in black,
turbidity currents. yellow or even
green (depending
on the type of iron it
contains). Jasper is
usually opaque to
near opaque.

Radiolarite is a
variety of this rock
formed as primary
deposits and
containing
 radiolarian
microfossils.

Chalcedony is a
microfibrous quartz.

Agate is distinctly
banded chalcedony
with successive
layers differing in
color or value.

Onyx is a banded
agate with layers in
parallel lines, often
black and white.

Opal is a hydrated
silicon dioxide. It is
often of a Neogenic
origin. In fact it is not
a mineral (it is a
mineraloid) and it is
generally not
considered a variety
of chert, although
some varieties of
opal (opal-C and
opal-CT) are
microcrystalline and
contain much less
water (sometime
none). Often people
without petrological
training confuse
opal with chert due
to similar visible and
physical
characteristics.
Magadi-type chert is
a variety that forms
from a sodium
silicate precursor in
highly alkaline lakes
such as Lake
Magadi in Kenya.

Porcelanite is a term
used for fine-grained
siliceous rocks with
a texture and a
fracture resembling
those of unglazed
porcelain.

Siliceous sinter is
porous, low-density,
light-colored
siliceous rock
deposited by waters
of hot springs and
geysers.

Mozarkite has won

distinction because
of its unique
variation of colors
and its ability to take
a high polish.

Other lesser used

terms for chert
(most of them
archaic) include
firestone, silex, silica
stone, chat, and
flintstone.
 Conglomerate can Conglomerates
have a variety of named and
compositions. As a classifield by the
Conglomerate Clastic (coarse- clastic sedimentary
grained). rock, it can contain - Type and amount
clasts of any rock of matrix present.
material or - Composition of
weathering product gravel size clasts
that is washed they contain.
downstream or - Size range of
down current. The gravel-size clasts
rounded clasts of present.
conglomerate can
be mineral particles A sedimentary rock
such as quartz, or consisting mainly of
they can be gravel is first named
sedimentary, according to the
metamorphic, or roundness of the
igneous rock gravel. If the gravel
fragments. The clasts that form it
matrix that binds the are well-rounded to
large clasts together subrounded, to a
can be a mixture of large extent, it is a
sand, mud, and conglomerate. If the
chemical cement. pebble clips forming
it are largely
angular, it is a
breccia. Such
breccias may be
called sedimentary
breccias to
distinguish them
from other breccia
types.

1. The amount and

chemical
composition of the
matrix. If the clasts
do not touch each
other (lots of matrix),
the rock is
paraconglomerate.
Rock in which the
clasts touch each
other is called
orthoconglomerate.
2. The composition
of the clasts. If all
the clasts are the
same type of rock or
mineral), the rock is
categorized as
monomictic
conglomerate. If the
clasts are made up
of two or more rocks
or minerals, the rock
is a polymictic
conglomerate.
3. The size of the
clasts. Rock
comprised of large
clasts is cobble
conglomerate. If the
clasts are pebble-
sized, the rock is
called pebble
conglomerate. If the
clasts are small
granules, the rock is
called granule
conglomerate.

The environment
that deposited the
material.
Conglomerates may
form from glacial,
alluvial, fluvial,
 deepwater marine,
or shallow marine
environments.
For this course we
will use a
From German classification of
Greywacke An immature Grauwacke, from sandstones that is
sandstone grau (signifying a partially based on
grey)+ wacke Blatt and Tracey (p.
257) and partially
based on Williams,
Turner, and Gilbert
(p. 326).
A feldspar-rich
sandstone is called
an arkose. Lithic rich
sandstones are
called litharenites.
Further subdivisions
are shown in the
diagram. If the rock
has between 10 and
50% clay matrix, the
rock is called a
wacke. Quartz
wackes have
predominantly
quartz surrounded
by a mud or clay
matrix. In a
feldspathic wacke,
feldspar is more
abundant, and in a
lithic wacke, lithic
fragments are more
abundant. The term
graywacke is
seldom used today,
but was originally
used to describe a
 lithic-rich sandstone
with between 10 and
50% mica, clay, or
chlorite matrix.
Rocks with greater
than 50% clay
matrix are called
sandy mudstones,
and will be
discussed in the
lecture on
mudrocks.
Limestone Clastic or non- Calcite Two major
clastic classification
schemes, the Folk
and the Dunham,
are used for
identifying limestone
and carbonate
rocks.

Folk Classification

Robert L. Folk
evolved a category
gadget that places
number one
emphasis at the
particular
composition of
grains and interstitial
fabric in carbonate
rocks. Based on
composition, there
are three most
important additives:
allochems (grains),
matrix (often
micrite), and cement
(sparite). The Folk
 gadget uses
-element names; the
primary refers back
to the grains and the
second is the root. It
is useful to have a
petrographic
microscope when
using the Folk
scheme, because
it’s miles easier to
determine the
additives found in
every pattern

Dunham
Classification

The Dunham
scheme specializes
in depositional
textures. Each call is
based upon the feel
of the grains that
make up the
limestone. Robert J.
Dunham posted his
system for limestone
in 1962; it
specializes in the
depositional material
of carbonate rocks.
Dunham divides the
rocks into 4
important
corporations based
on relative
proportions of
coarser clastic
particles. Dunham
 names are
essentially for rock
families. His efforts
cope with the
question of whether
or not or not the
grains were at first
in mutual contact,
and therefore self-
helping, or whether
the rock is
characterized by
means of the
presence of frame
developers and
algal mats. Unlike
the Folk scheme,
Dunham deals with
the original porosity
of the rock. The
Dunham scheme is
more beneficial for
hand samples due
to the fact it’s far
primarily based on
texture, now not the
grains inside the
sample
Mudstone Clastic
Sedimentary
Rock
Sandstone
Clastic (only Chemical
noticeable with Composition of
a microscope). sandstone usually
quartz framework
grains are the
dominant mineral in
clastic sedimentary
rocks. Because of
 they have
exceptional physical
properties such as
hardness and
chemical
stability.Physcial
properties of these
quartz grains
survive multiple
recycling events and
also allowing the
grains to display
some degree of
rounding. Quartz
grains evolve from
plutonic rock, which
are felsic in origin
and also from older
sandstones that
have been recycled.
Second most
abundant mineral is
feldspathic
framework grains.

Feldspar can be
seperate into two
subdibision. They
are alkali feldspars
and plagioclase
feldspars. Feldspars
minerals is
distinguished under
a petrographic
microscope.

Alkali feldspar is a
group of minerals in
which the chemical
composition of the
 mineral can range
from KAlSi3O8 to
NaAlSi3O8, this
represents a
complete solid
solution.

Plagioclase feldspar
is a complex group
of solid solution
minerals that range
in composition from
NaAlSi3O8 to
CaAl2Si2O8.

Photomicrograph of
a volcanic sand
grain; upper picture
is plane-polarised
light, bottom picture
is cross-polarised
light, scale box at
left-centre is 0.25
millimetre. This type
of grain would be a
main component of
a lithic sandstone.

Lithic framework
grains are pieces of
ancient source rock
that have yet to
weather away to
individual mineral
grains, called lithic
fragments or clasts.
Lithic fragments can
be any fine-grained
or coarse-grained
igneous,
 metamorphic, or
sedimentary rock,
although the most
common lithic
fragments found in
sedimentary rocks
are clasts of
volcanic rocks.

Accessory minerals
are small
percentage of the
grain in a
sandstone.Common
accessory minerals
include micas
(muscovite and
biotite), olivine,
pyroxene, and
corundum. Many of
these accessory
grains are more
density to silicates
minerals in the
rocks. These heavy
minerals moere
durability to
weathering and can
be used as an
indicator of
sandstone maturity
through the ZTR
index.

Common heavy
minerals include
zircon, tourmaline,
rutile (hence ZTR),
garnet, magnetite,
or other dense,
 resistant minerals
derived from the
source rock.
Shale Clastic; Very Detrital/Clastic Shales are Shales are fissile
fine-grained composed of silt, clastic sedimentary
(< 0.004 mm) clay minerals and rocks formed from
Silty shale . quartz grains. transportation,
Clay shale . Generally typically deposition and
Sandy shale crey color. In some compaction of
cases the color of detrital materials of
the rock is different. silt and clay. Fissility
A minor constituents of the clay is its
alters the color of main distinguishing
the rock. Black characteristic from
shale result other sedimentary
presenced of rocks. Fissility is
greater than one defined as the
percent property of a rock to
carbonaceous split easily along
material and thin closely spaced
indicates a reducing (< 10mm
environment.Red, approximately)
brown and green parallel layers. This
colors are indicative fissility factor is
of ferric oxide highlighted in that
(hematite – reds), shows classification
iron hydroxide of sediments and
(goethite – browns sedimentary rocks
and limonite – based on sizes of
yellow), or fragments.
micaceous minerals
(chlorite, biotite and
illite – greens).

Clay Minerals are

major component of
shale and other
similar rocks. The
clay minerals
 represented are
mostly kaolinite,
montmorillonite and
illite. Clay minerals
of Late Tertiary
mudstones are
expandable
smectites whereas
in older rocks
especially in mid- to
early Paleozoic
shales illites
predominate. The
transformation of
smectite to illite
produces silica,
sodium, calcium,
magnesium, iron
and water. These
released elements
form authigenic
quartz, chert,
calcite, dolomite,
ankerite, hematite
and albite, all trace
to minor (except
quartz) minerals
found in shales and
other mudrocks
Siltstone Clastic; Fine-
grained (0.004 Clastic sedimentary
– 0.06 mm) rocks are deposited
in three ways. They
are water glaciers
and wind. Identifying
siltstone and shale
requires
distinguishing
between silt and
clay particles.Silt
 and clay are both
tiny particles that
have weathered
away from rocks
and minerals. Silt is
intermediate in size
between the larger
grains of sand and
the smaller clay
particles. To be
classified as silt, the
particles must be
smaller than .06
millimeters in
diameter, (.002
inches) and larger
than clay-size
particles, which are
smaller than .004
millimeters in
diameter (.0002
inches). Clay, unlike
silt, also refers to
several types of
minerals, including
montmorillonite and
kaolinite

SEDIMENTARY CLASSIFICATION CHART

 FACULTY : CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING NO. OF PAGES: 1/2
DEPARTMENT : GEOTECHNICAL & EDITION: LAB 1d
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING NO. OF CHECKING:
LABORATORY : ENGINEERING GEOLOGY &
EFECTIVE DATE : 8/1/2007
GEOPHYSIC LABORATORY
TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCK
AMENDMENT DATE: 8/1/2007
(LAB 1d)

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To recognize, identified and observed distinguishing features of metamorphic rock specimen in the laboratory.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to recognize types of metamorphic rock formation in Malaysia and Worldwide.
b) Students should able to evaluate the physical properties of metamorphic rocks for civil engineering application.
c) Students should able to understand metamorphic rock forming on the earth.

3.0 THEORY

(a) Criteria for distinguishing sedimentary rock

In describing any rock, one should proceed from the general to the particular, nothing firstly its colour, behaviour on
weathering and any other striking features and then deciding whether it is metamorphic or other types of rock. The
outstanding characteristics of the metamorphic rocks is given below, but must be emphasized that one characteristic by
itself proof positive that the rock belongs to a certain class.

Rock Type Characteristic

Parallel orientation of mineral crystals.
Interlocking crystal.
Metamorphic
Secondary cleavage independent bedding.
Foliation, schistosity and slaty texture.

(b) Description

Physical characteristics Colour

Decide whether the rock is best described as uniform fine grained, medium fine
grained or coarse grained.
Structure and Grain The coarser grained granular rocks results from high-grade metamorphism in which
great pressure from many directions, not from one direction only, has been the
dominant factor.

Prepared by : Lecturer

Name : Aziman Madun

Signature :

Date : 8 January 2007

 FACULTY : CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING NO. OF PAGES: ½
DEPARTMENT : GEOTECHNICAL & EDITION: LAB 1d
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING NO. OF CHECKING:
LABORATORY : ENGINEERING GEOLOGY &
EFECTIVE DATE : 8/1/2007
GEOPHYSIC LABORATORY
TOPIC : IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCK
AMENDMENT DATE: 8/1/2007
(LAB 1d)

4.0 EQUIMENT AND MATERIALS

a) Metamorphic rock from reference set
b) Metamorphic classification chart

5.0 PROCEDURE
Students should learn to familiarize and observe the samples by referring the metamorphic classification charts and
tabulate the results from the observation in the Table 1.2.3 attached.

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

(a) Rock name
(b) Structure
(c) Grain
(d) Mineral composition
(e) Parent Rock
(f) Metamorphism type
(e) Sketch / Others

7.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

(Each answer shall not more than 100 words)
(1) Define a foliation.
(2) Distinguish between slaty cleavage, phyllitic, schistosity and gneissic texture.

8.0 CONCLUSION
Conclude your observation of the metamorphic rock in the given Table 1.2.3 by rate its significance in construction
industry, etc.
 TABLE 1.2.4 IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCK

ROCK STRUCT MINERAL METAMORPHIS

GRAIN PARENT ROCK SKETCH
NAME URE COMPOSITION M TYPE
Well- Very fine grained white Graphite, Regional
developed mica achieves a muscovite, Parent rock for
Phyllite schistosity preferred orientation sericite, or phyllite is shale
chlorite, or the or pelite, or slate
translucent fine- which in turn
grained white came from a
mica, quartz, shale protolith.
Plagioclase

Massive medium grained; can Diopside, Regional or

see interlocking calcite tremolite, contact
crystals with the naked actinolite, metamorphic
Marble eye. dolomite Limestone,
dolomite

Very fine-grained, Quartz and Dynamic

crystals not visible to muscovite or
the naked eye. illite frequently
Slate along with
biotite, chlorite,
hematite, and
pyrite.
 Foliated, Fine to medium Mica minerals
Foliation, grained, can often see ( biotite,
Schist Schistosit crystals with the naked chlorite,
y Texture eye. muscovite),
quartz and
plagioclase
often present as
monomineralic
bands, garnet
porphyroblasts
common.
Granulose Medium grained; can Quartz. Regional
see interlocking quartz
crystals with the naked Sandstone
Quartzite eye.

Hornfels is not a Contact

Hornfels Granulose rock that is
Very fine grained; “deposited”.
grains need to be Instead it is a
observed under a rock type that
microscope, can forms when an
contain existing rock is
roundedporphyroblasts metamorphosed
. . The original
rock that was
metamorphosed
is usually
referred to as
the “parent rock”
or “protolith”. A
variety of
sedimentary,
 igneous, and
metamorphic
rocks can be the
protolith of
hornfels.
Common
protoliths of
hornfels include
sedimentary
rocks such as
shale, siltstone,
sandstone,
limestone and
dolomite;
igneous rocks
such as basalt,
gabbro, rhyolite,
granite, andesite
and diabase; or,
metamorphic
rocks such as
schist and
gneiss

In addition
to the Medium to coarse Felsic minerals Shale, granitic
gneissose grained, seeing with such as and volcanic
Gneiss texture the naked eye. feldspar rocks
described ( orthoclase,
above, plagioclase)
gneisses and quartz
tend to be generally form
banded the light
on a large coloured
scale with bands; mafic
layers and minerals such
 streaks of as biotite,
darker pyroxene
and lighter ( augite) and
coloured amphibole
gneiss. ( hornblende)
Granite generally form
and the dark
quartz coloured
veins and bands; garnet
pegmatite porphyroblasts
s are common.
common.
May be
folded.

Amphibolite Predominantly
Gneissic composed of Regional
mineral
amphibole and
plagioclase
feldspar.

Soapstone Schistose Fine-grained Micas, chlorite, Peridotite Hydrothermal

amphiboles,
carbonates,
magnesite
Skarn Fine or course grains Skarn minerals
rock is include
pyroxene,
garnet,
idocrase,
wollastonite,
actinolite,
magnetite or
hematite.
METAMORPHIC CLASSIFICATION CHART
Lab Report Assessment
Rubric

CLO 1 (Technical expertise): 10%

Criteria (KI)   1 2 3 4 5 Weightage Total
Introduction             0.25  
Result and analysis             0.5  
Question and Discussion           0.5  
Relevant calculation /
information           0.5  
Conclusion             0.25  
Total             Total = 10%  

CLO 2 (Communication skill): 2.5%

Criteria (KI)   1 2 3 4 5 Weightage Total
Material and organization           0.17  
Short and ease to understand           0.17  
Attractive presentation           0.16  
Total             Total = 2.5%  

REFERENCE

https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks_minerals/rocks/hornfels.html

https://geologyscience.com/category/rocks/metamorphic-rocks/

https://geology.com/rocks/gneiss.shtml

https://www.academia.edu/16903011/REPORT_identify_of_minerals_1