A GU IDE TO SY L L O GI SM,

on,

A MAN U AL OF L OGIC .
 A G UIDE TO SY L L O G ISM,

OR ,

A MANUA L O F L O GIC ;

C O MP R E HE N D I N G

AN A C C O U N T O F T HE M A N N E R O F D I S P U T A T I O N N OW

P RA C T I S E D I N T HE S C H O O L S A T C A M B R ID G E

WIT H S PEC I ME N S OF TH E D IFF E RE N T AC T S .

AAD H P T E D TO T E US E O F

T HE H IG H E R F O RM S I N G RAMMA R S C H O O LS A N D ,
OF

J U N I O R S T U DE N T S AT T H E U N I VE R SI T Y .

BY

T HE R E V C H A R L E S . WE S LE Y ,
B D . .

La t e f Ch is t s Co lleg e C m b idg e
o r
’
, a r .

S o s o
A y ll gi m is a f rm o fr a e so nin g w h ic h se es o ess m t h
rv t o c mpr l c

e l ttl
m a t t r m to a i e c m p a
—s
o ss l es e uth W t h
an d h e p s t o in v tiga t h l

so
,
m r t a in t y ” B i hop Wa t n
. .

LO N D O N

H ENR Y G B O H N 4 Y OR K S T RE E T C O V EN T G A R DEN ;
.
, , ,
-

D E I GH T ON 8 S ON S C A M B R I D G E J P A R K E R O XF OR D
e ,
. .

M DCCC XXX I I
. . .
 I N TRO DUC TIO N .

T HE obj ect o fthe co m pi ler ,

in ar ran ging these p ages
3 to lead t h e st ude n t , by the shorte s t path , to an ac q u ain

ance with the m ore i n tere sti n g an d practic al pa r ts 0

Logic . It appears to him that there are man y perso n

,

wo uld declin e the per usal of a treatise on Ap p r eh en

ion , the D ivisions f N oun s an d the di fferen t s ort s o

o ,

re diaa b les, who might b e interested in exami n i n g t h

at ure of P ropositio n s , an d the principle on which ai
In ference is con clu sively drawn .

He is con fi rmed in this opi n io n by havi n g ofte n ob ,

served that yo u ths

, of an i n ge n io u s an d i n tellectu al t urn
disi n cli n ed as they might be to un dertak e the p er u s al o

a b ulky volume upon L ogic , are gen erally grati fi ed wh ei

argu men t is set before them in the brief an d lu cid for
,

of a Syllogism .
 v ii i

The A ppen dix co n tai n s a s umm ary ac co un t o f t

m an n er of syll ogizin g in the schools at C ambridge ; a

it is hoped that yo un ger disp u tan ts , wh o ar e abo u t to a

pear there may derive some advan tage from the followi
,

pages .

To the Regii P rofessors in D ivi n ity , La w, and P hys

to the R ev D r G raham M aster
'

1n d . .
, of C hrist s C olle
C ambridge , the comp i ler has to of
fer his m ost grate
hank s for the n u mero u s obligatio n s u nder which th

hav e laid him .

H e has the hono u r als o to co n fe ss him self in debted

h e learn ed an d accomplished a uthor * of the Elemer
”
f L ogic , n ot o nly for the advan tage o f his p u blish
vrit in s, b ut for many acts of private co urtesy
g .

T he presen t A rch b i sh op of D ub li n .
 A GU IDE T O SY LL O GI S M,

dc do
. .

0F RE A S ON I N G A N D S Y LL O G I S M .

1 . AN act o freaso n i n g is pe r fo rmed by compar

in g two ideas together by mean s of a third that ,

m u st agree with on e of them If this third idea .

agrees with the other two those two of co u rse , , ,

a r ee with on e an other ; if it agrees with o n ly on e

g ,

they ofco u rse disagree with on e an other *

, , .

2 A syllogism ( from a v Moy t é op a t to reas o n )

'

.
,

is an arg um en t stated at full le n gth and in regular ,

logic al f0
3 B y an ar g u me n t s bei n g sta ted at full length
’

.
,

is mean t that t h e application of the third id e a to

,

E . G
reason i n g on t h e ch a racte r os e sar ifI wi sh ed
. In ,

t o a s c e rt a i n wh e th e r t h e i dea o f a good m an a g reed wi th

h im I m i g ht ta k e for a third i de a th a t o f Tyrant

’

, ,
On , .

fi n di n g t hi s a gr e with C aesa r and dis a g ree with g oo d

e
‘
,
’ ‘

m an I sh oul d sa y th a t t h e i dea s of C aesa r an d good m a n

’ ’
’ ‘ ‘
,

disa g reed wit h on e a n t her or in o th e r wor ds th a t

‘
o C ae
, ,

T h e third i dea th u s em p loyed

’
sa r was n ot a g ood m a n .
,

t o assi s t u s in fo r m i n g a j u dg m en t is c all e d a middl e t er m ,

.

B
2 or RE A S ON I N G A N D S Y LL O G I S M .

the two others is expressed in terms an d that how ,

ever obvio u s the application may b e in the case of ,

o n e of them it is n e v er on that acco un t ta k e n for

, , ,

gran t ed .

B y an a r g ume n t s bei n g stated in regul ar logi

’
4 .
~

c al form is m ean t its b ei n g so arran ge d that the

, , ,

con c lusive n ess of it is man ifest from th e mere force

o f the expressio n e Witho u t co n sideri n g t h e
, .

mean i n g of the terms Th u s .

,

E v e ry Y is X ,

E v e ry " is Y therefore ,

E v e r y " is X .

I fy o u gran t the two forme r as ser tio n s ( or p rem ises ) , ,

o u ca n n ot d eny the co n c lu sio n

y .

5 S yllogis m s ar e d ivid e d i n to C ategorical ( from

.
,

xa r q o é w I af fi rm ) an d Hypothetic al ( fr om {m s
y p , , ,

Sw g a s u ppositio n )
t , C ategorical syllogism s are
.

di v ided i n to P ure an d Modal ; hypothetical sy llo

gis m s into C o n ditio n al an d D isj un c t iv e S yllogis m s .

t ak e their n ames from the di ffere n t k i n ds ofpropo

s it ion s emp loyed in fo rmi n g them .

O F P R O P O S I T I ON S .

6 . A propositio n is a sen ten ce that a ffi rm s or

denies . I t consists of three parts v iz the su bj ec t , .
,
 or P R O P O S I T I ON S . 3

or thi n g spo k e n of; the p r edica t e or that which is ,

said of it ; an d the c op u la which m ust be t h e sub ,

s t an t ive verb with or wit h ou t a n egative partic le a s

, ,

the s ubj e ct an d predicate happe n to ag ree or dis

agree .

7 T h e s ubj ect an d predicate are called Term s or

.

E xtremes * becau se accord in g t o logical order the

, , ,

s ubj e ct is placed fi rst the predicate last an d t h e , ,

cop ula in t h e mi d dl e .

S u bj C p P d . o . re .

EX l V ic e l l is l
. d e testab le l .

S u bj C p P d . o . re .

W I I is n ot l W '

8 . The s ubsta n ti v e v erb al on e is r e c o gn ized by

logic ; all other verbs ar e resol v ab le i n to the s ub
s t a n t iv e v erb with a par ticip le or adj ective .

E x —The s um m e r approaches
. .

S u bj C p P d . o . re .

l Th e s u m m er l l is l l a ro ac h in l
pp g .

He does n ot k n ow it .

S u ly ‘

. C op . P r ed .

l He l '
l is n ot l l awar e of it . |

9 . As
the cop ula is u sed me r ely to exp r ess the
agreeme n t or disagre em en t of the te r ms it is or , ,

In p eak i n g o f a syllogi sm t h e te r m “ e trem e s ” is

s ,
x

o ften u n de r s tood t o i m p l y t h e ex tr e m es o f t h e c on c l sion

y .

13 2
4 or P R O P O S I T I ON S .

m ay be al ways p u t in the presen t tense S ho uld

, .

the ten se of t h e s ubstan tive verb modify the se n se of

the p r opositio n this ci r c umstan ce m u st be viewed
,

as part of one of the terms * .

E x —T r oy is existe n t
. .

Troy wa s existen t i e , . .

ITh e y l l is l Ia
p lace that was forme rly exis t e n t l .

1 0 A n adj ective or participle tho ugh it can n ot

.
,

be the s ubj ect may yet b e the predicate of a pro

,

position ; b ut eve n the n a s ubsta n tive appears t o

” ”
be un derstood ; as L ife is short, A rt is l o n g , .

I n these two propositio n s the word thi n g may

,

b e s upplied to eac h predicate —S ee S Y N C A T E G O .

R E MA T I C W O R D in t h e I n dex
, .

The v a ri e ty o f ex pre ssi on allowa b le in la n g u age wi ll

oft e n o cc as i on a pr o p os iti o n t o a pp ea r in a fo rm v e ry dif
fe ren t from th a t r e c o g n iz ed b y log ic T o th a t fo rm h ow
.
,

eve r al l prop ositi o n s ar e r e du ci b le ; a n d t h e p u pi l s h ould

,

b e a cc u st om ed t o b ri n g i n to it with readin e ss prop o siti on s ,

o f a di s s i m i la r c ons tr uc ti on E G
. . .

”
O fhis k i n g dom th e re sh all b e no en d .

A n en d o f h is k i n g dom is th a t whi ch sh all n ot b e

"
.

I n lo fti ness o f th ou g h t Hom e r su rp as ses V ir gi l ” .

Ho m e r is a p oe t wh o su rp as ses V ir g il in lo fti nes s of

th oug ht ”
.

It is t h e du ty o fy ou th t o re v e r en c e age ” .

T o re ve r en c e ag e is t h e du ty of y ou th .
"
 DI VI S I ON OF P R O P O S I T I ON S . 5

l l P ropositio n s
. are eith er C ate goric al ( an d s u b ,

divided i n to P ure a n dM od al ) or Hypothetic al ( and"

,

s ubdivided i n to C on diti on al an d Disj un ct ive ) This .

divisi on is acco r di n g to su b s t a n ce Th e y are eithe r .

Af fi rm ative or N e gative This divisio n is accord .

in g to qu a lit y ( i e the q uality of the ex p r ess ion )

. . .

They are U n iversal or P artic ular This di v isio n .

is accordi n g to qu a n t it g 1 .
~

A p u re prop ositi on is s m e ti m e s c alle d pr pos iti o de o o

” b e c au se it s i m p ly st t e s th a t t h e pr
i es e
n s , e dic a te is or is a
,

n ot , ( m e ta phy sic lly ) i t h e su bj e ct a ,

n .

1 A o th e r divi s i o of pr p os iti s is i to S i gul a r an d

n n o on n n

I d fi n ite A s i n gul a r pr p siti n is o e o f which t h e su b

n e . o o o n

j c e t is a i divi du al ( e ith e r a pr p e r a m e a i gula r p ro

n n ,
o n , s n

n ou n, or a c om m u wit h a s i n gula r si g
on n o ) E Gn
“
O ze n . . .

” “ ” “
s ar o v e rc a m e P om p e y 1 a m t h e p e rs Thi s fab le is
, on ,
”
i s tru ctiv e
n B u t a th se pr op iti n s pr e dic a te f t h
. s e os o o
'

whol of t h e su b j ct th ey fal l
e de r t h e r ules th a t g ov e r
e ,
un n

u n ive r s l s a I t is t o b b s rved th a t if t h e su bj e ct of a
. e o e ,

pr p ositi on c o s i t o f a u m b e r of ou s c ll ct i ly u n de r
o n s n n n o e ve

s tood s , th a t th ey are v i ew d a s one s i gle t hi g or b dy

o e n n o ,

t h e pr p s
o iti on isos in
g u l r E G “
A ll t h e b o k s in P t
a . . . o o
”
lemy s li b r ry m te td v olu es
m ll t o
’
a o u a o n , e . a
” “
t g t he r
o e
“
T wo a n d t wo m a k e fou r
. C aesar P m p ey .
,
o ,

a n d C r a s u s c n titu t e d t h e fi r t Tri um vir te

”
s , o s Wh e t h e s a . n

wo r d t g t h r an b
o e dd d t o t h e s ubj ct o ft h e prop s iti o
e c e a e e o n,

o r wh e n t h e w r d ch c an o t b e i trodu c ed th at prop o i
o ea n n , s

ti o i si g ula
n s n r.

A i de fi ite pro p iti n is o e th a t h as n o si g

n n n os fu i
o n n o n

ersa lit y o r p a rtic ula rity a f

'

v r fi e d t o it b u t lea v e s u s t x , o
6 D IVI S I ON OF PR O P O SITI O N S .

12 cate gorical propositio n declar es a thi n g

. A
ea r ny o s ij absolu t ely as
"

[ p I lo v e or I am l ov , ,

in g . Man is n ot i n fallible These are p u r e ca

” ”
.

t e gor ic als asserti n g s imp ly the agreeme n t an d dis

,

agreeme n t of s ub j ect an d predicate The wisest .

“
A prej u diced
"

m an may possibly be mis tak e n .

histo r ian will probably m is r ep r esent the tr ut

These are m oda l ca t egoric als asse r tin g the ma n n er ,

o f the ag r ee m e n t an d disag r eeme n t betwee n s ubj e ct

a n d pr e dicate * .

1 3 A hypothetical propositio n co n sists o f two

.

or more c at egorical s un ited by a co nj un ctio n c al led ,

t h e C op ula I t asserts n ot abs olu tely b u t u n der

.
, ,

a n hypoth e sis o r co n diti o n s u ch p r op o sit i on s a re

de n o te d by the c onj u n cti on s u sed in statin g the m .

E G If m an is fallible he is imperfect This "

. . .
,

j udg fr m t h e a tu r e ft h e c n e i o b e t w e t h e term s
e, o n o on x n e n

or E tre m x wh e th e r i t sh oul d b e r e c k ne d a s u n i
e s, o

v r al o r p a rtic ula r S ee N 1 9
e s . o . .

T h e m o da lity f a pr p s iti n is u s u ally c n s i de red t o

o o o o o

fl t t h e c op ula L g ic l w rite rs h ve sel ecte d a s mos t

'

a ec . o a a ,

w rthy fr em a r k f u r m de o fc onn e i o b t wee n s bj e ct

o o , o o s x n e u

a n d pr e dic a te —viz n e c ess ry p ssi b le i mp ossi b le a n d

. a o ,
, ,

c on ti gen t E G “ Ma is e c essa ri ly a n a i m al
n . . . A n n n .
"

” “
g l b e m ay p ss i b ly c o s i s t o f wa t e r
o o I t is i m p ssi b le a
n . o
” “
ma sh o ul d b e a s t
n e J o h n m a y o r m ay n t b e
on o
.
, ,

”
l ea r e d
n .
 D IVI S I O N o r P a o r o s rr I O N s . 7

is called a co n d ition al propos ition de noted by t h e ,

“ ” “
co nj un ction if I t is either day or night
"
. .

This is a disj un ctive hypo thetic al an d is de n oted ,

”
by the disj un ctive conj un ction either .

14 A n a f
. fi rm ative prop ositio n is on e of which t he
cop ula ( N o is a ffi rmative A n egative propo
.
,

sit ion is on e o f which the cop ul a is n egative There .

is an example o f each in N o 7 . .

15 A un iversal propositio n is on e o f which t he

.

predicate is a ffir med or de n i e d o f the whole of the

” “ ” ”
s ubj ect I t s u s u al signs are all
.
“ “
every n on e , , ,

&c . or a un ive r s al p r opositio n m ay have for its

s ubj ect a proper n am e or a common name wi th a ,

si n g ular sig n —S ee n ote t o N o 1 1 E G

. A ll . . . .

”
tyran ts are mise r able “
No miser is rich ,
’
En g ,

lan d is an i sland —A partic ular prop o sitio n is on e

"
.

o f which t he p r ed icate is a f fi rmed or de n i e d ofo n ly

'

”
p a r t of the s ubj ect I t s u s u al sign s are
. some ,

“
T o t h e si gn s o f u n ive r s al ity m i gh t b e a dde d wh o
e v e r,
” ea ch ,
”
ne ith e r,
”
a lwa y s,
”
e v e ry w h e re ,
”
&c .

T o th os e o f p a rtic u la ri ty a fe w
” not e v e ry
” “
som e
, , ,
” ”
ti m e s ,
h r & c Th e re a re som e p a rtic ula r si gn s
so m e w e e, .

which m a k e a n ea r a ppro a ch t o a u n iv e r sal affi r m a t ive a s ,

” ” “ ”“
m an y v e ry m a n y
, a l m o s t all , b y far t h e g re a t e r ,

p a rt ” & c S o m e on t h e o th er h an d c om e v e ry n e ar t o a
, .
, ,
” “ ” “ ”
u n ive r sal n e ga tive a s few , v e ry fe w sc a rc e ly any
, , ,

&c .
8 D I ST R I B UT I O N or TE RM S , ET C .

” “ ” " ”
many few se veral
, most an d al l or
, , ,

”
e v ery if the cop ula be n egati v e E G
, S om e . . .

"
islan ds are f rtile
e
“
M an y worthy m en ha v e t o .

”
complai n of ill fort un e “
M ost m en ar e fon d of .

” “
novelty A ll tyran ts ( or som e tyran ts ) are n ot
.

assassi n ated No n e b u t m e an s some an d

.
“"

”
those only or on e p e r s on thi n g or obj ect an d
, , , ,

that o nly it is th erefore the sign of a partic ular , , ,

or a si n g ul ar propositio n , .

D I S T R IB U T I O N OF T ER M S SY M B O L S O F Q UA N T I T Y
,

AND Q UA LI T Y , BTC .

16 . In iversal propositions the s ubj ect is

all u n ,

dis t r ib u t ed ; an expressio n which signi fi es that a

te rm is u sed in it s full es t exten t ; that it stan ds for
all i ts Signifi cat es o r the se v eral thi n gs which it sig
,

n ifi es : so th at the r e i s n o t an i n divid u al t o which

the common term is applicable that it does n ot em ,

brace A s in the e xample A ll tyran ts are mi

.
,
“
,

”
serable the com m on term i n clu des D io n ysi u s
, ,

P hraa t es Nero an d ev ery i n di v id ual wh o is a t y

, ,

r an t I n all partic ular p r opo si tio n s the s ubject is

.
,

u ndistr ib u ted it stan ds for o n ly part of i ts sign ifi

cates an d the co m m o n term then embraces only a
,

p art of the i n di v id uals t o which it is applicab le

 D I S T R I B U T I ON O F T E R M S , ET C . 9

”
as, in the e xample S ome islan ds are fertile t he
,
“
,

”
common term islan d tho u gh applicable to Ice
“
,

lan d and all barre n islands does n o t e m brace them

,
.

17 There a r e fo ur k i n ds ofp ure cate goric al pro

.

positio n s disti n g uished by the symbols A E I 0

, , , , , .

U n iversal a f fi r m ati v e A , .

U n i v ersal n egat ive E , .

P artic ular a ffirm ati v e I , .

P artic ular n egativ e 0 , .

18 The c o n n exio n betwe en the extremes of a

.

p r opos iti on is Necessa ry I m p ossible or C o n ti n ge n t

, , .

19 To dete r mi n e whether an i n de fi n ite prop o

.

sit ion sh o ul d be v i e wed as pa r tic ular or un iversal ,

we m ust lo o k to the con n e x ion betwee n the ex

tremes i e we m u st con sid e r of t h e s ubj ect an d
. .

predicate whethe r they n ecessa r ily a gr ee or n e

, ,

cessa ril disa r ee o r m a o r m a n ot a r ee Th e

y g , y y , g .

n at ure of the co n n exio n bet wee n the extrem e s is

called the m a t t er o ft h e proposition I n n ecessar y .

and in impossible matter an i n d e fi n ite is un derstoo d

,

as a un i v e rs al ; as , B i r ds have wi n gs i e a ll . . .

B irds are n ot q u adr upeds i e n on e I n con . . .

ti n ge n t m atter i e where t h e terms sometim e s

, . .

agree an d so m eti m es n ot an i n de fi n ite i s un d e r

,

stoo d as a partic ular ; as F o o d is n ecessary to

,
10 D I S T R I BU T I O N O F T E R M S , BT C .

life i . e . s om e kin d offood .

“
B irds si n g i . e.

“
som e birds si g B irds are n ot carn i v oro u s i e
n . . .

s om e bi r ds are n ot o r all are n o t , , .

20 The r ules for distrib u ti on are these

.

l st A ll un ivers al propositio n s an d n o partic ular

.
, ,

distrib u t e the su bj ec t .

2 n d A ll n egative a n d n o a f
. fi rmati v e the predi, ,

c at e H
r

T h e lea r n e r h ould ob se rv e th a t t h e te rm in q ue sti on is

s

a t hin
g n e c essa r
y t o lif e
”
a n d n o t c on c l u de
,
from t he ,
”
wo r d ne c e s sa ry th a t t h e c on ne i on b e twee n t he te r m s
, x
”
of od a n d n ec ess a ry t o life is a n e c essa ry c onne i on x .

I t is con t ingent b e c au se it happ ens th at th e re a re k i n ds o f

fo od which are n ot n ec e ssa ry t o l ife ; as it ha pp en s th a t
th e re are b irds which do n ot s i n g a n d b irds which a r e c a r ,

n i o rou s
v Wh e re as it c a nn t hap p en th a t a n y crea tu re
. o

w ith ou t w i n g s o r th a t a n y q u a dru p e d s h oul d b e a b ird

, ,
.

I t is ne cess a ry th a t a crea ture sh ould h ave wi n g s t o c on

s t it u t e i t a b ir d a n d i m o s s ib le f o r a q u adr u p ed t o b e
p,

o ne .

Th us t h e di stri b u ti on or n on di stri b u ti on oft h e subj ec t

-

o fe v e ry pr o p os iti on de pe n ds on it s q u n t it y ; t h e dist rib u a

ti on o r n on di s tri b u ti on of t h e predic a te on it s q u a lit y :

-
,

a n d no te fu rth e r th a t i f in an af, fi rm ativ e prop o siti on t h e

, ,

wh ole of t h e pre dic a te sh ou ld a g re e w ith t h e su bj e ct t h e cir ,

c um st a n c e is a cciden t a l an d n o t im p lie d in th e f rm f ex
,
o o

r
p ess ion I t e
n h
. pr o p os iti on s
“
A ll m en a re ra ti on al a n i
,

m al s ” a n d “All m e n a re a n i m a ls t h e fo r m o f e pr e ssi on
"
,
x
,

is t h e sa m e ; b u t in t h e o n e i ns ta n c e i t so h a pp ens th a t , ,

t h e wh ole o ft h e pr e dic a te a g r ees with t h e su bj e ct which is ,

12 O F T H E O PP O S I T I O N 0F PROPO SITI ON S .

“ ” “ ”
23
The si gn s n o and n on e imp ly both
.

u nivers al ity an d n egatio n

; th ey a r e con t radictory ,

therefore to the p a r t ic u la r sign with an afi r m a t ive

,

cop ula W e cann ot co n tradict

. some a r e by ,
”

“
al l ar e n ot E G S om e mo n archs a r e t y
. .

ran ts All mon a r chs a re n ot tyr an ts —which are

“ ” ”
, ,

s ubco n trary propositio n s p e r fectly compatible an d , ,

both par t ic ular .

24 O f s ub al tern propositio n s the un i v ersal is

.
,

c alled su b a lt er n a n s t h e pa r tic ula r su b a lt er n a t e

, , .

25 . In fi
n ec es sa r
y m a t t er , a ll a r ma l ives a re

”
t r ue ( as , Al l islan ds are s urro un ded by water
, ,

S om e islan ds a r e s urro un ded by

a n d n e a t iv es fa lse as N O islan ds are s u r
“
g ( , ,

”
r o u n d e d by wate r S om e islan ds are n ot sur
,

ro un d e d by I n imp oss ib le m a t t er a ll n e ,

”
g a t iv es a r e t r ue
( as N0 trian gles a r e sq u are s
, , ,

s am e th i n g ; 4 t h ex i sti n g at t h e sa m e ti m e B y om itti n g
, .

on e of th e se c on diti on s is a n d is n ot m ay b e c o m p a ti b le
,
.

E G Th e c a rc ass o f a m an is a n d is n t a m a n ; for it is
. . o

a dea d m an it is n ot a l ivi n g one

.
,
2 n d " oi lus is an d is . .

n ot b lac k ; fo r h is fa c e is b la c k a n d h is h a ir is n ot b l a c k , ,

b u t re d 3 rd S o cr a te s h as a n d h a s n ot a ful l h e a d o f h a ir ;
. .

for h e ha s if c om p a re d with S cipi o h e h a s n ot i f c om p a red

, , ,

with X e n oph o n 4 t h N esto r is a n d is n ot ol d ; fo r h e is

. .
,

i f y ou sp ea k of h is thi r d age he is n ot i f y ou sp e a k of h is , ,

fir s t .
 o r T HE O PP O S I T I O N o r P B O P O S IT I O N S . 13

S ome trian gles are n ot a nd a

fi
“
r m a l ives

fa lse ( as Al l trian gles are sq uares

,
“
,
”
S o me t r i
,

”
an gles are sq u are s ) I n con t ing en t m a t t er a ll ,

u n ivers a ls a r e fa lse ( as
“ ”
, A ll islan ds are fertile
, ,

“
No isl ands are a n d a r t ic u la r s t r u e
p ( as , ,

”
S ome islan ds are ferti le S ome islands are n ot
,

26 . Inco n ti n ge n t matter co n traries are b ot h

,

fa lse b ut n ever b ot h t rue s ubco n traries b ot h t r ue

, ,

b ut never bo t h fa lse ; co n tradictories always on e ,

t r u e an d t he ot her fa lse .
14 OF T HE O PP O S I T I O N O F P R O P O S I T I O N S .

a3 <13 a:
.

8
53 33 9 :
3
‘
E
u 5

—
S
.

3 0 O
.

1 H
'
fim u v n b
m

[I i
su m j e
fq s n

ex 33
3
m m $ %
5S
o
'
g
s

5
5 3
>

S
g
0
.

3
0 E ‘
5
w
'

2
a:
*3 LE
?

fi gy mm b
m

< 5 sw
mq n
s 4
.
.

Q 5 3 0

m Q)
0 0

D
3
0 ‘
:2: :5 v
s
a s :3
“
E
3 j
i w s a
:3 5: s
G) O s
2 C24 c
8 o
0

Th e tr uth orfals ity O f prop ositi on s is h ere se en t o de

p en d on t he m a tt e r See N o 19
. P r op ositi on s m ay b e
. .
 C O N V E R S I O N O F P R O P O SI T I O N S
U

. lo

28 . s ub al te r n s the tr u th ofthe partic ular or

In , ,

su b a lt er na t e follows from the tr u th of the

,

un i v ersal or s u b a lt er n a n s
,
and the fal sity
of the un iversal fr om the fal sity of the partic ular * .

The O ppositio n betwee n co n tradictories is so perfe ct ,

si n ce they di f fe r both in q u an tity an d q u al ity see

( ,

No . that if an y propo sit ion is tr u e we may b e ,

s ure its co n tradictory is fal se if fal se its con t radic ,

t ory tr ue &c , .

C ON V E R S I O N O F P R O P O S I T I O N S .

2 9 A propositi on is said to be c on ver t ed whe n

.
,

the s ubj ect a n d pred icate are m ade to exchan ge

”
p laces as N 0 t r ian gles are squ are s N Q sq u ares
,
“
,
“
,

a r e t r ian gle s
’7

The u se O f co n versio n is t o give a

.

r eady i n sight i n to what may be i n ferred from an

other propositio n th at diHers fro m the on e before,

u s by the te r ms bei n g t r an sposed

, This chan ge in .

t h e position of the te r ms may be co m bi n ed with

that O f the q u an tity or q ual ity or both or n either , , , ,

fram ed in A E l O on t h e followi ng sub j ects an d adapte d

, , , , ,

t o t h e sch e m e b y w ay o f e em p l ifi c a t ion x .

N Th a t i sla n ds s h o ul d b e s u rro un de d b y wa te r
. .

I Th a t tri an gl es sh ou ld b e sq u ares
. .

C Th a t i slan ds a re fe rti le
. .

4 '
I f a ll i slan ds are su rroun ded b y wa te r it is p lai n th a t ,

s om e m u s t b e so If th a t a n y on e tri an gle is a squ a re b e

.

fal s e it m us t b e fal se t o say t h at a ll are so

, .
 16 C ON V E R S I O N O F P R O P O SI T I O N S .

as the case may b e B y co n versio n a faci lity is

.
,

lik ewise afford ed in e f fe cti n g the r e d uc t ion of sy llo

gisms a process that wi ll prese n tly be exp lained

, .

3 0 Th e abo ve 1 8 an i n stan ce of s imp le con ver

.

s ion t h e s ubj ec t an d predic ate bei n g m e rely tran s

p o se d ; b ut as th is can be don e on ly wh en t h e
terms of a propo sitio n are O f ex a c t ly t he sa m e ex
t e n t t wo other methods are in u se which e n able
, ,

u s to co n vert co n siste n tly with tr u th every propo

, ,

sitio u whatever viz l s t the lim ita tion of the pre

. .

dicat e o fthe Ex p o sit a ( or p r op ositio n given ) fr om

, ,

univers al to p ar t ic ular which is called con versio n

,

er A cc idens or by L imita t io n ; an d 2 n dly t h e add

p , ,

in g n ot t o the p r e dicate O f the ex p osit a and then ,

den yin g it s agr eem en t wi th t h e s ubj e ct which is ,

calle d con version by Negatio n or C o n tra position -

.

B u t in the case of O ( the partic ular n egati v e ) con

, ,

version by n egatio n is eflect e d by j oi n i n g the n ega

‘

tive p ait icle o f the c op ula t o t h e pre dicate of the

ex osit a an d the n tran spos in g the terms as if the
p , ,

proposition h ad bee n I .

3 1 N 0 con versio n is employed for any logical

.

p u rpose un less it be illa t ive i e when t he t r u t h

, . .

e con ver se is im lied by the tru th of the ex

o
f t h p
posita ( No . .

3 2 C o n versio n is then o nly ill ative whe n n o

.
,
 C ON V E R S I ON O F P R O P O S I T I O N S . 17

t er m is dis t r ib u t ed in t he con ver s e, w hic h wa s n ot

dis t r ib u t ed in t he p os it a
ex else , y ou wo uld em
pl oy a te rm u n ivers a ll in the c o n verse which , in
y ,

the ex p osit a was u sed o n ly p a r t ia lly ( F or dis

, .

”
trib u ted see No .

33 The fo llo wi n g examp les wi ll shew how e very

.

proposition ( A E I may be illati v ely con

, , ,

v e r ted by some on e o f the th r ee methods abov e

,

me n tio n ed z—v iz 1 st sim ply ; 2 n d p er a c ciden s

.
, , ,

or by li m itatio n 3 rd by n egati on or c on t rap osi ,

tio n E I simp ly ; for E distrib u te s both terms

.
, , ,

( NO 1 6 . an d I n e ithe r ( N o 1 6
, they
, .
,

are there fo r e o f exactly t he same e xten t ( N O

, , .

an d simp ly co n ve r tible .

( E ) N 0 t rian gle s a r e sq u ares ; th e refo r e

NO sq u a r es are trian gle s .

( I ) S ome islan ds are fe r tile p laces ; the r efore

S o m e fertile plac e s a r e islan ds .

E A p er a cc iden s or by li m itati on ; E beca u se

, , , ,

the p r edicate bei n g distr ib u ted as well as the sub

j e ct a n d ad m itti n g therefore O f the sign of un i
, , ,

v er sal it as is shew n by simp le c on v ersio n ) it

y ( , ,

m u st as a u n iversal i n clu d e the par tic ula r

, , .

( E ) N0 tr ian gles are sq u ares ; the r efore

S ome sq uares are not trian gles .

C
 18 C ON V E R S I ON O F P R O P O S I T I O N S .

( which foll ows fr om the t r u th of the simple con

verse ) A is con v erted p er a c c iden s or by limi
.
,
~

t at ion becau se si n ce it do e s n ot distrib u te the pre

,

dicat e ( N O that p r edicate will n ot admit O f a

.

u n iversal sig n an d the r efore req ui r es a partic ular

,

on e .

( A ) A ll birds are an imal s ; therefore

S ome an i m al s are birds .

Y ou co uld n ot say “ All an im al s are birds

"
.
,

A O by n egatio n ; A b e ca u se the s ubj ect

, , ,

agrees un ive r sally with the pre dicate ; so that what

disagrees with t h e p r edicate can n ot agre e with the
s ubj ect * .

( A ) A ll birds are an imals ; the r e fo re

What are n ot an im al s are n o t birds .

0 beca us e si n ce yo u co n sider i t as I n either te r m

, , ,

i s distrib u ted an d t h e process is that O f simp le

,

con v ersio n .

C op .

)(0
S ome is la n ds l a r e n ot l fertile p laces ; ( fi rst
state this as I by j oi n i n g the n egati v e to the pre
,

I t is t h e sam e thi n g t o afi irm som e a ttri b u te oft h e sub

‘

“ ll b ds a e
j ec t a d t o
,
n d y t h a b se
en n c e o f ive
; th u s A
( ) A ir r

” ”
a n i m al s is e q u ip l len t t o ( E)
, o N o b irds a re n t an i al s
m o ~
,

which is o f c ou r s i m p l y c o ve rti b le
se Wh a t are n t
n o

”
a n i m al s a re n ot b ir ds
, .
20 OF S YLL O GI S M S .

term distri b uted ( No whether a ffi rmatively

, .

or n egati v ely may be predicated in lik e m ann er of

,

”
every thi n g co n tai n ed u n der it I n the example .

at NO 4 X is p r edicated of Y distrib uted and "

.
, ,

is co n tai n ed un de r Y ( i e is its s ubj ect ; ) X is

, . .
,

therefore tr ul y predic ated of"

,
.

36 There are t wo can on s of p ure categoric al

.

syllogisms ; 1st Two t erm s t ha t agr ee wit h one a n d

,

t he sa m e t h ir d ag r ee wit h e a c h ot her ; 2 n d Two

, ,

rees a n d a not he r disagr ees

t er m s, f
o which on e a
g
wit h on e a n d t he sa me t hir d, disag r ee w it h one a n

ot her . the former O f these can on s rests the

On va

r m a t ive co n clu sio n s ; on the latter of

lidit y of a
fi ,

ne a t ive
g .

37 .There are SIX r ule s for ascertai n i n g whether

the canon s have been strictly observed or n ot .

R ul e l st E very sy llog ism ha s t hr ee a n d on ly

.
,

t hr ee t er m s
,
viz the middl e term an d the two
.
,

terms of the co n clu sio n or q uestion * The s ub , .

ec t o f t h e conclu sio n is call ed t h e m in or t er m ; 1

j
~

its p r edica t e the m aj or t er m ; and the middle

,

Th ese a re c om monly c al le d E xt remes .

1 B e c au se gen er ally of less t t th an

e x en t he ma j or an d
m i ddle te rm s .
 YLL O GI S MS 21
p
r S .

term is that with which each of themis separately

c ompare d in o r der to j udge o f their agreemen t or
,

disagre emen t with each o t her * .

R ule 2 n d E very sy llog ism ha s t hr ee a n d on ly

.
,

t hr ee p r op os it ion s ; viz t h e m aj or p r em iss in

,
.
,

which t h e m aj or t er m is compared with the m iddle ;

the min or p r em iss in which the m in or t er m is com
,

p ared with t h e m iddle ; an d t h e co n c lus i o n in ,

which the m in or t er m is compar ed with the m aj or .

R ule 3rd The m iddle t er m m u st n ot b e a m bi

.

guou sfi which is t h e case wh en e v er it is equ ivoc a l

L
,

or u n dis t r ib u t ed A n eq ui v ocal te r m is u sed in

.

di ffere n t s en s e s I n t h e two premis e s ; E G . .

S ag e is a p la n t ;

A phi losophe r is sage ; the r efore

”
A ph ilosopher I s a p lan t .

I f a te r m h e un distrib uted as i t then sta n ds for ,

a p a r t o nly O f its sign ifi cat e s it may happe n that ,

on e O f the e xtremes m a hav e b e e n compa r ed with

y
on e part ofit an d the oth er with an other part : E G
, . .

I f th e r we r e t wo m i ddle t e r m s t h e e tre m s n ot b e i n g
e ,
x e

b oth c om p r d with t he s m e c ou ld no t b e c o c lu s iv e ly
a e a , n

c om p ared wi th ea ch oth e r .

If t h e m i ddle t e r m i am b i gu ou s th e r e r i real ity

s ,
a e, n ,

t w m i ddle t e r m s i s nse th ou g h b u t o n e in s u n d
o n e ,
o .
22 or S YLL O GI S M S ’
.

A pples are fr uit ;

C he rr ies ar e fr u it ; therefore
”
C herries are apples .

The m iddle t er m, t her efor e, m u st b e dis t rib u t ed

o n ce, a t lea st , in
the premises ; i e by bei n g th e . .

s ubj ect of a un i v e r sal or predicate of a n egative

, .

R ule 4 t h N o t er m m us t b e dis t r ib u t ed in t he
.

c on c lu sio n , which w a s n ot f
dis t r ib u t ed in on e o

t h e p r em ises ; becau se y ou wo uld the n emp loy the

whole O f a term in the c on blusion when y ou had ,

'

employed o nly a part of it i n the p r emiss ; an d

th u s in re al ity i n t r od uce a fo u r th t e r m The v io
, , .

lation o fthi s fo u r th r ule i s c alle d a n illic it p r ocess

O f the maj or or mi n or term ; E . G .

A llapp les a r e fr uit ;

C herries are n ot apple s ; th erefore
”
They are n ot fr uit Illicit pro c e ss ofthe maj or
. .

A ll beasts ofprey ar e carn ivoro u s ;

( A ll beasts o f pr ey are a n i m al s ; the r e fo re

A ll an imals ar e c arn ivo r o u s I llicit process O fthe

"
.

mi n or .

Thi s is A an d n a fli rm at i v es di s tri b ute t h e pre dic a te

,
o .

Th e c on cl u si on is E a n d all n ega tiv es do di stri b ute t h e

,

p redi c ate .

4
} Thi s al so is A a n d do,e s n ot di s tri b u te t h e pr e di c a t e .
 O F SYLL O GI S M S . 23

R ule 5t h . F r om n e a t ive
g p r em ises
y ou c a n infer
n ot h in
g ; for in
them the midd le te rm is pro
n oun ced t o dis a ree w it h b o t h ex t r em es n ot to
g ,

a r ee w it h b ot h or to agree wit h o n e an d disa r ee

g ,
g
with the other : th erefore they cann ot be compared
together ; E G . .

A fi sh is n o t a q u adr uped
A bi r d is n ot a pro ves n othi n g .

Rule 6 t h If on e p r em iss b e n eg a t ive t he con

.
,

e lu sion m u s t b e n e a t iv e ; fo r in that p r emiss the

g
middle te r m is pro n o un ced to disagre e with on e of .

the ext r em e s an d in the othe r premiss ( which

, ,

m u st b e a ffir mati v e by the precedi n g r ule ) t o agre e ,

with t h e o ther e x t rem e ; th ere fo r e the e xtre mes ,

d isagre ei n g with e ach other t h e con clu sion is n e ga

,

tiv e T o p r ove a n
. egative con clu sio n on e of t h e ,

premise s m u st be n e gati v e } s

an i m als ” T h e con clu s i on

. a ga n i is A , a nd does di stri b u te
”
t h e s ubj ct
e
“
a n i m al s
, .

9"
In rde r t o sh ew t h e di sa greem e n t b e twee n t h e t e rm s
o
”
fi sh an d b ir d y ou m u s t ch o ose a m i ddl e te r m th a t
,

a gr ees with o n e o f th e m E G . A fe a th e red crea tu re is

. .

”
n ot a fi sh a b ir d is a fe a th e r e d cre a t u r e ; th e re fo re & c , .

Or ,
N o an im a l th a t i n h ab it s t h e wa te r is a b ir d ; a fi sh is
”
a n a n i m al th a t i n h a b its t h e wa te r ; th e r e fo re &c , .

f T o pr ove th a t t h e sun is n ot a p lan e t y ou m u st n ot ,

24 O F S YLL O GI S M S .

38 . F rom these r ul es i t is evide n t fi rst that * , ,

n o t h in
g ca n b e p r oved fr om t wo p a r t ic u la r
p re

m is es s eco n dly 1 that on e of t h e p r em ises

an d ,
~

b e p a r t ic u la r t he c on c lu sion m us t b e p a r t ic u la r 1
, .

”
ta ke for a m i ddle te rm sph e re which ag rees with b oth , ,

b u t a m i ddle t e r m th a t di sa g r ee s e ith e r w ith “ su n ” or

p lan e t ” E G . E ve ry p l an e t descri b e s an o r b it ; t h e
. .

s u n do e s n ot desc ri b e an o rb it ; th e re fo re i t is n ot a l an et
”
p .

Or , T h e su n 1 3 a fi e d s ta r a p la n e t is n ot a fi e d s ta r ;
x x

th e re fore it is n ot t h e su n ” .

i th en h a ve eith er t h e m i ddle te rm u n dist ri

Y o u w ll
b u t e d o r a n i ll icit pr o c e ss
, E G S om e a n i m al s are sa
. . .

g a ciou s ; som e b ea st s a re sa ga ci ou s ; th e re fo re so m e b eas ts ,

are a n i m al s
” U n di s tri b u t e d m i ddle
. Thi s co n cl us i on is .

tr ue b u t does n o t follow from t h e pre m i ses T h e a rg um en t

,
.

is o f t h e sa m e c o n stru ct i o n a s t h e fo ll win g a b su rdity : o

S om e a n i m als a re b la c k ; som e h a t s a re b l a c k th e re fore ,

”
so m e h a ts a re a i n m l
a s A ga i n S ome an i m a ls are saga
.
,

ci ons som e b ea sts a re n ot saga ci ou s ; th e r e fore som e ,

b ea st s a re n ot a n i m al s ”
He re is a n i llicit pr o c e ss o f t h e
.

m aj o r S om e c a rn ivo rous crea tu re s a re tam e ; som e b eas ts

.

a r e n ot ta m e ; th ere fo re n o b ea st s a re c a r n ivo ro u s cre a

,

t u res ”
.Thi s ex hi b its a n i llicit proc e ss o f b oth t h e m aj or
an d m i n o r te r m .

f E . G . fi g ht b ravely dese rve reward ; so m e

All wh o
so ldi e rs fi g ht b ra v ely th e ref r e som e s ldi e rs dese rve re o ,
o ~

wa rd ” I f y ou we re t
. i n fe r A ll sol di rs de e rve & c
o
”
, e s , .

th e re wo ld b e an i llicit proc e ss o ft h e m i o r
u n .

1 T h e f l l w i n g m o
e m ic
o l i es fr m A l drich m ay as
n on n ,
o ,

si s t t h e s tu den t in a pp lyi g the se rul es a n d r em a r k s ; n

 O F S YLL O GI S M S . 25

39 . i v ersal pre mis e s y ou can n ot always

F rom un

i n fe r a un iversal co n clu sio n ; E G All gold is . .

pr ecio u s ; all gold i s a m i n eral ; therefore some

”
min eral is precio u s B u t whe n y o u c a n i n fer a
.

un i v ers al
y ou a r e always a t lib er t y to i n fe r a par
,

t icular .

OE MO O D S .

40 The mood O f a sy llogis m is the design ation

.

of it acco r di n g t o the q u a n tity an d

(NO qua .

lit y ( No l l ) o f e ach o f its three propositi on s

. .
,

which a r e de n oted by t h e v o wels A E I O ( No , , , ,

.

The r e are on ly ele v e n m oods admissible as ,

co n fo rm i n g to the r ules laid do wn at N o 3 7 S ee .

N o 44 , b elow
. .

FI G U R E S
OF .

41 . The fi gure ofa syllogism i n dicates the situ

D i stri b u a s m e di u m ( R ule nec qu a rtus te r m i nu s a ds it ;
( R ul e 1 8t
U t raq ue ne c p ree m issa ne g a n s ( Ru le ne c p ar t ic ula ris ;
(No .

S ec t e t u rp a rt e m C on cl u si o de te ri o rem ; ( R ul e Ne .

E t non dis t rib u a t n i s i c u m p r aem iss a n eg e t v e ( R ule 4 8

, , . t

L ogi ci an s h a ve a tta ch e d t o u n iv e rsa l prop ositi on s an

i m a g i na ry sup e ri o rity ove r p a rtic ul a rs a n d t o a fli rm a t iv es
,

a s i m i la r s up eri o rity o v e r ne a tiv es Hen c e t h e ex pressi on

g .

p a rs de t erior ” m ea n i ng a p a rtic ula r or a n ega tive propo

,

s iti ou .
26 OF S YLL O GI S M S .

ation O f the midd le te r m with regar d to the ex ‘

tremes oft h e co n clu sio n or m aj or a n d m in or t er m , .

( N O 3 7 R ule 1 an d Note ) Th e r e are fo ur fi

.
, , .

g ures * I n the fi rst t h e middl e te r m is m ade t he

.
,

s u b ec t o
j f t he m aj or p r em iss a n d t he p r edic a t e of ,

t he m in or : in the seco n d the middle term is the ,

p r edic a t e of b ot h p r em ises : in the thi r d t he su b ,

j e t o fb o th : in t h e fo u rth it is t he p redic a t e of
c ,

t he m aj or f
r em iss , a n d
he m in or t he su b ec t o
p j t .

4 2 Th e maj o r p remiss O f a syllo gi s m l s u s ually

.

p laced fi rst al t h ou gh O f co urse the val idity of the

, , ,

a r gumen t is n ot affected by t he o r der O f th e two

43 . E ach bf the moo ds allu ded to

No 4 0 as in .
,

admissible will n ot b e so in every fi g u r e ; S in ce

, ,

fr om the diflieren t pos itio n of the middle te rm it ,

m ay violate som e Of the fo r e goi n g rules in one

fi g u r e tho u gh n ot in an oth er +
, .

T he fi r st fi gu re is t h e m ost at ural a n d c lea r a d is at n ,

n

on c e ope t h e a ppl ic a ti n f A ri s to tle di ctu m

’
t n o o o s .

T he l s t is in al l re p ct s t h e v e ry r e v e r se f t h e fi r t
a , s e ,
o s .

f I A 1 f r i n t a c e is a ll wa b l e in t h e thir d fi gu r e ;
, , ,
o s n ,
o

b eca se in tha t fi g re t h e m i ddle te r m is m ade t h e subj e ct

u , u ,

O f b o th t h e m j o r a d m i n r pr e m i s ( N
a n oI t i th er e s . O. s,

f re r egu la ly di stri b u te d in t h e m i n r pr p siti n A ( No

o , r o o o o ,
.

a n d a s n eit he r t e r m is di s t ri b u te d in t h e c on c l u s i on I ,
28 or SYLL O GI S MS .

i s fo un d in all the e ach sep ar ate occu rrence

is rec koned a s a new mood F rom this recurrence .

of the s am e symbols in di f
ferent fi gures there ar e ,

reckoned nineteen moods .

E very sensu a l i st is a fool

A .

E N o true ph ilosopher is a fool ; therefore

.

E N o true ph ilosopher i a sensu al ist

. s .

A g in A A A i allow ble in the fi rst fi gure ;

a , , , ,
s a

A A ll w ic k e d m
. a re m iser ble ; en a

A A ll tyra nts a r w ic k e d m e ; therefore

. e n

A A ll tyra nts a e m isera ble

. r .

B ut i the th ir d fi gure it woul d h av e a ill ic it process

, n ,
n

o f the m inor ;

A A ll w ic k e d m e n are m isera ble ;

.

A A ll w ic k e d m en a re tyr a nts ; therefore

.

A A ll tyr nts e m isera ble

. a ar .

”
The m inor te rm tyr a nts is n ot d istr ibute d i n the m i
, ,

nor pre m iss ; but i s i n the conclusion ,

.

*
A A A B a rb a r
. A O O F a k oro
a . . .

A A I D ra pti B r m a nt ip E A E C s re C l a rent
. a a
‘

. . e a , e .

A E E C a m est r s C a m n s E A O Fel a pton F sa po

. c ,
e e . .
,
e .

AEO . E [ 0 F erio F estino F ris .

, ,
c o

A I I D rii D a t i
. a , F res ison sz
‘

. .

I A I D is a m is D im a r s O A O Dok a mb
’

.
,
z . . .

A E O is v a l id in the secon d fi gure but useless b e

, , , , ,

c a use it h s a p articul a r conclus ion when you m ig ht d ra w a

a

i r s l one in C a m estr s
u n ve a E G ( A ) E v ery X is Y ( E ) e . . . . . .

N o " is Y S o m e " i s not X Y ou m ight ay N "

.
. s ,
o

is X .
( )
A E v ery
. m a n is a s i nner ( E ) N o glorifi e d sp i . .

r it i s a s inner S o m e glor ifi e d sp ir it i s not a m an

.
”
.
 or SYLL O GI S MS . 29

45 The vowels in the four following mnemonic

.

lines are the symbols which denote the q u antity

a n d q u al ity o f the propositions Th e conson ants .

serve to keep in mind the fi gure of the syllogism .

F ig . 1 B a rb a ra ,
. C el a rent D a r ii F erioque p riori s
, ,

F ig . 2 . C es a r e ,
C a m estres F estin o F a koro se , , ,

c un dae

F ig Ter t i a D a ra pti D is a m is D a t is i F el a p ton

. 3 .
, , , , ,

D oka m o F eris o h abet q u arta insuper a ddit

, ,

F ig 4 B ra m a nt ip C a m en es D im a ris Fes a p o
. .
, , , ,

F res is on .

46 . I t will assist the experiment ofsyllogisms in

the different moods if the let t ers X Y " , , , , are

used as represent atives of the di fferent terms . Le t

X be the m aj or Y the middle " the minor , ,
.

S C H E ME .

1 8 2 F ig 4 ih F ig
‘

F
ii
. .

Y X , . X , , Y X , , X Y1
Z Y , , z , Y , Y , z , Y , z ,

Z X , , Z X , , Z X , , ", X 0

Y ou might say “ N o glorifie d sp irit ” & c The s am e m ay

, , .

be re m ark e d of A A I an d E A O in the fi rst fi gu re a nd

, , , , , , ,

of E A O in the secon d a well a s of A E O in t h e

, , , , s , , ,

fourth S ee N o 39 These fi v e m o ods be ing u seless are

. . .
, ,

witho ut n am es .
30 or SYLL O GI S MS .

By pplying the moods B a r b a r a C ela r en t 830

a , , .

to the term s thus desig na ted by the letters X Y Z , , ,

you m ay construct a short syllogism in every 6

gure an d perceive how its v al idity is derived from
,

an a ccord ance with the six rules l aid down ab ov e n

No 37.

Thus B a rba ra in wh ich al l the propos i tions are un i

,

vers al an d affi rm a ti ve as the three A s d enote

,
’
.

Ba r E v ery Y is X ;
-ba E v ery Z is Y ;
-ra E very Z is X ”
. .

C el a rent in wh ich the m aj or is un iv ers al a nd negati ve

, ,

the m inor u n iv ers a l a n d aflirmat i e a n d the conclusi on

v
,

un i versa l an d negati ve .

Cc “
N o Y is X ;
-1a E v ery Z is Y ;
-
ren t N o Z X
. is
” .

D a rii in wh ich the m aj or is un iv ers al an d a ffi rm a tiv e

, ,

the m inor p a rticul a r an d a flirm at iv e an d the conclus ion

‘
,

the s am e .

Da “
E v ery Y i s X ;
S om e Z is Y
S o m e Z is X ”
.

F erio i n wh ich the maj or is un iv ers a l an d nega tive the

, ,

m inor p a rt icul a r an d a ffi r m a t iv e a n d the conclus ion p a r

,

t ic u l ar a n d nega t iv e .

“
Fe N o Y is X ;
So e Z Y
m is
- 0. S om e Z i not X
s .

A pply the other m oo d s C es a re C a m es tre s &c i n the s am e , .

w ay to the secon d fi gure ; D a ra pti &c to the th ir d ; B ra

, .
 or SYLL O GI S MS . 31

E ve ry proposition m ay be proved in the

47 3*

fi rst fi gure an d al l the moods in the three other

,

fi gures reduced to it S ee N o 53 e t seq below . . . .

4 8 F our syllogisms exemplifying on e mood in

.
,

e ach fi gure ar e subj oined ,

.

m a n t ip, to the fou rt h ; c a refully re m e m be ring the

&c .

force of the sym bols A E I O ( N o The pos it ion of , , , , .

the Letters X Y Z in the sche m e secures the lea rner

, , , ,

a g a i nst an
y m ista k e in pl ac ing the term s of e a ch fi gure .

I t will be seen th a t A or the un iv ersal a ffi rm a t iv e c an , ,

be pro v e d only in the fi rst fi gure ; a s the secon d pro v es

only neg tives ( E E O O ) the th ird only p a rt icul a rs
a , , , , . ,

(I I I O O
, , ,
an d the fourth only p a rt icul a rs or neg a
, ,
~

t i es ( I E I O O )
v .
,
The fi rst fi gure requ ires the m aj or
, , ,
.

pre m iss to be un iv ers al a d the m in or a ffi rm a tiv e ; the , n

for m er i or d er to d istribu te the m idd le term a n d the la t

, n ,

ter to v o id the f ult of neg t iv e pre m ises ( N o 3 7 Rule

,
a a a ,
. .

or to pro d uce a a ffi rm a tiv e conclus ion ( N o 37 R ule

n . . .

The secon d fi gure pro v es only nega tiv es bec use the m idd le ,
a

term be ing the pre d ic a te i both pre m ises woul d not be

, n ,

d istribute d unless one p re m iss were nega ti v e ( N o 2 0 R ule

, , . .

d there fore the conclus ion m ust be neg t iv e ( N o 3 7

an a . . .

R ule The th ir d pro v es only p a rti cul rs bec a use the a ,

m i dd le ter m be ing a lw a ys the subj ect in the m inor propo

s iti ou a d th t m inor propos iti on be ing a lw ys a ffi rm a tiv e
, n a a ,

the m inor term a the pre d ic te of a a ffi rm a ti v e c a nnot

, s a n ,

be d istribute d i it s pre m iss an d therefore c a nnot be di

n ,
s

tribute d i n the conclus ion .

32 or SYLL O GI S MS .

B a rb a ra . F ig 1 .

T E R MS .

M aj or ( X ) O ne who deserves punishment .

M inor ( Z ) E very bl asphemous writer .

M iddle ( Y ) E very on e who inj ures the public

morals .

B ar E very Y is X ; Al l wh o inj ure the public

m oral s deserve punishment ;

b a E very Z is Y ; A ll bl a sphemous writers in
-

j ure the public morals therefore

ra
-
E very Z is X ; All bl asphemous writers de
.

serve punishment * .

The regul a r e x pression of the copul a is a nd is n t m ay ,

o ,

a l ways be preserv e d i f we d isreg a r d the clu m s iness of th e

,

l a ngu a ge ; thus the syllogis m a bo v e m ay be sta te d a s fol

,

l ows
B a r All who inj ure the pu b l i c m oral s a r e persons dese rv
in g of pun ish m ent ;
ba A ll bl a sphe m ous wr iters a r persons wh o inj ure the
e

publ ic m ora ls ; therefore

~ ra .A ll bl asphe m ous wr iters a r e persons d eserv i ng of pun
is ll m en t .

P up il s h oul d b e able to sta te a propos i ti on re adily i n th is

s

s tr ict form .
 or SYLL O GI S MS . 33

49 . C a m e st re s . F ig 2 . .

T E R MS .

Maj or ( X ) Wh at is truly sa tisfactory .

M inor ( Z ) G uilty pl easures .

M iddle ( Y ) Wh at is un attended with remorse .

E very X 1 8 Y; Wh a tever is truly sat isfac

to ry is un attended with remorse ;
N 0 Z is Y; N o gu i lty ple asures are un a t
tended with remorse ; therefore
-
tres . N0 " is X . N o guilty ple asures are truly
s ati sfa ctory .

50 D a ra p t c
’

. . F ig . 3 .

T E RMS .

M aj or ( X ) Wh at is entitled t o respect .

M inor ( Z ) Wh a t i s often ridiculed .

M iddle ( Y ) True piety .

Da E very Y is X ; True piety is entitled to re

spect ;
~
ra
p E very Y is Z ; True piety l s often ridi
ouled ; there fore
- ti . S ome Z is X S omething often ridiculed
.

is entitled to respect .

D
34 RE DU CT I O N or S YLL O GI S MS .

5l . C a m en e s .

T E R MS .

Maj or ( X ) A useful study .

M inor ( Z ) Wh at is inj urious to the moral s .

M iddle ( Y ) Wh a t is worthy of encourag ement .

C am E very X is Y; All useful studies are worthy

of encouragement ;
-
eu No Y is Z Nothing worthy ofencourage
~

ment is inj uri ons to the morals ; t herefore

-es . N 0 Z is X Wh a t is inj urious to the mo
.

ral s is n ot a use ful study * .

52 Th e four moods o f th e fi rst fi gure are c al led

.

fee t ; all the rest imp erfec t When a syllogism

, .

in on e of the imperfect m oods is r e st ated an d -

,

brought into the fi rst fi gure it is s aid to be r edu c ed

, .

O ST E N S IV E RE D U CT I O N .

53 reducing a syllogism it is al lowable to

. In ,

convert the premises ill atively ( No or to , .

transpose them Thi s liberty renders it alw ays

.

possible to deduce in the fi rst fi gure either the very

, ,

s ame conclusion as the n al on e o r another , ,

from which the origi n a l du cib le by ill ative

conversion .

The m etho d of st a te m ent in th is fi gure i s so clu m sy

an d in v e rte d th a t it is sel d o m or ne v er use d
,
Th e propo .
36 RED U CT I ON or SYLL O GI S MS .

56 A few ex amples of reduction m ay su ffi ce :

.

C a m est r es is reduced to C ela r en t as the initi al let ,

ter directs by simply converting the minor ( as

, ,

i s denoted by the s in es ) an d then transposing ,

the premises ( as is indic ated by the m in C a m )

, .

The conclusion o f the reduced syllogism is the

simple converse of t h e conclusion of the original
on e .

C A ME S T R E S . S ee N o 49 . .

C E L A RE NT
Re duced t o .

Cc Wh a t is un a ttended wi th remorse is not a

guilty ple asure ;
la
-
Wh a tever is truly satisfac tory is un attended
with remorse ; therefore
rent Wh a tever is tr uly s ati sfa ctory is not a guilty
-
.

pleasure .

57 . F a kor o
is reduced to Fer io by converting
the m aj or by nega tion ( No an d considering
, .

c ess a r I ts o bj ect i s to show th a t an absur d ity

y t o exp lain .
,

woul d follow from

suppos ing the origin l conclus ion to be a

fa lse When th is m o d e of re d uct ion is a d opte d F k r o

.
, a o

a n d D ka m o a r e c all ed B a oh a n d B oke r do K be ing then

o r o ,

t he s ign of the R ed c t io a d imp oss ib ile

u B ut con v ers ion .

by negati on i s by far the e as ier a nd m ore e x pe d itious

pro cess .
 RE D U C T I O N O F SYLL O GI S MS ~
. 37

the minor premiss affirm ative i e atta ching the . .

nega tive to t h e p redica te inste a d of the copul a .

( NO .

FAKO RO .

Redu c ed t o F E R I O .

F ak E very sincere C hristi a n is ch a ritable

0 S ome professors of religion are not ch arit
able ; therefore

-ro S ome professors of religion are n ot sincere

.

C hristi ans .

Fe He who is not ch aritable is - n ot a sincere

C hristi an .

P re dic at e .

S ome professors of religion are I not ch arit -

a ble ; | therefore
-0 . S ome profe ssors of religion are not sincere
C hristi ans * .

or o m ay be cons i d ere d as F est in o an d sta te d a o

F ak ,

c or dingly by pl a c ing a n equ ipollen t nega tiv e P ropos i ti on

,

for the m aj or ( N o 33 N ote ) and vi ewi ng the m inor a s an

, .
, ,

af fi r m a ti v e .

P r edzc a t e .

Pdi t
re ca e

- ti S ome professors of rel igion a re l not ch a rita ble ;

- I
therefore
- no S o m e professors of rel i gio n are not si ncere C h ri stians
. .
38 R E D U C T I ON O F S Y LL O G I S Ms .

The minor premiss is here considered aflirm a

“ ”
tive bec a use you take not ch aritable a s the middle
,
-

term an d c a nnot sep ar ate the negative from it

, ,

without introd ucing a fourth term contrary to No , .

3 7 R ule 1
, .

5 8 D a r a p t i is reduced to Da r ii by convertin g
.

er a c c ide n s ( N O the mino r premiss This

p . .

is denoted by the p in r ap ( N O . .

F es t in o is re duce d to F cr lo by s im ply con v erting the m a

j or ; H e who is not ch a ritable i s n ot a s i ncere C hristia n ”
,

&c .

So D be cons idere d as D isa m s and sta te d

oha m o m ay
‘

z ,

a ccor d ingly by j o in ing the nega tiv e to the pre dic ate ih
,

ste ad of the copul a i n the m aj or an d conclus i on ; e v iew

, .

in g 0 a s I ;
P di t re c a e.

D is S o m e d es ires a re l n ot bl a m ea ble I -

-am A ll d esires are l iab le to e x cess ; therefore

- is . S o m e th ings l i ble t e x cess
a o a re m
l
D is a m isi s re d uce d to Da rii by s imply con v ertin g the
'

m aj or a n d then tr a nspos in g the pre m i ses

, .

D a Al l d es ires a re l i a ble & c , .

-ri S om e th in gs not bl am e a ble & c ; therefore , .

S o m e th i ngs not b l am e able & c as a t N o 59 , . . .

 R E D U C T I ON or SYLL O GI S MS . 39

DA RAPTI . S ee N o 50
. .

Re duc ed t o D A R I I .

Da True piety is enti tled to respect ;

- ri S omet hing O ften ridiculed is true piety ;
therefore
S omething oft en ridiculed is entitled to re
spect .

59 . Doka m o
is reduced to Da r ii by converting
the m aj or by nega tion an d then tr a nsposing the
,

premises .

D O K A MO .

DARI I
Redu ced t o .

D ok S ome desires are n ot bl ame a ble ;

-
am A ll desires a re li able to excess ; therefore
- 0 . S ome things li able to excess are not bl ame
able .

Da All desires are li able t o excess ;

S ome things not bl ame able are desires ; there

i S ome things n ot bl ame able are li able to ex

.

cess .

T his conclusion is the converse by nega tion o f

the origin al one e O convert ed into
, .an d

therefore simply convertible into it ( No

, . .
40 O F MO D A L S YLL O GI S MS .

60 Tho se syllogisms are c all ed M od al th a t con

.
,

sist Of mod al propositions ( No M od al pro . .

positions m ay be considered as pure cat egoric al s ,

an d sta ted a ccordingly F o r this p u rpose you .

,

shoul d a tta ch the mode to on e of the terms ; as ,

”
The wisest m an m ay pos sibly be mi stak en .

C op . P re d .

l The wisest m an l l is l I on e who m ay possibly

be I t i s prob able th at Livy was
prej udiced i. e .

S u bj . C op . P rcd .

”
l“ L ivy " l was l l p rob ab ly prej udiced .
l

61 .When the mode expres ses only the n ec es

s ary impo ssible or contingent connexion of the
, ,

terms you m ay atta ch it to the su bj ec t as Man

, ,

“ ”
i s n ec essa r ily mo r tal i e A ll men are mortal . . .

I t is imp ossib le for a b ad m an to be h appy i e . .

”
“
N o b a d m an c an be h appy .

6 2 I t is O ften however most convenient to af

.
, ,

fi rm simply the agreement or dis agreement of the

“
mode with the dictum or assertion itself ; as I ,

”
am possibly mistak en ,

C op . P ro d .

-
”
l“ T h at I am mi stak en l Tis l l
p oss i b le . l
 O F H Y P O T H E T I C A L SYLL O GI S MS . . 41

I n these c ases the subj ect implies th a t

, an entire
ac t of j udgment h as previously taken pl ace .

O F H Y P O T H E T I C A L SYLL O GI S MS .

63 . A syllo gism is c alled Hypothetic al when ,

i t conta ins one two or three hypothetic al pro

, ,

positions ; E G “
I f he is wise he is h appy ;
. .
,

”
he is wise ; therefore he is h appy O r He who .
,

is wise is h appy ; if he is a philosopher he is wise ;

, ,

”
therefore if he is a philosopher he is h appy O r
, , .
,

I f he is Wise he is h appy ; if he is a philosopher

, ,

he is Wise ; therefore if he is a philosopher he i s

, ,

”
h appy S ee N o 1 3 The hypothetic al syllogism s
. . .

m ost in use are divided into C ondition al an d D is

j unctive E G . . .

C ON D I T I ON AL .

I f m an is fal lible he i s imperfect ,

B ut he is fallible therefore
He is im p erfect .

I S J UN C T I V E
D .

I t is either day or nigh t ;

B u t it is day ; therefore
I t is not night .

64 . I n a h y pothetic al sy llogism the re asoning ,

42 or C OND I T I O N AL SYLL O GI S MS .

turns on the hypothesis an d the conclusion is al ,

w ays c a tegoric al * .

Th e hypothetic al premiss i s c alled the m aj or ,

a n d t h e c a tegoric al o n e the minor , .

O F C O ND I T I ON AL SYLL O G I S MS .

65 . be observed of a condition al propo

I t is to

sitiou th a t it contains two an d only two c a tegoric al

, , ,

proposition s whereof on e results from the other ; th a t

,

from which the other results is c alled t h eA n t e ceden t ;*

th a t which results from it the C onse q uent ( C ou se ,

qu ens ) The connexion between the t wo ( ex

.

pressed by if is c alled the C onse q uence ( con

s e uen t ia
q .
)
C ons eq uen t ia . A d
n t ec e en t . C ons eq u en t .

1 “ If1 is fallib le l l h e
m an , is
66 . The truth or falsity of a condition al propo
s it ion depends entirely on the con sequ en c e or c on ,

W hen a hypothetic al conclusion is d ra wn fro m a hypo

thetic al pre m iss the re a son ing is in e ffect c a tegoric a l E G
, , ,
. . .

P di t re ca e .

C aes a r was a conqueror ; therefore

P di t re ca e .

H e was I e i ther a hero or a v ill ain I .

The a ntece d ent is som etim es pl a ce d aft er the cou se

quent W e might say M n is i perfect he f ll i le
. a m if ,
is a b ”
,
.
44 O F C O ND I T I O N AL SYLL O GI S MS .

wrote the j En eid but it does not follow th at beca use

,

he was a poet h e t her efor e wrote the j E n eid

, .

6 7 There are two rules for drawing a conclu

.

sion from a condition al proposi t ion R ule 1 The . .

a n t eceden t b e ing g ra n t ed, t he c ons e u en t may be

q
E G
infer r ed ; . .

“
I fA is B C is D ; Maj or
, fallen the
. I f r ain h as ,

ground is wet ;
B ut A is B ; M inor B ut r ain h as fallen ; .

therefore therefore
” ”
C is D . C on clusion The ground is wet . .

These syllogisms in which the antecedent is ,

gran t ed are c alled C on st r u c t ive

, .

R ule 2 Th e c on sequ en t b eing den ied t he a n t e

.
,

c eden t m a y b e den ied .

I f A is B, C is D “
fallen the I f rain h as ,

ground is wet
B ut C is not D ; therefore B ut the ground is not
wet ; therefore
” ”
A is not B . R ain h as not fallen .

These syllogisms in which the conse q uent is denied

, ,

are c alled D es t r u c t ive .

6 8 B y den y ing the a n t eceden t or afi rm ing the

. ,

c on se u en t
q nothing, can be inferred bec a use the ,

s ame conse q uent m ay follow from ot her an t ece

 or D I S J UN C T I V E SYLL O G I S MS . 45

dents * R ain m ay not h ave fallen an d yet the

. ,

ground m ay be wet ; or ft h e ground m ay be wet ,

an d yet no r ain h ave fallen ; bec a use dew or an

inund a tion would produce the s ame e ffec t :

OFI S J UN C T I V E SYLL O GI S MS
D .

69 . To wh a t h as been s aid o f a disj unctive p ro

H ere the a nte ce d ent is d en ie d .

1 H ere the consequent is a fli rm e d

~
.

t C on v ers ion by neg a tion ( N o 30) is a ppl ic a ble to con d i .

t ion al propos iti ons i e the contra d ictory of the consequent

. .

m ay be t ak en for the a ntece d ent a n d the contra d ictory of ,

the a ntece d ent for the consequent .

I f rain h as fallen the groun d i wet ;

, s

B ut r ain h a s fallen therefore C onstruct iv e .

The groun d i s wet ” .

I f the groun d is not wet rain h as not fallen ; ,

B ut rain h as fallen therefore D estructiv e .

”
The groun d is wet .

B y th is con v ers ion of the m j or prem iss of a constructi v ea

syllogis m ( the m inor of course re m a in ing unch a nge d ) y ou

, , , ,

w ill re d uce a constru ctiv e syllogi sm into a d estructive b e ,

c a use you deny the con seq u nt Y ou w ill re d uce a d estructiv e

e .

syllog is m i n to a constructiv e bec ause you a ffi rm the a nte ,

ce d ent E G
. . .

I f rai n h a s f llen the gon a d is wet ;

a ,

B ut the groun d i s not wet ; therefore D estructiv e .

R ai n h a s not fallen ” .

I fthe groun d i not wet ra m h as not fallen ;

s ,

B ut the groun d is not wet ; therefore C onstructiv e

"
Ra in h as not fallen .
46 OF D I S J UN C T I V E SYLL O GI S MS .

sitiou ( No 13 ) must be a dded th at it consists o f

.
,

two or more c at e goric als so sta ted as to imply th a t ,

so me on e o f them a t le a st is true an d general ly

, , ,

th a t b u t one c an be tr ue as I t is either day or ,

”
night .

70 B y denying one of the ca t egori cals of a dis

.

j unctive proposition if there be but two y ou m ay , ,

f
infer the truth o the rem aining one ; as “
I t is ,

either day or night : but it is not day ; therefore

”
it is night B y denying one of them if there be
.
,

several you m ay infer the truth of some one of the

,

rem a ining ones ; as I t is either S pring S ummer , , ,

A utumn or Winter ; but it is not S pring ; there

,

fore it is either S ummer A utumn or Win ter

’

, , .

B y denying all but o n e you will in fer the tr uth of ,

t h a t on e ; as I t is neither S pring S ummer nor

, , ,

A utumn ; therefore it is winter ”

.

7 1 When it is implied th a t only on e O f the c a

.

t egoricals can be true by afi r m ing on e y ou o f , , ,

course deny the rest A s

,
“
I t is either S pring .
, ,

S ummer & c ; but it is S pring ; therefore it is nei

, .

ther S ummer A utumn nor , ,

I f b ot h at ego i als shoul d be true it is pl ain th a t the

c r c ,

affi r m a tion of one c nnot im ply the d en ial of the other ; as

a ,

“
A m ph ib i ous cre a tures l ive ei ther on l a n d or i n the w a ter .
"
 T HE D IL E MMA . 47

72 The dilemm a * is a redund ant condition al syl

.

logi sm with two or more antecedents in the m aj or

,

premiss an d a disj unctive minor

,
.

73 D ilemm a s are either C onstructive or D estru o

.

tive O f the constr uctive dilemm a there are t wo

.

sorts S imp le an d C omp lex There is but one sort

, .

of the true destr uctive dilemm a .

74 T h e simple constr uctive d ilemm a h as bu t

.

o n e c on se u en t
q to e a ch antecedent T h e a n t ece .

dents being disj un ct ively gra nted in the minor the , ,

"

common conse q uent is inferred S ee No 6 7 R ule . . .

Maj or .

an d if E is F C is D , .
l

Minor . C l i on c us on .

I B u t eit h er A
”
is B or E is F ,
l I t here fore C is D .

I f a C hristi a n be living he is the L ord s serv ant ;

’

a n d if he be de a d he is the L ord s serv a nt ; but b e

'

* As th is k in d o f a rgu m ent there a re generally in

, in , ,

the m aj or pre m iss two a ntece d ents wh i ch i n the m inor

, , , ,

beco m e two a ss dm p t ions it is te rm e d a dilemm a from dig, ,

t wice t wo a n d Minna a n as s ump t ion

, , I t i s c al le d by the
, .

le xicogr aphers S yllogis m us ab u t r aqu e p a rte fe rie n s ad

,

” an d ”
A rgu m entu m cornutu m bec ause m ost
v e rsa r iu m , ,

horne d a n im als h av e t wo h orns an d there are in a dile m m a , , ,

t w in s t r u men t s of at t a ck furn i she d in the two a ssu m ptions

o ,
.

S o C owley “
B oth the horns of fate s d ile m ma woun d ”
,
’
.
 48 T HE D IL E MM A .

must be always either living or de ad ; therefore he

”
is al ways the L ord s servant ( S ee R om a n s xiv
’

.
, .

The complex constructive d ilemm a has a

75 .

di fferen t conse q uent to e ach a ntecedent The ah .

t ec eden t s ar e disj u n c t ively granted in the minor , ,

an d the di f ferent conse q uents disj un c t iv ely inferred .

Maj or .

E G . . l “ I fA is
‘

Minor .

C is D or G is H l , I f the E v angelists spe ak

.
”

truth C hristi anity is of G od an d if they do n ot

, ,

spe ak truth th e existence of C hristi anity is per

,

fec t ly un accountable ; but the E va ngelists either

do or do not spe ak truth therefore C hristi anity is
ei ther o f G od or its existence is perfectly un ac
,

”
coun table .

7 6 1 The true destructive dilemm a h as li ke the ,

The con diti on als o f the m aj or pre miss m ay be un ite d

“ ”
by the a dv erb whether so a s to form one propos it ion ;
,

E G W hether a C h ristian l i ves or d ies he is the Lord s

. .
,
’

”
serv a nt .

f There is a for m of a rgu m ent incorrectl y style d a d e

structiv e d ile mm a i n wh i ch the consequents a re wh o lly
,
 T HE D IL E MM A . 49

complex constructive a di fferent conse q uent to e ach ,

a ntecedent in the m aj or Th e conse q uents are

, .

disj unctively denied in t h e m i nor an d the a nte , ,

cedents disj un c t ively denied in the conclusion , .

E G
.
“
If A is B C is D an d if E is F G is H ;
.
, , ,

but either C is not D or G is not H ; therefore ,

either A is not B or E is not F ”

I f a witness , .

be an honest one he will not be ar fal se testimony ,

i nste d of di j u t i ly d en ie d i the m inor Th is is

a s nc vc , n .
,

howe v er a m ere co m b in a tion O f simp le con d ition a l sy llo

,
~

gis m s two or m ore b e ing e x presse d together I t m ay con

s ist e ither—l t of one a ntece d ent w ith se v era l consequents ;
, .

s ,

or 2 nd1y of se v era l a ntece d ents w ith one consequent ; or

, , ,

3 rdly of se v er al a ntece d ents w ith se v er l consequents

,
a .

1 s t I f A is B C is D ; ifA is B E is F ; ifA is B G is H ;
, , , ,

but C is not D E i s n ot F G is not H ; therefore A is not

, ,

B 2 dly If A is B C is D ; if E is F C i D ; if G i s H
. n , , , s
,

C i D but C i not D ; therefore A is not B E is not F

s s , ,

G i not Hs 3 d1y l f A i B C i D ; if E is F G is H ;
. r ,
s , s ,

if I is K L i M ; b u t C is not D G is not H L is n ot M ;
,
s , ,

there fore A i s not B E is not F I is not K S houl d you , , .

,

i n the fi rst c se d eny the consequents disj un ct i ely ins t e a d

a , v

o f a t g or ic a lly you w ill not thereby m a k e the a rgu m ent a

c e ,

d ilemm a ; for if ll the consequents be not true the e a , on

an e et c d t m ust f ll to the groun d

e n E G If A i B C
a . . s ,

i s D ; ifA is B E is F ; if A is B G is H ; but e it h er C i
, ,
s

not D E is not F or G i not H ; therefore A is not B

, , s .

B ut in the correct d estructiv e d ile mm a there is a lw ys a a

di j u n ct i e con c lus ion

s v .

E
50 T H E D IL E MM A .

des i gnedly an d i f he b e a competen t o ne h e will ,

not do so undesign edly : but a witness who speaks

false does so either designe dly or undesign edly ;
,
’

therefore he is either n ot honest or not competen t .

"

77 The d ilemm a m ay al w ays be reduced into

.

simple condition al syllo gisms by a ddin g a c at ego

,

t ical minor t o e ach an t ec eden t an d conse uent of

q
the m aj or premiss of the dilemm a O n such a .

st atement it will be seen th a t an opponent could

,

n o t de n y b ot h the minors an d th a t he m ust there

, ,

fore a dmit on e of the conclusions

, .

7 8 I n a constru c tive dilemm a some one of t h e

.
,

a ntecedents is assumed to be true ; an d in a de ,

structive some o ne of the conse q uents ass umed t o

,

be false but whic h is left undetermined

, .
52 E N T H Y ME ME S .

C a m es t r es m ay , of course ,
be reduced t o C ela r en t .

B u t even destructive condition als m ay be sta ted in

B a r b a r a if you view them as construc t ive which
,

is done by converting by nega t ion the m aj or p re

miss ( S ee N o 6 8 N ot e ) This process O f re
. .
, .

duc tion however is expl ained merely to show the

, ,

applic ability O f A ristotle s dictum to every form of

’

a rgument
; since the rules for hypothetic al sy llo
gisms are a su ffi cient test of th eir v alidity .

E N T H Y ME ME S .

8 0 Th e
. E nthymeme is a syllogism with one of ,

the premises omitted This premiss is e asily sup

.

plied by comp a ring t h e m iddle term with th a t term

‘

o f the conclusion which is expressed on l

y on ce .

E G
. .

“
I s ai ah was a prophet ; therefore
”
He was inspired .

The middle term of course is th at which does

, ,

”
n o t enter into the conclusion v iz P rophet , . .

I s ai ah or the minor term is expressed t wic e

”
, , .

I nspired the m aj or term on ly on c e C omp are

”
, , .
,

therefore the middle term with the m aj or thus sup

, ,

plying the m aj or premiss E G . .

 OF T HE S O RI T E S . 53

E very prophet is inspired ;

I s ai ah was a prophet ; therefore
”
He wa s inspired .

I f the minor premiss h ad been suppressed the ,

minor term I s ai ah could h ave occ urred on ly ”

on ce .E G . .

E very prophet is inspired ; therefore

”
I s ai ah was inspired .

Y ou must in th a t c ase h ave t aken the minor

, ,

”
term “ I s a iah for comp arison with the middle ,

thus supplying the minor premiss * .

8 1 B y taking the t wo propositions of an e n t h y

.

meme for an a ntecedent an d conse q uent you m ay ,

form it into a condition al syllogism E G If . .

”
I s ai ah was a prophet he was inspired , .

OF T HE S O R I TE S .

82 . A S orites * is
brief form of connecting a

sever al syllogi sms in the fi rst fi gure I n a sori tes .

,

the predic ate of the fi rst proposition is m a de the

Th is is the ord in a ry way of spe ak ing a d writing an d n ,

in th is conc ise for m we cont inu ally re a son in our m in d s ,

in S uagi H ence the term E nthy m em e

'

. .

1 F ro m a wp dg a p ile bec a use the propos it ions a re p il d e

‘

, ,

a s i t were one on a nother

, .
 54 OF T HE S O R IT E S .

subj ect of the next an d so on to any length till

, , ,

fi n ally the predic a te of the las t of the pr emises is

predic ated in t he conclusion of the su bj ect of the
, ,

fi rst .

A is B ; R eligion improves the m oral s ;

B is C ; Wh at improves the m orals is
bene fi ci al to the community ;
C is D ; therefore W h at is bene fi ci al to the com
m unity deserves en courage
ment ; therefore
A is D ; R eligion deserves en courage
ment .

83 . I n a sorites there are as m any middl e term s

,

as there are intermedi a te propositions between the

fi rst an d l as t the subj ect ofe a ch intermedi a te pro
position being a middle term A sorites m ay there.
,

forc h e dra wn out into as m a ny sep ara te syllogisms

,

as there ar e intermedi a te proposi t ions .

8 4 I n dr awing out a sorites into distinct * sy l

.

logism s you must tak e for your m aj or premiss the

,

r s t in t er m edia t e proposition o f the sori te s an d

fi ,

B y dis t i ct an d s p a ra t e syllogi s m s I m ea n th ose in

n e ,

f r m w ith m aj or m inor a n d conclus ion into wh i ch the

o , , , ,

sor ites m ay b e e x p an de d .
 OF T HE S O R IT E S . 55

for your minor premiss the firs t proposition of it ,

'

then draw your conclusion Th e m aj or proposi .

tion of your next syllogism must be the secon d in

t er m edia t e p r op osit ion of th e sorites an d your ,

min or proposition must be the conclusion of your

preceding syllogism thence draw your second
conclusion P roceed thus till you h ave formed a s
.

m any distinct syllo gism s as the sorites conta ins

intermedi ate propositions an d h ave a rrived at t h e ,

s am e conclusion T h e sorites gives y ou only the

.

fir st minor premiss v iz in its fi rst proposition

, . .

A ll the o t her m in or premises consist of the con

e lusions of your sep ar a te syllogisms A ll your . .

m aj or premises consist o f the intermedi a te propo

sit ion s o f the sorites E G . . .

d
I n ter m e ia t e P r op os it ions .

A is B IB is C C is D D is E | therefore
, , , ,

”
A is E Here is a sori tes with three intermedi a t e
.

propositions to be dr awn ou t into three distinct

,

syllogisms .

S y ll
. I . S y ll 2
. . S y ll 3
. .

B is C ; C is D ; D is E ;
A is B ; th erefore A is C ; th e re fore A is D ; th ere fore
A is C . A is D . A is E .
56 OF T HE S O RITE S .

85 sorites the fi rs t proposition alone ( ex

. In a ,

cept of course the conclusion ) m ay be p a r t icu la r ;

, ,

bec a u se t h e fi rst proposition is m a de t h e minor of

the distinct syllogism ( No 84 ) an d m ay be p arti .

c ular a ccording t o rule either D r ii r F er io )

, ( a o , , .

T h e intermedi a te proposition s being all m aj ors of

the distinct syllogisms must be universals ( B a r , .

b ara C el arent D a rii F erio )

, , , .

8 6 The l a st premiss o f the sori t es ( viz t h e l a st

. .

intermedi a te proposition ) is the only on e th a t c an

be nega tive bec a use the l ast premiss alone never
gives occ a sion to employ the conclusion of the dis
tinct syllogism as the min or o f a subse q uent on e .

S h ould a n y other premiss of the sori t es but

the l a st be nega tive it would le a d to a nega tive ,

conclusion ( NO 3 7 R ule ,
an d th a t conclusion
.
, ,

being m ade the minor of the following syllogism ,

would viol a te the fi rst fi g ure which does n ot a dmit ,

o f a neg a tive minor premiss ( B a rb a ra C el a rent . , ,

D arii F er io ) , .

8 7 A hypothetic al sori t es consis t s O f a series

.

of hypothetic al syllogisms I n the constr uctive hy .

S houl d sor ites r to h ave a nega tiv e pre m iss before

a a
pp ea
t h e l a st the succee d ing pre m iss w ill shew th a t the neg a ti v e
,

is in re a l ity a p a rt of one of the ter m s

, ,
.
 OF T HE S O R I T E s . 57

ot h e t ic alsorites you proceed from the est blish

p , a

ment of the fi rst a ntecedent t o the establishment

o f the l a st conse uent
q E G . . .

H A is B C is D ; I fit is the duty of a p arent to

,

t ak e c a re Ofhis children he ,

should k eep them a s m uch ,

a s possible f rom vice ; ,

I f C is D E is F ; I f he should k eep them from

,

v ice he ought to te ach them

,

Wh a t is virtuous

I f E is F G is H ; I f he ought to te ach them wh a t

, .

is virtuous he is boun d to ,

instruct them in religious

k nowledge ;

B n t A is B ; B ut i t is the duty of a p arent

therefore to tak e c are ofhis child ren
therefore
G is H . He is bound to instruct them
in religious k nowledge .

In a destructive sorites y ou go b ac k from the de

,

ni al o f the l a st conse q uent to the deni al of the first

,

”
antecedent ; G is not H ; therefore A is not B .

“
If R omish councils spe ak the truth popery ,

should b e credited
58 or IN D U C TI O N .

I f popery should be credited protestan tism is ,

fall acious ;
I f protestantism is fall acious the S criptures ,

ar e not the rule O f fa ith

B ut the S criptures are the rule o ffaith ; there

”
R omish councils do n ot spe ak the truth .

O F I N D U C T I ON .

88 . I nduction * is a k ind
rgument which in
ofa ,

fers re sp ecting a whole cl a ss wh a t h as been ascer

, ,

t a in ed respecting one o r more subdivisions O f th at

cl ass ; or the dra wing a general conclusion from as

m any p art icul a r insta nces as can be b rough t in to
be ar on t h e point in q uestion a s if on perceiving ,

th a t the ox sheep deer go at an d a ntelope all ru

, , , , ,

min a te y ou should infer th at a ll hor n ed a n im a ls

,

rumin a te I nductive ar guments which are usu ally

.
,

sta ted as enthymemes 1 ( No , are

~
o f course
.
, ,

e asily fi lled up so as to become re gul a r syllogisms

, .

The ter m I n d u ction is so m et im es e m ploye d to d e

s ign a te the process o f in vest iga t in g a nd collect ing fa cts ;
wh ich i s not a process of a rgu m ent but a p rep a r a t i n for it
,
o .

The e x am ple giv en by D r A l d r ich is incon v en iently

.

sta te d for re duction i nto a syllog istic form a c ircu m sta nce ,
6O EQ UIVAL EN T S E T C , .

Th e minor premiss is an enthymeme ; C ove

t ou sn ess is a tr a nsgression of the law therefore it
”
is sin . A syllogism with such a premiss is c all ed
an E pichirem a
( im xe p ew I undertak e t o prove )
’
. t , .

E Q UIVAL E N T S .

90 . E q uiv al ent term s ar e al lowable for brevity s ’

s ake as the pronoun for the noun e q uivalent p ro

,

posi t ions are also allowable a s the ill ative converse ,

for the ex p osit a ; ( No 30 e t seq ) an d such e q ui

. .

v ale n t s as m a
y be supplied by r an k ing species
under genus &c , .

I RRE G ULA R SYLL O GI S MS .

9 1 Th e premises of a v alid sy llogl sm m ay ap

.

pe ar nega t ive contr ary to R ule 5 N o 3 7 O ne o f

, , . .

the premises should then be sta t ed as an a ffi rm ative .

”
S ee N e to N O 3 3 I t is the s ame &c )
( o t .
, , .

N 0 on e is wise who is not virtuous

No gamester is virtuous ; therefore
”
N o games t er is wise .

The re al middle term in this syllogism is not ,

”
virtuous a n d it is in C e la ren t
,
.

He who is not virtuous is not wise -

A gamester is not virtuous ; therefore -

”
He is not wise .
 I RR E G U LA R SYLL O GI S MS . 61

92 . From the variety of expression a dmissible

in l a ngu age the logic al order of subj ec t an d predi
,

c a te is O ften inverted ; an d this will occ asion the

a ppe ar ance of too m any term s in the syllogi sm .

All th a t is re q uisite in such c a ses is to restore the , ,

subj ect an d predic ate to their proper order E G . . .

NO irra tion al a gen t could produce a work

which m anifests design
The universe is a work which m anifests design
therefore
No irr a tion al agent could h ave produced the
”
universe .

S trictly considere d this syllogism h as fi ve ,

terms viz 1 A n irr ation al agent 2 A h s ing

,
. . . .
,

able to produce a work which m anifests design .

3 The universe
. 4 A work which m anifests de
. .

sign 5 A being able t o produce the universe

. .
,
.

M ddl T m Cp l i e er . o u a

I A work which m ani fests design I could n o t

and Maj or Ter m .

be produced by an irration al a gent ; I

Midd le
l Th e uni v erse l is l a work which m anifests

design I therefore
Min or T . la an d Maj or Ter m .

I It
”
t ion al a gent . I
62 I RRE G ULA R SYLL O GI S MS .

93 . The above irregul ar ity i s sometimes accom

an ied with a tra nsposition o f the premises as in
p ,

the follo wing syllogism which appe ars to b e in the

,

second fi gu re an d fa ulty from an a f

, , fir m a tive con
elusion ( N ot e t o N O
. .

“
E very true p atriot is di sinterested
F ew men are disinterested therefore
F ew men are true p atri ots ”
.

I t is in re ality B a r ba r a with a tran sposition

, , ,

o f the premises ,a n d of the term s of the m aj or

”
proposition ; for y o u do not predic a te of fe w men ,

”
th at they are disinterested but of disinte rested
“
,

” ”
m en th a t they a re few
,
.

D isinterest ed men are few ;

True p a tr io ts are disinteres ted m en ; the refore
”
True p a trio ts are few .

9 4 B y the use of co nvers io n an d e q uipollent

.

in osit ion s such irregul a riti es as the following

p p ,

are e a sily reduced to form .

None but ca ndid men are go od re as oners ;

F ew in fi dels are c andid ; therefore
”
F ew in fi dels are good re asoners .

The m aj or premiss here is e q uipollent t o They

”
who are no t c andid men are not good re asone rs ,

which is the converse by negation of A ll good

”
re a soners are c andid men ( No . S ta te your
.
 I RR E G U L A R S Y LL O GI S MS . 63

maj or proposi tio n in A accordi n gly The mi n or .

p r emiss an d t h e co n c lu si on are e q uipolle n t t o

“
M ost in fi dels can did therefore M ost
are n ot

”
in fi dels are n ot go od r ea so n ers This Will be a .

re gular syll ogism in C a m es t res or F a kor o or i t

may be state d at o n ce in C e la r en t or F e r io , .

“
They who are n ot c andid ( or unc an did )
C pu l o a

l are n o t l good re aso n ers ;

C pu l o a

M ost in fi dels l are l n ot can did ; ( or un c an did g)

therefo re
C pu l o a

M ost in fi dels l are n o t l go od

I h av e sa i d Ca m est res o n F A K O R O an d C ela rent O R ,
”
F E R I O b e c ause m os t c ann ot de si gn a te a b solu t e un ive r
,
“

sa lit y
,
th ou g h t h e presen t c a se m ay b e th ou ght t o am oun t
t o a m r a l on e
o
( S ee N o t e t o N o 1 5 a nd U N I V E R S AL I T Y
. .
, ,

in t h e I n de ) x .

f F r t h e a tta i n m en t of s k i ll in syll ogiz in g a s in e ve ry

o ,

o th e r i n t ell e ctu a l pr o c e ss tr u e it is th a t sa p e re e st et
“
, ,

pri n cipi um et fon s ” With ou t good sen se an d som e c om

.

m a n d o fe x pr essi on it wi ll o ften b e v e ry di ffi c ul t for a st u

,

den t t o s ta t e in for m m any a r gu m en t s th a t a re suffi ci en tl y

, ,

c on clusive O n t h e oth er h an d som e profi ci en cy in l og ic

.
, ,

a s an a r t is e sse n ti al t o t h e r ea dy p e rform a n c e o f thi s

,

ex e rci se ,
h owe v e r si m p le i t m ay a pp ea r Th ou g h good .

s en se a n d c om m a n d o f ex pr e ss i on a re i n di s p e nsa b le th ey ,

a re n o t o f th e m se l ve
,
s su ffi ci en t A study th en whi c h
, .
, ,

b oth tri es t h e fa c ul ti es of t h e m in d a n d c al ls i n to p lay t h e

,

r e sou rc e s of p hr a s ology is sur ely t o b e con si dered a s

‘

e
,

wo rthy of a p lac e in t h e sch e m e of a l i b e r al e duc ati on .

 E X E R CI S E S .

A dd t he p rep er S y m b ols t o t he following P ro

osit ion s
p .

1 . Al lgri e f is mitigated by time ( No . .

2 . S ome tro uble s happ en to all ( No . .

3 . No dec e it is j u sti fiable ( N 0 l 5 ) . . .

4 . R evere n ce is du e t o G od ( N o . .

5 . S ome v irt u o us m en ha v e b e e n un fortun ate .

6 . A dissipated character is n ot estimable .

( No .

7 M an y i n ge n io u s men have n ot acquired a

.

rep u tatio n ( No . .

8 Th e ros e soo n fades ( No

. . .

9 A lexan der was t h e s on of P hi lip ( No 1 1

. . .
,

n ot e .
)
10 . H erodot us is n ot to be i m plicitl y beli e v ed .

11 . F e w m en a r e acq uai n ted with themselves .

( No . 15, n ot e .
)
12 . S in is n ec e ssarily dest r ucti ve of happi n ess .

( No . 12 , n ot e .
)
13 . E v e ry an imal is either r ation al or irration al .

( No .

14 . Th ere is n o on e fre e from fa ults ( No . .

15 . R om e was the mistress of the wo rld .

 E X E R C I S ES . 65

”
16 . Tho u art the m an .

17 . R eadi n g improves the mi n d ( No . .

18 . The C hi n ese are an idolatro u s peop le ( No . .

1 1, n ot e .
)
19 . R om ul us and R em u s were twi n s .

20 . I f a m an be a diligen t st ude n t he will , be

come le arn e d
(No . .

E very mista k e that a man mak es is n ot a

sign of folly ( No . .

22 A ll m en ha v e n ot great abi lities

. .

23 No n e b u t c lassical scholar s can fully ap pre

.

ciate t h e beauti e s of an cie n t lite rat ure ( No . .

24 .
“
No n e is lost b u t the son of pe rdition " .

S t a t e t h e C on t r a mes and C ont r a dic t or ies f t he

’

fo llowing P r op osit ion s .

( No .

25 . are immortal
N o m en .

2 6 No co n sc i en ti o u s person is d e servi n g of
.

r idic ule .

27 A ll falsehood i s da n ger o us
. .

2 8 E v ery r eal C h r istian is ch ar itab le

. .

2 9 D isho n esty deserves to be p un ished

. .

3 0 Nothi n g p ast c an be recalled

. .

A ll who k n o w what is right are bo un d to

practise it .
66 E XE R C I S E S .

32 . on e of
th e en emy es caped
N ot .

H ow in respect ofq uan t ity is the contradictory

, ,

of each of the above propositio n s relat ed to t h e

contrary P

S t a t e t he S u b con t r a r ies an d C on t r a dict or ies f

o

t he following P r op os it ions .

33 S ome evils ar e i n separable from a state of

.

mortal ity .

34 M a n y appare n t misfort u nes are real blessings .

35 S eve r al wri ters of merit have n ot bee n

.

pop ular .

3 6 A ll do n ot admi r e the same things —H er

. .

3 7 S ome m en ar e eag e r for n ovelty

. .

3 8 M an y critics are n ot can did j u dges

. .

3 9 F e w can disti n g uish b e twee n what is really

.

good an d e v il —J u v . .

4 0 A ll the h examete rs ofV i r gi l a r e n o t com

.

plet e d .

41 N o miser is c on ten te d
. .

What is the symbol of this prop o sitio n ? ( N

I s its si m ple co n v erse t r u e ( N o 3 3 or .
,

4 2 S ome misfort un es are u n avoidab le

. .

A dd the symbol What is the c on t r adicto ry ?

.

I s it tr ue or fal se ( N os 2 6 2 7 What is t h e
.
, ,
68 E X ER C I S ES 0N SYLL O GI S M , ET C .

Is the con clusion tr ue D oes it follow Why P

No 3 R ule
( . 7 ,

4 7 C oveto us n ess is id olat ry ; t o worship grav e n

.

i m ages is idolatry th ere fore it is coveto usness .

( No 3 7 R ule
.
,

4 8 No brib e r y is defe n sible ; brib e ry is n o t

.

id le n ess ; there fore idlen ess is n ot defe n sible .

( No 3 7 R ule
.
,

I s the co n clu sion tr ue D oes it follow ? Why ?

4 9 M athematic al st u dy i m p r oves the r e aso n i n g
.

powe rs ; the stu dy of logic is n ot math ematical

study ; therefo r e it do e s n ot impro v e the reaso n i n g
powers ( No 3 7 R ule
. .
,

5 0 Whate ver is si n ful is prod u cti v e of sorrow

.

fr au d an d r e v en ge are si n ful an d po v e r ty d ep r ives

,

u s of man y c o mfo r ts ; ther e fo r e fr a ud reven ge , ,

an d po v erty a r e all p r od uctive of sorrow

( N o 37 . .
,

R ule
5 1 S ome si n s are n ot m al ic io u s ; c al um n y is a
.

s in ; t he r e fo r e it is malici o u s ( No 3 7 R ule 6 an d
. .
, ,

5 2 A ll lux u r y is si n ful ; all lux u r y is agree ab le

.

to the bodi ly se n se ; th e r efore whate v er is agreeable

t o the bodily se n s e is si n ful ( No 3 7 R ule . .
,

5 3 N 0 religi ou s m an is fac t ions ; S t P a ul was

. .

a religio us m an ; the r efore he was n ot fac t io ns .

What mo o d an d fi g ure ( N os 4 1 .
,
 E XERC I SES 0N SYLL O GI S M , ET C . 69

54 .S ome vicio u s pastimes are permitted by ‘

law ; every vicio u s pastime is disgrac e ful to a

C hristian ; the r efore som e thi n g disgraceful to a
C h r istian is perm itted by law .

What mood an d fi gu r e H ow red ucib le

C o uld y o u say , E ve r y thi n g disgraceful to a
C hristian is permitted by la w Why ( N o 37 . .

R ule
55 No m en are fr ee from sin ; e v ery on e fr ee
.

from sin is the se r van t o f G od ; th e r efo r e some

se r van ts of G od are n ot m en .

What mood and fi g ure arid h ow red ucible I

,
"

56 Wh oev e r win n e t h so uls is wise ; all who

.

pr e ach the G ospel faithfully win so uls { th e refo r e

‘

some wh o p r each t h e Gos p el faithfully ar e w

'

ise .

H as this mo od an y n am e ? What co n clusio n

might y ou draw ? ( No 4 4 no t e )
.
, .

5 7 N o wic k e d p eop le e nj oy p eac e of mi n d ; all

.

who have gain e d riches disho n est ly a r e wic ked

people ; therefore some who h aVe gain ed riches dis
h on estly do n ot e nj oy p e ace o fmi n d '

I s this v al id What is t h e n am e oft h e m ood ‘

S tate the sn b a lt er n a ns of the co n clusio n ( No 44 . .

,

n ot e an d No
, .
I
7O E X E R C I S E S O N SY LL O GI S M , ET C .

58 . If
R oman history is credible the C art h agi
,

n iams were a treachero u s p eop le

; R o m an history
13 cre dible ; the r efo r e the C a r thagi n ian s were a
treachero u s p e op le ( No . .

’
59 S t M at thew s G osp el is all owed to have bee n
. .

fi rst w r itten eithe r in G ree k o r H ebre w ; E ras m u s

tho u ght it was n ot fi rst written in H ebrew ; therefo re
he tho ught it was fir st writ te n in G ree k ( No . .

6 0 A ll p aIt s of S c r ipt u r e a r e writte n for o ur

.

lear n i n g ; some d r e adful n ar r atives are parts of

S c r ipt u r e ; th e r e fo r e some dreadful n arrati v es are

written for o ur lea r n i n g .

What m ood an d fi gu r e
6 1 E v ery can did m an ac kn owledges merit in a
.

rival ; e v ery le a rn ed m a n d oe s n ot ac k n o wle dge

merit in a ri v al ; the r efore every learn ed m an is
n ot can did .

What a r e the q ua n tity an d q ual ity oft h e mi n or

premiss a n d the con clusio n ? ( No . What
mood an d fi gu re R ed u c e t h e syllogis m .

6 2 A ll e arth ly p r oj ects are liab le t o disappoi n t

.

me n t ; n othi n g liab le to disappoi n tmen t sho uld

e n gage o ur chief co n cer n ; th e r e fore so m ethi n g

that sho uld e n gage our chief co n cern is n ot an

e arth ly
p roj ect
‘

.
 E XERC I S E S 0N S Y L L O GI S M , ET C . 71

M ight y ou s ubsti t ute t he sn b a lt erna n s o f t h e

.

c o n clu sion I n what m ood and fi g ure wo uld t h e

syllogism the n be
6 3 I mmoral c ompan io ns sho uld b e avoid ed ;
.

some immoral companion s are i n tell ige n t ; there

fore some i n tell ige nt perso ns should b e a v oided .

( N o .

S tate the m oo d fi gur e and m ode of re d u ction

, ,
.

64 1 f the wo rld we r e good laws wo ul d b e use

.
,

less ; b u t laws are n ot u s eless t herefore the world

is not good ( N o 6 7 Rul e
. .
,

65 I f the world were good la ws wo uld be u se

.
,

less ; b ut the world is n ot good ; therefore la ws

Is this conclusive ? Why ? ( No .

6 6 M ak e a disj un ctive syll ogism from 2 S a m u el

.
,

xxi v 13, .

6 7 What so rt of propositio n is it in Lu ke xvi

.
,

30 ? C an y ou m ak e o f it a val id syllogism
Which is the C on sequ en t ia P ( N o .

6 8 IfI am blest with op ul e n ce I ha v e reaso n

.
,

to be than k ful ; b u t I am n ot b lest with op ulence ;

therefo r e I have n o reaso n to b e than k ful .

69 I f I am blest with op ule n ce I have reason

.
,
72 E XE R C I SE S 0N SYLL O GI S M , ETC .

to be than k ful ; b ut I have reaso n to b e than kful

the r efo r e I am blest with op ulen c e .

7 0 E v ery v icio u s a m u s eme n t is u n be comi n g a

.

wise m an ; n o philosophical p urs u its are un becom

in g a wise m an there fore s ome ph ilosophical
p u rs u its a r e n ot v icio u s am us em e n ts .

I n what fi g ure is this syllogism The mood

7 1 I f a p r opositio n b e a pa r t ic ular a f
. fi rmative ,

shew t o what sorts of prop ositi on s it cann o t belo n g .

P rove thi s by a sy llo gism ( No . .

72 The H elv etii if they w en t th r o ugh the

.
,

co un try of the S eq uan i we r e s u re t o m e e t with

,

vari ou s di ffi c ulties an d if th ey we n t thro ugh the

R oman provi n ce they we r e expos e d to t h e dan g er
,

of oppositio n fr o m C ae sar ; b u t they we r e obliged

t o go o n e way o r t h e other ; th er e fo r e they were

e ithe r s u r e of meeti n g with v ario u s di f fi c ulties or ,

exposed to t h e dan ge r of oppositio n from C aesar .

D e B e llo Ga llic o lib i 6 , . . .

What s o r t of argu m en t is this ( No Re .

d u c e it i n to simple syllogisms ( N o . .

73 This m an has b e e n pro v e d t r e achero u s ;

.

the r e fore he is n ot to be t r usted .

What sort of argume n t ? s upply the pre m iss .

 E X E R C I S E S O N SYL LO GI S M , ET C . 73

74 . p ain is viole n t it sho uld be born e with

If ,

patien ce becau s e it will be of short c on ti n u an ce

,

an d if it be slight it Sho uld be bo rn e with patie n c e

, ,

becau se it is o nly a small evi l ; b ut pai n m u st be

e ither v iole n t or slight th e r efo r e it sho uld be born e
wi th pati en ce .

What sort of arg um en t ( No What do .

y ou call the t wo i n cide n tal propositio n s in the

maj or pre miss ( N o .

75 N o woman of great mi n d wo uld s u bmit to

.

the i n dign ity of bein g led in tri u mph ; therefore

C leopat ra wo ul d n ot .

What sort of argum e n t ? S upp ly t h e p r emiss .

7 6 O ur heave n ly F a th e r is m ercifu l therefore

.

we sho uld be merciful * .

7 7 A lexan d e r was b uried ; he who is b uried

.

becomes d u st ; what beco m es d u st is ear th ; ear th

is probably made loam ; what is p r obably made
loam m ight p r obab ly st0 p a b e er barrel therefore -

A lexan d er might p r obab ly stop a b e er barrel -

.

S ee H a m let , A c t V , S c en e 1 .

In supplyi ng t h e de fi ci e n t pr em i ss t h e strict for m of

,

sy ll og i s m wi ll b e b e tt e r pr e se rv e d i f we st a te t h e a b ove
,

prop ositi on s th us : “ T o b e m e rciful is a q u al ity o f our

”
h eavenly F a th e r ; th ere fore it sh ould b e ou rs ( N o . .
74 E X E R C I S E S O N S YLL O GI S M , ET C .

What sort of a r gu me n t ? I n to how man y dis

tin ct syllogism s may it be expan ded an d why ? ,

S tate it in this form ( Nos 8 2 83 an d

. .
, ,

78 Non e b ut pio u s m en are fi t for the priest

. .

hood some ign oran t m en are pio u s ; the refo re

.

so me ign oran t m en are fi t for t h e pri e sth ood .

I s this valid Why ? ( No 15 an d N o 3 7

.
, . ,

R ule
7 9 No n e b ut the tr uly pe n iten t a re pardoned ;
. .

the malefactor me n tioned by S t Luk e .

was tr uly pen ite n t ; therefore he was pardon ed .

I s this co nc lu sio n tru e D oes it foll ow from the

p remi ses What maj or p roposition does t h e con
elusio n re quire
8 0 I f m an is re spo n sible for his actio n s h e
.
,

o u ght to live ci r c u mspe c tly ; if he o u gh t to li v e

circ umspectly he sho uld con sider what is his d u ty ;
,

if he sho uld con sider what is his d uty it concern s ,

him t o seek t h e will of G od if it con c ern s him t o

'

see k t h e will of G od he o ught to st u dy the holy

,

S cript u r e s b ut m an is respo n sible for his action s ;

the r efore it i s i n c umben t on him to stu dy the h oly
S c r iptures .

What sort of argum e nt t o which division d oes

76 E X E R C I S E S O N SYLL O GI S M , ET C .

85 .No v i r t uo u s m an is m ale v olen t ; all de

t r ac t o r s are m al evole n t ; the r e fore some d e trac tors
a r e n ot v irtu o u s .

8 6 H e is b r a v e who co n q u ers his passio n s : he

.

Wh o r e sists te m p tatio n co n q u e r s his passio n s ; there

fore h e who resists tem ptation is b r av e .

8 7 A ll the ships that sailed t o Troy co n tain e d

.
, ,

probably , m en ; the ship o f Nire u s was

on e of these ;
( 11 B the r efo r e it p r obably
. .

con tain ed m en ( No 3 7 R ule 3 S ee . .

, .

F A LL A C U E in t h e I n dex ) , .

88 S o m ebody m u st obtai n t h e high p r iz e in

.

ev e ry lotte ry ; eac h i n i v id ual who h olds a tic k et

d
i s somebody ; therefo r e each i n di v id ual who h olds
a tic k et m u st obtai n t he high p r iz e ( N o . . 3 7, R ule

s y llogi sm s I t wi ll b e fou n d t o r est up on t h e gen e ral pri n

.

c ip le , th a t wh a teve r s ta nds in an y rela ti on t o a n i n divi dua l

o r s p e ci es b ea r s t h e sa m e r e l a ti o n t o a p a rt o f a ny c las s o r
,

predic a b le w hich c om pr eh e n ds th a t i n divi dual or s p e ci es .

E G Wh a t st a n ds in a ny r el a ti on t o t h e sp e ci es N e g ro ’
. .
,

b e a r s t h e sa m e r e la ti o n t o t h e pre dic a b le F e llow cr ea t ur e

‘ ’
-
, ,

w hich c om pr eh e n ds t h e sp e ci e s N e g r o ; h e wh o i nj u r es a ‘ ’

N eg ro s ta nds in a rela ti on t o t h e sp eci es N egro th e re

,
’
,
’

fo re h e wh o i nj ures a N egro b e a rs t h e sam e r ela ti on t o,

’

t h e pre dic a b le F ellow cr e a tu re which c om pre h ends t h e

,
‘ -
,
’

s pe ci es N egro .
’
 E XER C I SES on SYLL O G I S M , ETC . 77

89 . S tic k s are e asily brok en ; fago ts are stic k s ;

the r e fore fagots are easily bro k en ( No 3 7 R ule
. .
,

S ee F A L L A C UE in the In dex
, .

90 B oo k s are a so u r ce b o th of i n str uctio n an d

.

p leas ure ; the Iliad an d O dyssey are bo ok s t here

fore th ey are a so u rce both of i n str uc t io n an
p leas ure ( No 19 No 3 7 R ule
. .
, .
,
 78

I N D E X A N D V O C A B UL A RY

A BS O L UT E N ou n , or Te rm , S e e TE R M .

A B S T RA CT N ou n , or Te rm , S ee Te rm .

A BS T R ACT I ON , t h e proc ess b y wh i ch we dra w of

f, in
th ou gh t from, an a no t i on
y c ir cu m s ta n c e s w e do,

n ot p u rp ose t o con s i der

B y t h i s proc e ss ge ne r al i za
.

t i on is p erform ed .

A CC ID E N T a p r edi c abl e con t ing en t lg j oi n e d t o t h e es

,

sen c e of t h e s p e c i es a n d wh i c h m a th e r e for e b e
y , , ,

ab sen t or p resent t h e es sen c e of t h e sp e c i es rem a i n

,

“ ” “
in g t h e sa m e ; a s A m a n wa lking ,
A m an bo rn ,
”
a t P a ris Th e form er is c all ed a sep a r a b le ac ci
.

den t b e ca u se it m ay b e se p a r a t e d from t h e i n di
,

v i du al t h e latt e r i s p la i nly in sep a r a b le A cc i den t .

is pre di c at e d in Q u a le S ee S PE C I ES . .

A CC ID E N T AL DE F I N I T I ON S ee DE F I N I T I ON ,
.

A N AL O G O U S Wo rds or Te rm s S ee W O RD S ,
.

A N T E C E DE N T N o 6 5 ,
. .

A PP R E H E N S I ON S imp le on e of t h e th r ee op er at i on s of
, ,

t h e m i n d c onc ern e d in a r gum e n t Th e n otion of .

a n y ob j e ct in t h e m i n d I t i s e i th er I n comp lex or .

C omp lex S ee O PE RAT I ON S

. .

A PP R E H E N S I ON S imp le I n c omp lex t h e n ot i on of on e

, ,

” dl
ob j e ct,
as “
A p e n,
or of s e v e r a l o
,
b j e cts c o n fu se y
“ ”
an d w i t h ou t a ny r elat i on as P en s , ,
.
 I N DE X A ND V O C A B U LA R Y ’

. 79

A PP RE HE N S I ON , S imp le C omp lex , t h e no ti on of t wo or

m or e ob ej c ts b e tween wh i c h t h ere i s s om e r ela ti on ,

”
a s, A p en in t h e h a n d .

A RG U ME N T , a n act of r ea son i n g ex pr esse d in l an gu a g e ;

p o p rly sp eak i n g t h e m ean s b y w h i ch som e p oi nt

ula ,

i s pr ov ed .

C A NON S of S y llogism s N o 36 ,
. .

C AT E G O R E MAT I C Wor d or C A T E GO RE MJ ro m x a r ny op é w
'

, ,

I p re di cat e a wor d t h at m ay b e em p loy e d b y its el f

,

as a t e rm Su ch wor ds are also calle d S imp le t e r ms

. .

C A TE G O R I E S of A ris t o t le or Ten P r edic a me n t s Ge ,

.

ne r al h ea ds t o one or m or e o f wh i c h e v e ry t e rm m a y
,

b e r e fe rre d v i z o b o i mio ov n oi ov n p é o n n e eiv

,
. a,
'
, , ,
t ,

woz o xs w m ir e x eio Qa c Exam S u b stan c e qu a n

’
) .
, , , ,

tity qual i ty rela t i on acti on p ass i on ( or su ffe ring)

, , , , ,

pl ac e tim e s i t ua tion p ossess i on (or c ov e ri n g )

, , , ,
.

C A U S E D ivisions of l st Efl lcien t
, ( d ga in) e i t h e r
,
.
,

P r in c ip a l a s t h e shoem a ker by wh om t h e s h oe is
‘

, ,

m a de ; or I n s t ru m en t a l a s t h e a wl kn ife & c wit h , , , .

whic h t h e s h oe i s m a de 2 n d Ma te ria l ( ex qu d ) . .
, ,

e ith e r P r ox im a t e a s t h e lea t he r of which t h e s h oe is

,

m a de ; or R em ot e a s t h e skin of whi ch t h e leat h e r i s

,

m ade 3 rd F o rm a l ( p er qua m ) e it h er P rox ima t e

.
, , , ,

a s t h e shap e or fas hion of t h e sh oe ; ( b e c au s e t h e ma

t erial so sh ap ed b e c om es a s h oe or R em o t e a s t h e ,

n a t u r a l fo rm Of t h e lea t he r vi z t h at wh i c h is esse n
( .

ti al t o it s b e in g le a th er) is t h e m or e r em ote form of

t h e s h oe 4 t h F ina l
.
( p r op t er qua m
. den oti n g
t h e en d for whic h a th i n g is m a de or don e ; e ith e r
P r ox im a t e as t h e pr ox i m a t e en d for w h ich a sh oe is
,

m a de is t h e p ro t ec t ion of t he fo ot or R em ot e a s it s
, ,

m or e rem ote en d i s t h e c om fort an d h e al th of t h e

b ody .
80 I N DE X A N D V O CA B U LA R Y .

C O MMON Ter m , S e e TE R M .

C O MPA T I B LE Ter ms , se e TE R M .

C O MPL E X Ter m , t h e s am e a s P R O P OS I T I ON .

C ON C L U S I ON of a S y llogism N O 3 7 R ule 2 n d , , .

C ON C RE T E N ou n S ee TE R M ,
.

C ON DI T I ON A L P r op osit ions R ules for dra win g a con ,

el u s i on f r om N o 6 7 , . .

C ON DI T I ON A L S y llogisms N o 65 et seq ,
.
,
.

C ON ST R UCT I VE C on dit iona l S y llogisms N o 6 7 ,

. .

C ON T I N GE N T Ma t t er N os 1 8 a n d 19 ,
. .

C ON T RADI CT I ON in L ogic w h en a ny prop os i t i on is op

, ,

pose d b y a not h e r difi erin g from i t b ot h in qu an ti ty

,
‘

an d q u al i ty N o 2 2
,
. .

C ON T RADI CT O R Y Op p osit ion of Terms S e e TE R M ,

.

C ON T RADI CT O R Y P re p os iti on s N os 22 23 an d 2 7 , .
, ,
.

C ON T R A R Y P r op os it ions N os 22 2 7 ,
.
,
.

C ON T RA R Y Ter m s see T E R MS ,
.

C ON V E R S E N os 2 9 3 1 32
,
.
, ,
.

C ON VE R S I ON of P r op osi t ion s N o 2 9 , . .

C ON V E RS I O N S im p le N o 30 ,
. .

C O N V E R S I ON p er A cc idens or by L im it a t ion N o 30 , , . .

C ON V E RS I ON by N eg a t ion or C on t r ap osit ion N o 30 , , . .

C O P U LA N o 6
,
. .

D E C O MPLE X or dou b ly c omp lex Wo r d or Ter m Th e

, , .

sa m e as S Y LL O G I S M N o 2 ,
. .

D E F I N I T I ON su ch an ex p lan a ti on ofa t e rm as s ep ar a t es
, ,

it lik e a b oun da ry from e v e ry th i n g else D efi ni

, , .

ti on is divide d i n to l st N om in a l wh i ch ex p lains
,
.
,

only t h e m e an i n g of t h e Term b
y an e qu iv al en t ex ,

pr essi on t h a t m ay h a p p en t o b e b e tte r kn own a s ,

“ ”“
D e c alogue t en c om m an dm en ts
, or 2 n d R e a l .
,

wh i ch expla i n s t h e n a t u r e of t h e Th ing T h e se di .

vi s i on s are aga i n divi ded i n to E ssen t ia l a n d A cci

 I N DE X AND V O C A B U LA R Y . 81

den t a l ; es sen ti al defi n i tion is fur th e r divi ded

an d

i nto p hy sica l an d logica l ( or met ap hy sica l ) , .

DE F I N I T I ON E sse nt ia l on e wh i c h assi gn s t h e con st i

, ,

t u en t p arts of t h e essen c e or n a tu r e ; e ith e r t h e r ea l

p a r ts of t h e essen c e w h i c h are a c t ua lly sep a r a b le as , ,
”
i f in defi n i n g P lan t y ou s h ou ld en u m e ra te t h e
, ,

l ea v e s sta lk s roots & c w h i c h i s a p hy s ic a l de fi n i

, , ,
.

t i on ; or t h e idea l parts wh i c h a re sep a ra b le on ly ,

in t he m in d a s w h en a p l an t is de fi n e d t o b e
, an
”
o r a n i z e d b e i n g dest it u t e of s e n sat i on wh i c h i s a
g , ,

l g ic a l or m e t ap hy si c a l de fi n iti on
o N B A log i ca l . . .

de fi n i t i on m u st al way s c on si st of t h e gen us a n d
'

difler en t ia .

DE F I N I T I ON , A c ciden t a l, c om m onl y c alled a D escrip

t ion ; th a t de fi n iti on of a th i n g w h i ch i s g iv en b y

assi gn i n g t o it t h e c ir cum stan c es b elon ging to it s

e ssen c e ; vi z P rop e rti es an d A cc i den ts ; ( ca us es
.
,
” “
ef fe c t s & c ) E G
,
B arom e te r
. A m ac hin e for
. .
,
”
m e asu rin g t h e wei g h t of t h e atm osp h e re B al .

” “
l oon A s ilk en b all fi ll e d w i th gas w hich cau s e s
, , ,
” “ ”
it t o ri se i n to t h e a ir L i on Th e fi e r c e st an d .
,
”
m ost n ob l e of qu a drup e ds & c ,
.

D E F I N I T I ON t h r ee p r in c ip a l R u les for l st A defi n i

,
. .

ti on m u st b e a de qu ate i e n e i t h er t oo n a rrow n or ,
. .

t oo exte ns iv e I f i t b e t oo n a rr ow y ou expla i n a
.
,

p a r t i n st ea d of a who le ; i f t oo exte n s iv e a whole ,

i n s tea d of a p a r t 2 n d I t m u s t b e of i tsel f clea r e r

. .

(i e c on s i st of i de a s less com p lex) t h an t h e th i n g

. .

de fi n e d 3 rd I t m u s t b e c ou c h e d in j u s t a su ffi
. .

c i en t n um b e r of p rop e r wor ds P rop er is h ere .

u se d in O pp os iti on t o me t a ho ri c a l wh i c h class of
p ,

wo r ds is e x c lu ded on acc oun t of th e ir v agu e a n d

in d fi n it e n atu r e
e H .
82 IN D EX AND V O CA B U LAR Y .

D E S CR I PT I O N , DE F I N I T I O N
ACC I D E N TA L
see .

D E S T RUC T I VE Condit iona l S y llogism N O 6 7 ,

. .

D I C T U M of A ris t ot le D e om ni e t n u llo N O 3 5 , ,
. .

D I FF E RE N CE D ifi lw n t ia a P re dic a b le exp r essin g t h e

, ,

distin guish in g p a rt O f t h e e sse n c e Of a sp e cie s ,

R a ti on al is t h e Difl er en ce Of Ma n
” ”
I t is p r e di
‘

ca t e d in Q u a lequ id se e S PEC I E S ,
.

D IFF E RE N CE Generic t h e differen c e of a sub altern

, ,

g en u s a n d wh ic h m ay b e p r edic a te d Of all t h e
,

su b or din a t e sp e c ies co m p r eh e n de d in th a t g en u s .

”
Hav in g sen sa ti o n is t h e gen e r ic differen ce of
”
An im al .

D IFF ERE N CE S p ecifi c , , t he fer en c e

dif of a n infi m a
S p ecies a nd wh ic h
,
m ay b e p r edic a te d of all t h e
“ ”
in dividu a ls contain e d u n der it R a tio n ality is .

t h e sp e ic fic diffe re n c e of Man .
”

D I L E MMA , N os 7 2 , 7 3 .
’
.

D I L EM MA S imp le C ons t m ct ive N O 7 4

, , . .

D I L EM MA Comp lex Cons tr u c t ive NO 7 5

, , . .

D I L EM MA D est ru c t ive N O 7 6 a n d no t e
, ,
.
’
, .

D IS CO U R S E t h e sam e a s R EA S O N I N G
, .

D I SJ U N C T I VE S y llogism N O S 6 9 7 0 7 1 ,
.
, , .

D IS T R I B U T E D Meaning of N O 1 6
, , . .

D IS T R I BU T I O N R u les con cern ing NO 2 0

, ,
. .

D I V ISI O N in L ogic i s a m e tap horical exp ression an d

, , ,

m e an s t h e distin c t en um era tio n Of se ve r al th in gs

sign ifi e d b y on e c o m m o n n am e Y ou re v er se t h e .

p roc ess of gen er aliz a tio n a n d a dd on in stea d O f , ,

dr a win g O il, t h e difl ere n ce s b y wh ic h th in gs a r e dis

”
t in gu ish ed T h u s T ree is lo gic ally divided into
.
,

Oak ,
”
Elm ”
Po plar T h ere is this differen c e
”
,
.

b e t we e n log ic al a n d p h y sical division ( S ee I N D I .

84 I N DEX AN D V O CA B U L A R Y .

in g to dec id e t h e m a tt e r at issu e, wh ile it re ally doe s

n ot .

F A LL AC I A E Q UI V O C A T I O N I S , risin g from t h e u se O f
a

an e qu ivo cal word ; E G Th e dog i s an an im al ;

. .

”
S iriu s is t h e dog ; ther efore S iriu s is a n an im al .

S ee N O 3 7 , R ul e 3 r d
. .

F A LL AC I A A M P H I B O LI E or dou b tful C ons t r uct ion E G

,
. .

Qu o d t angit ur a S ocra te illu d sen tit ; colum n a

”
t an git u r a S ocra te ; e rg o colu m n a sen tit I n t he .

“ ”
m aj or p rop o sition sen tit m e a n s h e i e S o c r a t es
, ,
. .
,
”
feel s I n t h e c on clu sio n the sa m e wor d m ean s
.
,

S ee N O 37 R ule 1 st
”
feel s S o c ra te s . .
, .

F A LL AC I A C O MP O SI TI O N I S wh en wh a t is prop o sed in a ,

divided sense is a fte r wa r ds ta ken c o llec t ive ly E G , . .

T wo an d thr e e a re ev en an d Odd ; fi ve is t wo an d
three th erefor e fi ve is even an d odd S ee N O 3 7
”
. .
,

R ul e 3rd .

FA LL AC I A DI V I SI O N I s wh en wh a t is p roposed in a
,

co lle c t ive is a fte rwa rds tak en in a divided sense ;

,

E G Th e pla n ets are seven ; M ercu ry an d V enu s

.
“
.

a re p l an e ts ; th er efor e M er cury an d V enu s are

”
s ev e n .NO 3 7 R ul e 3 rd
S ee .
,
.

FA LL AC I A F I G U R E: D I C T I O N Is wh en from a ny sim ili , ,

tu de b e t ween t wo wor ds wh a t is gran ted of on e is , ,

b y a forc e d app l ic a tion p r edic a t ed of an oth e r ; a s , ,

Proj ectors a re n ot fi t to b e t r uste d th ere fore h e ,

wh o h as form e d a p ro je c t is n ot fi t to b e tru ste d

S ee D r M a t elg s L og ic ch iii
’
-
.
8 ,
. . .

FA LL AC I A A C C I DE N T IS w h en wh a t is a cc iden ta l is c on
,

fou n de d with w h a t is essen tial ; E G Wh at y ou . .

b ou ght y ou h av e ea ten ; ra w m eat is wh a t y ou

b o u ght ; th ere fore ra w m e a t is wh a t y ou h av e
 I N DEX A N D VOCAB U L A R Y . 85

”
t
ea en . I n t h e m aj or p rop o sitio n Wh a t y ou ,
”
b o u ght m ean s as r ega r ds it s E ssen ce ; in t h e m in or ,

as r eg a r ds it s A cciden t s S ee N o 3 7 R u le 3 rd . .
, .

F A LL AC I A A D I C T O S EC U N D U M Q U I D A D D I C T U M S I M
P LIC I T E R wh en a T e rm is a t on e t im e u se d in a
,

l im ite d at a n oth e r in an u nlim it ed se n se a s “ Th e

, , , ,

E th io pian is whit e a s t o his t eeth ; ther efore h e is

w hi t e .
”
S ee NO . 3 7 , R ul e l st .

F A LL AC I A I G N O RA T I O N IS E L E N C H I an a rgum en t th a t ,

in dic a te s ign or an c e of t h e p o in t in di spu te ; a n irr e

l ev an t c o n clu sio n ; a s if a n y on e to sh e w t h e in n ,

t ilit y O f t h e a rt Of L o gic shou ld p rov e th a t m e n ,

u n a c qu a in t e d with it h av e r e aso ne d w ell .

F A L L AC IA A N O N C A U S A P RO C A U S A wh ic h is divided ,

in to F a lla cia d non ver dp r o verd a n dF a lla c ia d non ,

“
ta li p ro t a li E G A com et h as ap p ear ed th ere
. . .
,
”
for e th er e will b e war Wh a t into xic a tes sho uld
.

”
b e p roh ib ite d an d win e in to x ic a te s Th e a b use
'

.
,

Of it do e s I n replyin g y ou sh ould deny t h e false

.
,

c a u se or assign t h e tru e one

,
.

F A LL AC I A C ON SE Q UE N T I S wh en th a t is inferr ed which,

do e s not l o gica lly follo w ; a s “

He i s a n a nim al ; ,
”
th erefore h e is a m an .

F A LL AC I A P E T I T I O N I s P R I N C I P I I ( begging t he Quest ion ) , ,

wh en th a t i s a ssum ed for gr an t e d wh ic h ou ght to ,

h a ve b een p rov ed ; as wh en a thing 1 3 p rov ed by

it self ( c alle d Pe t it io s t a tim )
,
H e is a m an th er e , ,

for e h e is a m an or by a S y n ony m a s A sab r e , ,

is sh arp th e re fore a c y m e t ar is
, or by a ny thing
e u a ll
q y u n kno wn as
“
Par adise wa s in A rmenia
, , ,

th erefore Gihon is an Asia tic riv er or by a ny t hing

m or e un known a s T his s quare is t wic e t h e siz e Of
, ,

th is triangle b e c a use e qual to th is c ircle or by

,
86 I N DEX AN D V O C AB U L A RV .

( liscou rsing in cir c le i e wh e n t h e dispu tan t trie s

a ,
. .

to p rov e re c iproc ally c o n cl usion from p rem ises a n d ,

p r em ises from c on cl usio n a s F ir e is hot th er e for e , ,

”
it b u rn s ; a n d a fter wa r ds F ir e b u m s th ere for e , ,
”
it is hot .

F A LL AC I A P L U RI UM I NTE R ROG AT I ON UM wh en t wo or ,

m or e qu estion s r e q uirin g ea c h a sep a ra te ans wer

, ,

a r e ro o se d a s on e ; s o th a t if on e a n swe r b e iven it
p p g ,

m u st b e in appl ic ab le t o on e Of t h e p a rtic ul ar s ask e d ;

as
“
,
Wa s Pisistra tu s t h e u su rp er a n d sc ou rge of
A th en s ? ”
Th e; a nswer N O w ould b e fal se Of t h e
”

“ ”
form e r p a rt ic u la r a n d Y es w oul d b e fal se Of
,

t h e l a tt er T h is falla c y is ov erthro wn b y givin g to

.

e a c h p a rtic u la r a sep a r a t e r ep ly .

FA LS E s t r ic t ly den ot es t h e qu ality of a p rop o sition

, ,

wh ich s ta tes a th in g n o t as it is :
F IG U RE S N O S 4 1 a n d 4 8
, . .

G E N ERA LI " A T I O N t h e a b stra ctin g or dr a win g Off in

, ,

thou ght t h e p oin ts Of dissim ilitu de b e twe en several

,

Obj e cts which r esem ble e a ch oth er in som e p art Of

th eir n atu r e an d t h e a ssignin g to th em on e comm on
,

n a m e ex p ressive Of t h e p a rticu la rs in wh ich th ey

all a gr e e T h us P ige on
.
” “
Wren ”
E a gle
,
”
, , ,

C a sso wary differ in shap e p lu mage siz e & c b u t

”
, , , ,
.

a g r e e in b e in g al l ea t h er ed cr ea t u r es T h e y co m e
f .
,

“ ”
th erefore u n der t h e g e n er al h ead Of F o wl or
, ,

”
B ird .

G E N ER I C D IFF E RE N CE S ee D IFF ERE N CE ,

.

G E N E R I C P ROPE R T Y S ee P ROPE R T Y ,
.

G E N U S a P re dicab le eX p re ssin g t h e com m on o r m a t e r ial

, ,
”
p a rt O f t h e sp e c ies Ofwh ic h it is a ffi rm e d An im al .

is t h e g enu s Of Man
”
I t is sa id to b e p r e dic a te d
.

in Q u id S e e S PEC I ES
. .
 I N DEX A N D VOCABU L AR Y . 87

G E N U S , P r ox im u m , on e th a t is t h e n ex t r em ove from
”
a sp e cies . A n im al is t he p r ox im u m gen us
of Man ”
. Liv in g thin g ”
is t h e mor e rem o t e

gen u s .

G E N U S , S u b a lt ern , th a t is a sp e cies ifvie wed with on e ,

r eferen c e t o a highe r or m ore c om p reh e nsiv e g en u s ;

”
th u s B ir d t h e genu s Of n ig ht inga le is a sp ec ies
, ,

Of a n im a l .

GE N U S S u m m u m th at wh ic h is n ot a sp e c ies of an y
, ,

h igh er g en u s .

H Y P O T H E I IC AL Pr op osi t ions S ee P ROPO SI T I O N S

' ‘

,
.

H Y P O T H E T I CA L S y llogism s N O 6 3 6 4 76 8 7 ,
.
, ,
’
,

I DEA t h e p ict ur e or r ep resen ta tion Of an Obj e ct in t h e

,

m in d t h e r esu l t of app r eh en sio n .

I LL A T I VE Mea ning of N O 3 1
, , . .

I LLI C I T P R O CE S S N O 3 7 R ul e 4 , .
, .

I M P O SSI B L E M A TT E R N os 1 8 a n d 1 9 ,
. .

I N DE FI N I T E P ROPO S I T I O N Se e P ROPO SI T I O N , .

I N DI V I D UA L th a t wh ic h is in c ap able Oflogica l division

, ,

( se e D I V IS I O N ) a n d can b e o nly p hy sica lly divide d

,

into it s p a r t s E G “
Man b ein g a sp e cies c an
”
. . .
, ,
”
b e logica lly div ided in to in dividu a ls as H o m er , ,
“ ”
V ir gil M ilton
, b u t th e se b ein g in div idu als , ,

c an b e div ided o n l
y p hy sica lly viz in to th e ir c om ,
.

p on en t p a rts .

I N D UC T I O N N O 88 ,
. .

I N F E R to dra w a c on clu sio n from gra n t ed p r em ises

, .

I N FI MA S PEC I E S S ee S PEC I E S , .

”
I N FI N I T A N T P AR T I C L E N ot , .

J U DG ME N T a de c isio n on t h e a gr e e m e n t or disa g r e e
,

m ent Of t wo Obj e c ts I t is e ith e r a ffi rm a tiv e or n e .

gat ive S ee O PE RA T I O N S
. .
 VOCAB U L AR Y
'

88 I N DE X A N D .

LO G I C , t he s c ien ce which an aly z es the p roc ess of t h e

m in d in r eason in g ; t he ar t wh ic h lay s do wn rul es
to c r
se u e t he m in d from e rron e ou s in fe r en ce s .

( F rom r eas on )
A67 0 9 , .

M A J O R P RE M ISS N O 37 R ule 2 ; N O 64 ,
.
, . .

MA J O R T ERM N o 3 7 R ule 1 ,
.
, .

M A TT E R of a Prop osit ion wha t NO 19 , ,

. .

M I DD L E T E RM N o 37 R ule 1 NO 1 N o t e
,
.
, . .
,
.

M I N O R P RE MI ss N o 3 7 R ule 2 NO 64 ,
.
, . . .

M I N O R T ERM N o 3 7 R ule 1 ,
.
, .

M O DA L S YLL O G IS M S N os 60 6 1 6 2 ,
.
, ,
.

M O O DS NO 40 NO 48
,
.
, . .

N ECE SS AR Y M A TT E R NO S 1 8 an d 1 9 ,
. .

N E G A T I VE T E RM S ee T E RM ,
.

O PE RA T I O N S oft he m in d c o n c ern ed in a rgu m en t are ,

thre e ; v iz S im pl e A ppreh en sion J u dgm en t Dis

.
, ,

cou rse ( or R eason ing )

,
.

O PPO SI T E T E RM see T E RM ,
.

O PPO SI T I O N of Pr op osit ions NO S 2 1 2 2 27 ,

.
, ,
.

O PPO SI T I O N of Terms S ee T E RM S ,
.

P AR S DE TE R I O R wha t NO 3 8 N ote , ,
.
,
.

P O S I T I VE T ERM S ee T E RM ,
.

P RE D I CAB L E S ee T E RM C OM M O N E v ery P r edic able

,
.

e xp r esses e ith e r t h e wh o le esse n c e Ofit s su bj e ct viz ,

.

t h e sp e c ie s ; or p a r t O f it s e ssen c e v iz t h e genu s or ,
.

t h e dif fer en c e ; or som e th in g j o in ed to it s essen ce ,

v iz . a p ro p e rty o r a n a c c iden t .

P RE D I CA T E N o 6 ,
. .

P R E MI ss a p rop o sit io n em ploy ed to estab lish so me

,

con clusion N O 4 ,
. .

P R I VA T I VE T E RM Se e T E RM ,
.

P ROB L EM the same as Q UE S T I O N

, .
 I N DEX A N D V O C A B UL A RY . 89

P R O PE R T Y a Pr edic ab le e xpr essing som ething n ec es

,

sarily j o ine d t o t h e esse n c e of t h e whol e sp ec ies ;

wh a t ev er m a y b e c on sider e d a s t h e a cc om p an imen t
”
or r esul t Of t h e difler en t ia R isib il ity is t h e p ro
’

p e rty Of Ma n Prop erty is p redica ted in Qua le

“ ”
. .

S ee S PEC I E S .

P ROPE R T Y t hreefo ld division of—l st U n iv er sal a n d

, .
,

p e c uliar as t h e fa cu lty of la ug h te r or of sp eech to

, ,

ma n 2 n d U n iversal b u t n ot p e c ulia r ; as t he
.
, , ,

b eing a b ip ed to m a n E very m an is a b ip ed b u t
,
.
,

fo wls a re b ip e ds too 3 rd P e c ulia r b u t n ot u n i

.
, ,

v er sal as ,t he b eing a p hilo sop her to m a n

, Ma n ,
.

a lon e c an b e a
ph il osoph e r b u t every m an is not on e ,
.

T h is th ir d division ho weve r is m or e t ruly an d c , ,

e iden t .

P ROPE R T Y Generic t h e p rop ert y of a sub al te rn g enu s

, , ,

an d w hich m ay b e p r edic a ted of al l t h e sub or din a te

sp e c ie s c o m p r e h en de d in th a t gen us V o lu n t ary .

” ”
m otion is t h e g en e ric p ro p erty Of An im al .

P ROPE R T Y S p ecifi c t h e p rop ert y of an infi m a sp ec ies

, , ,

an d wh ic h m ay b e p r edic a t e d O f a ll t h e in dividu al s
”
c on taine d u nder it R isib ility is t h e sp ec ifi c
.

p rop e rt y Of Man
”
.

P ROPO SI T I O DE I N E SSE wha t NO 1 1 N o t e , , .

,
.

P ROPO SI T I O N an a ct Of j u dgm ent exp r e ssed in la n

,

g u a ge S ee N o 6
, . .

P ROPO SI T I O N Afi irm a t ive N os 1 1 a n d 1 4

, ,
. .

P RO PO SI T I O N Ca tegor i ca l (p u r e a n d m oda l ) N os 1 1
, , ,
.

an d 12 .

P ROPO S I T I O N ,
Hy po t hetica l, ( con dit ion a l an d disj u n c
t ive ,) N os 1 1 . an d 13 .

P ROPO SI T IO N ,
I n defi nit e, NO . 1 1, N te o . NO . 19
90 I N DEX AN D VOCAB U L AR Y .

P ROPO SI T I O N N eg a t ive N os 1 1 an d 1 4
, , . .

P ROPO SI T I O N Pa r t icu la r N os 1 1 an d 1 5
, ,
. .

P ROPO SI T I O N S ing u lar N O 1 1 N o t e

, , .
, .

P ROPO SI T I O N Con t r a ry N os 2 2 a n d 2 7
, ,
. .

P ROPO SI T I O N S u b con t ra ry N os 22 and 2 7

, ,
. .

P ROPO SI T I O N Con t r a dictory N os 2 2 2 3 and 27

, , .
, , .

P RO PO SI T I O N S u b a lt ern NO S 2 2 an d 2 7
, ,
. .

P ROPO SI T I O N Universa l NO S 1 1 a nd 1 5
, ,
. .

P RO SY LL O G IS M N O 8 9 ,
. .

P ROVE to a ddu c e p rem ises which estab lish t h e tru th of

,

so m e co n clu sio n .

Q UA LI T Y Of a P rop osit ion N O 1 1 ,

. .

Q UA N T I T Y of a Pr op osi tion N O 1 1 , . .

Q UE S T I O N t h e P rop o sition to b e p ro v ed ; c alle d a fter

, ,

p roo f t h e c on c lusion or infer en ce

, .

R EA S O N I N G t h e a ct of p ro c ee din g fro m on e j u dgm en t

,

to an oth er fou n ded on or t h e r esu l t Of it

, ,
.

R E D U C T I O N Os t ensive N O S 52 5 3 5 6
, ,
.
, , .

R E D U C T I O N of H y p o t het ica l S y llog is m s N O 7 9 ,

. .

R E LA T I VE N O U N or T E RM S ee T E RM ,
.

S IG N I FI CA T E N O 1 6 ,
. .

S OR I T E S N os 82 83 84 85 8 6
,
.
, , , ,
.

S OR I T E S Hypo thet ica l N O 87

, ,
. .

S PEC I E S a Pr e dic able ex p re ssin g t h e whol e esse n c e of

,

s ev er al th in s
g as
“
Man A sp e cies Of an im al I t
”
, ,
.

is sa id to b e p r edic a te d in Q u id i e to a n swer to t h e ,
. .

qu est ion Wha t ? as Wh at is th at

“ ? ”
A ns w “
A ,
.

” N B B y a ddin g t h e differen c e to t h e
m an . . .

g en u s y ou m ak e u p t h e sp e c ies
,
.

S PEC I E S I N FI MA on e th a t c ann ot b e con sidered as t h e

,

en u s Of a n y th in g an d c o n t a ins u n de r it on ly in di
g ,

v idu als 9 .Man is a n infi ma sp ecies con tain in g

” ‘
, ,

u n der it C aesa r A ri stotl e T ho m a s & c

, , , ,
.
92 I N DEX A N D V O CA B U LAR Y .

T E RM ,
A b s t ra c t , den otes t h e qu ality ofa b ein g ,
wi thou t
r ega rd to t h e sub j ec t in which it is ; a s J ,
” ”
H e ght
i , W isdom Ab stra c t t erm s are n ou n s
.

su b stan tive .

T E RM Com m on su ch a s stan ds for several in dividu als

, , ,

w hic h a re c alle d it s S ign i ca t es a s “ Ma n ” “ C it ”

fi y , .

S u c h t e rm s an d su ch o n ly c a n b e a ffi rm a tively p re
, ,

dic at e d Of se v e ral oth e rs an d th ey a re th er efor e

,

c alle d P redica b les .

T E RM S Comp a t ib le or Consist en t exp r ess t wo views

, ,

wh ic h ca n b e t ak en of t h e sam e Obj e ct a t t h e sam e ,

”
tim e as Wh ite an d Ha r d
, , .

T E RM Comp lex Th e sam e a s P RO PO SI T I O N

,
. .

T E RM Con cr et e den otes t h e q u ality Of a b eing a n d

, , ,

e ith e r e x p resse s or m u st b e r efe rr e d to s o m e su bj ect

, ,
”“ ”“ ”
in wh ich it is “
F oolish High Wise , , .

C o n c rete T erm s are u sually b ut not alway s n oun s , ,

a dj e c tiv e .

T E RM S Con t r a dic t ory Opp osit ion of wh en th ey differ

, ,

o nly in r esp e c tiv ely wan tin g a n d h avin g t h e p ar

t icle n ot
”
or it s e q uiv alen t One or other Of
, .

su c h t e rm s is a pp lic abl e to every Ob j e c t .

T E RM S C on t ra ry com e b oth u n der so m e on e class

, , ,

b ut a re t h e m os t difi er en t of a ll th a t b el on g to
‘

” ”
th a t cla ss ; a s W ise an d F oolish b oth c om in g
, ,

u n de r t h e c lass O f m en t al q u alit ie s T h e r e are som e .

Obj e c ts t o whic h n eith e r Ofsu ch t erm s is ap plic able

a S to n e for ins ta n c e is n eith e r w ise n or foolish
, ,
.

T E RM D efi nit e (fi n it um ) one wh ich m arks ou t a n

, , ,

Obj e c t or class Ofb ein gs ; as C aesar C orp or eal

”
,
”
,
.

Posit ive T erm s are c alled defi nit e .

 I N D EX A N D VOCAB U L AR Y . 93

T ERM I ndefinit e ( infi n it u m ) on e which do es n ot

, , ,

m a r k o u t h u t o n ly ex c lu de an Ob j ec t a s N ot C ae sa r
“ ” -
, , , ,

I n corp or eal
”
Pr iva t ive a n d nega t ive T e rm s are
.

c all e d indefi nit e .

T E RM N ega t ive den otes th a t t h e p o sitive V iew cou ld

, ,

n o t b e t ak e n Of t h e Obj e c t ; it a ffirm s t h e ab sen c e O f

a th in g fro m som e su bj e ct in wh ic h it c o u ld n o t b e

p r e se nt ; as A d u m b st a tu e
, (y ou c o u l d n ot say ,
”
A sp eak in g on e ) A lifeless corp se (y ou c o uld
“
n ot say A livin g,
N B Th e sam e t erm . .

m ay b e n ega tive p o sitiv e or p riv a tiv e a s it is vie we d

, , ,

w ith r ela tion to contra ry ideas T h u s I m m ort a .

is p riva tiv e or n ega tiv e vie we d with r el a tio n t o ,

D ea t h an d p o sitiv e vie we d with r ela tio n to L ife

, ,
.

T E RM S Op p osit e exp r ess t wo v iews wh ich c ann ot

, ,

b e taken of on e S in gl e O bj e c t a t t h e sa m e tim e ;
”
as ,
Wh it e an d B la ck .

T E RM Posit ive den ote s a c ertain V ie w of an Obj ec t a s

, , ,
”
b ein g a ctu a lly t ak en of it ; a s S p eech A m an , ,
”
s eakin g
p .

T E RM Pri va t ive den otes th a t the p o sitive v iew m ight

, ,

c on c eivably b e t aken of t h e Ob j ec t b u t is n ot ,
” “
D um b n ess A m an S l t (y m ght say A
i en o
,
u i “
,
” “
m a n sp eakin g ) A n u n b u r ie d corp se ( y ou m ight
s ay A b u ried
,

T ERM R ela t ive tha t wh ic h exp r esses an Obj ect v ie we d

, ,

in rel a tio n to t h e whole or to a n oth er p a rt Of a m or e ,

co p ex Obj e c t Ofthou ght a s Half an d Whole

m l “ ” “ ”
, ,
“ ” ”
M a st er an d S erva n t S u ch n ou n s are c alle d .

Correla t ive t o ea ch oth er ; n or c a n on e of th em b e

m e n tion e d witho u t a n otio n of t h e o the r b ein g r aise d
,

in t h e m in d .
 94 I N DEX AND VOCABU L A R Y .

T E RM S imp le T h e sam e as C A T E G O REMA T I C WO R D

,
. .

T E RM S ing u la r su ch as sta n ds for one in dividual as

, , ,
” ” ” ”
S o c ra tes Lo n do n ,T h is m an T ha t c ity , ,
.

S u ch te rm s c an n ot b e p redic a ted a ffi rm a tiv ely Of

an
y th in g b u t th em se lv es .

U N D IS T R I B U T E D M I DD L E N O 37 R ul e 3 ,
.
,
.

U N I VE RS A LI T Y of a P rop osition A Pro p o sitio n is m e .

t a p hy si ca lly or m a t he ma tica lly un ive r sa l wh en t h e ,

p r e dic a te b el o n gs withou t a n y e xc ep tio n to e ve ry

, ,

a rt ic ul a r co n ta ine d u n de r t h e u ni v e rsa l su bj e c t ;
p
”
as ,
Al l c ir cle s ha ve a c en tr e a n d c ir c umfe ren c e .

I t is p hy si ca lly u n iv e rsal w h en it al wa y s a g re es , ,

u nle ss in t h e c ase of so m e u nn a t u ral e xc ep tio n s ;

”
as ,
All m en are ra tion al I t is m or a lly u n ive rsa l .
,

w h en it a gr ee s in m o s t in s ta n c es b u t n ot n e c essa rily , ,

or in t h e c o u rse of na tu r e ; as All t h e C re ta ns ar e ,
”
lia rs .

WO R DS a ny com b ina tion of m aking one c o m plex

, ,

a p r e h en sio n is in lo gic a sim le wo r d l Th e

p p
, , as , ,
1 2 3

hop e Of re wa r d I is l It h e sola c e—
- - o f la b o u r J E ve ry - -

P roposition co n sists O f three sim p le Words v iz , .

subj e c t cop ula an d p re dic a te

, ,
.

W O R DS Va rious divisions of t he ma nner ofe mp loy ing

,

wh enc e a wor d is c alle d Un ivo c a l E qu ivo c a l A na , ,

log ous f t he fi r s t I nten t ion or of t he secon d I n te n

,
o ,

t ion .

WO R DS Un ivoca l suc h a s a re c o n fi n ed to one m ea n

, ,
”
in g a n d sig n ify b u t on e sort of idea ; E G
,
B ook . .
,
” ”
La n c e T om b ,
.

W O R DS E quivo ca l su c h as sig nify t wo or m ore ideas

'

, ,

E G Light M oor P en Post

.
” “
.
” ” “
,
”
, , .
 A P PE N DI X .

ON A C AD E M I C A L DI SP UT A T IO N .

T HE Re sp o n d e n t, in a D ispu ta ti o n b e i n galways
,

s upp o se d to m ai n ta i n a tr ue p ro p o siti o n t h e argu,

m en t O f th e O pp o n en t Who se p rov i n ce it is t o sup

,

p ort th e c on tra d ic tory m u st be p resu m e d to be

,

fo u n d e d on so m e falla cy .

I fth e re sp o n d e n t up on tryi n g h is o pp o n e n t s
’

Obj ec ti o n in th e form O f a c a teg oric al syllo gi sm ,

sho u ld fi n d th a t it o f fen d s ag ai n st an y on e O f th e
S ix rul e s in N O 3 7
.
, by p o i n ti n g o ut su c h a V i ola
’
ti on h e ov er thro w s th e O pp on en t s argu m en t
,
.

S ho uld th e O bj ecti o n be h yp oth etic al t h e res ,

p on d en t m us t e xam i n e th e c on n e xi on betwee n an
t e c eden t an d c o n seque n t , an d w h e th e r th e
98 A PP E N D I X .

tw o rules a t NO 6 7 h av e been Obse rv e d Th e det ec

. .

ti on also ofany v i olati o n O f th e mi le s for d rawi n g

a c o n clusi o n f ro m d i sj u n c ti v e p ro po siti o n s ( NOS .

70 , wi ll d estroy a fal lacy s o supp ort e d .

F alla cies th at c o n si st in a violat ion of th e e x p r ess

r ules O f lo gic ar e m or e p al p able th an tho s e wh ic h
d epe n d on th e am bigui ty of t h e m i ddle t e rm ; by
an i n ge n i o us a pplic a ti o n o f wh ic h to th e t e rm s O f

th e que sti on ( NO 3 7 R ul e
, .
,fallacie s ar e v ery
gen e ral ly i n tro d uce d .

Mo s t fre quen tly th e re fore t h e fi rst bu sin ess of

, ,

th e re sp o n d e n t is to e x am i n e t h e m i ddle t e r m Of
h is O pp on en t s argu m e n t ; an d a sce rta i n wh eth e r
'

in h is c o m p a ri so n O f i t wit h th e t e rm s of h is c on

clu sion h e h a s use d i t in e xa c tly t h e s am e se n s e in

,

b oth i n stan ces T h e fi rst an d sec on d i n te nti on of

.

w ord s th ei r bei n g e m ploye d so m eti m es in a lit eral

, ,

an d s o m e t i m es in a m e ta ph or ic al se n se with oth er
, ,

c o n sid e ra ti on s ari si n g fro m t he v ario us m e ani n gs

a tta c h e d to th e s am e or si m i la r
, t e rm s affor d a
, ,

wi d e sc o pe for t h e ex ercIse Of falla cy an d call for ,

‘

a cu te n es s b oth n atu ral an d a cqui re d t o d etec t it

, , ,

ifskilfully c o n ceal e d .

T h e O pp o n e n t h as t h e c ho ice of man y p o i n ts O f
1 00 A PP E ND I X .

n ie d ( wh eth e r it be th e m i n or or c on seque n ce ) th e
,

O pp o n e n t in h is n e x t sy llo gi sm a f
, fi rm s t o be v ali d ;
,

t ak i n g for th e c o n sequ en t O f his m aj or p ro p o siti o n ,

” “ ”
“
Vale t m i n o r or Val e t c o n seque n ti a a s t h e
, ,

c ase may be .

S ho uld t h e a rgu m e n t c o n si st of o nly t w o sy ll o

gi sm s th e form e r will h av e for it s c o nseque n t
,

d
"
C ad it q u wst io a n t
,h e l a tte r eith e r “
Va l e n t ,

c o n seq u e n ti a et arg u m en t u m or Val en t m i n or ,

”

”
e t ar g u m e n tu m a cc ord i n g t o th e p re v i o us d e n i al
,

O f th e re sp on d e n t S ho uld i t C on si st O f m ore th an
.

th ree all e x c ep t th e last will h av e th ei r c o n se quen t

, , ,

in th e s am e man n er a s th e sec o n d ; eith e r Valet

” ”
c o n sequen ti a or Val e t m i n or Th e c o n sequen t
, .

O f t h e c o n clu d i n g syll ogi sm is al way s Valen t ,

”
c o n se q uen ti a e t ar gu m en tu m or Val e n t m i n or , ,

”
e t a r gu m e n tu m I t is n ot h o we v e r ad vi sable to
.
, ,

u se m or e th an thr ee syll o gi sm s in c o n s tr uc ti n g an

argu m e n t for a d i sputat i o n .

I t is th e d u ty of th e r e sp on d e n t a t th e clo se Of ,

e a c h syllogi sm eith e r t o c o n ce d e or d e n y t h e m i or
,
j
p r o p o s iti o n a s ,C i r cu m s t an ces may r equi r e I f it .

be e vi d en tly tr ue h e m u st O f c o u rse c o n ce d e it
, , , ,

bu t d eny t h e c o nseque n ce ; v iz th a t its tr uth i n v a .

 ON A C A DE M I C A L D I S P U T A T I O N . l Ol

lidat c s th e q ues ti on h e is mai n t ain i n g ; C on ce d o

”
m i n ore m et n eg o c on seque n ti am
,
I f t h e m i n or .

be fal se or d o ub tful h e d en ie s it ( N e g o m i
, ,
“
,

an d t h e O pp o n e n t on th e o th e r h an d , ,

m us t e n d e av o u r to e st ab li sh it by so m e n uques
t ionab le m e d iu m ofp roo f .

T h e follo wi n g e xam ple s e xh ibi ti n g a rg um en t s ,

O f thr ee f, o u r an d t wo syll o gi sm s an d s h e wi n g t h e
, ,

m o d e O f p ro cee d i n g as th e m i n or or c o n seque n c e
,

may be d e n ie d in d i ffe re n t pla ces wi ll fa cilitat e th e ,

a pp lic ati o n O f th e ab ov e r e mark s Th e F or m of .

th e argu m en t bei n g a t p resen t th e p o i n t for con si

d e r a ti o n u n m e an i n g sy m b ols h a v e bee n sub stit u te d
,

for te rm s .

A n A rgum en t of t h ree s
y gl lo ism s, w it h t h e m in or

of t he
fi r s t den ied .

O PP ON E N S .

MA S O R . P BOPOS .

An t eceden t . C ons eq uen t .

1 . S i IA sit B , l l c a dit qu c t iO { I ‘

MI N O R P R OP O S .

S ed A e st B ;
C O N S E Q U EN T I A .

E rgo ca d t qu aest i ro.

R E SP O N DE N S .

N ego m m orem .
1 02 A PP E ND I X .

P erg it D om inus O PPO N E N S ad sy llogismum secund um .

2 . Si C Sit D v al et mino r ;,

S ed C est D
E rgo vale t m in or .

R E S P O N DE N S .

C o n c edo m inorem , et n ego con se quentiam .

F ergi l O PPO N E N S ad s ll
y go ismu m t e rtium .

3 Si. E sit F alent conse qu en tia et argument um ;

,
v .

S e d E est F ;
E rgo valen t c ons e qu entia et argum entum .

A n A rgu m en t f o t hr ee sy llogisms, wit h t he m in or

f
o t he secon d den ied .

O PPO N E N S .

1 . S i A sit B c a dit q u ie st io ;
,

S e d A e st B
E rgo c adi t qu wst io .

RE SP O N DE N S .

C on cedo m inorem , et n eg o c onse quen tiam .

O P PO N E N S p ergi} a d sy llogis mum c n dum

se u .

2 . Si C Sit D al et con se qu en tia ;

,
v

S e d C est D ;
E rgo alet conse quentia
v .

R E SP O N DE N S .

N ego m in orem .
 104 A PP END I X .

N B . . If t h e m i n or of th e th ir d syllo gi sm h ad
been d en ie d th e c o n sequen t an d c on clu si on Of th i s
,

las t syllo gis m w o uld h av e bee n Val en t m i n or e t ,

”
ar gu m en t um .

A n A rgu m en t f t wo sy llogism s wit h t he m in or of

o ,

t he fi r s t den ied .

O PPO N E N S .

1 . S i A sit B c a dit qu aestio ;,

S ed A e st B ;
E rgo c adit qu wst io .

RE S P O N DE N S .

N ego m in orem .

P erg it O PPO N E N S .

2 Si O . S it D, v al en t m in or et a r u m e n tum
g
S ed C e st D
E rg o v al e n t m in or e t a rg um en tum .

S ho uld th e m i n or O f a c o n clud i n g syllo gi sm b e

”
false th e r esp on d en t d o e s n ot say N eg o m i n or e m
,
“
, ,

bu t pr o cee d s a t o n ce t o h is reply .

Th e a n tece d e n t as may be see n in th e p r ece d i n g

,

e xam p le s is fi rs t e n u n ci a te d in th e s ubj u n cti v e or

, , ,

a t le as t c o n d iti o n ally ; t h e n a ffir m e d in t h e m i n o r

, ,

p rem i ss in th e i n d ic a ti v e m oo d an d th e c o n sequen t
, ,

a cc or d i n gly e s ta bli sh e d .

I t m ay h appe n th at t h e thr ee c o n d iti o n al sy llo

,

gi sm s adm it O fbei n g r e d uce d to th e for m ofa si n gle

 O N A C A DE M I C AL D I S P U T A T I O N . 1 05

c ategoric al syllo gi sm ; to th e m aj or m i n or an d , ,

c o n clusi o n O f w h ic h th ey se v er ally c orresp o n d .

B ut e v en in i n st an c es O f th i s k i n d it is n ot n ec es
,

y
sary th a t t h e thr e e c o n d i t i o n al s llo gi sm s sho u ld b e

place d in th e s am e o r d e r a s t h e th r e e pr op o siti o n s
‘

O f t h e c a t e g o ric al sy llo gi sm if t h e O ppo n en t t h i n k s

,

th a t by a d i fferen t arran ge m en t h is s o p h i sm will

, ,

b e th e b e tte r c o n ce al e d .

Th e th r ee c o n d iti o n al syllo gi sm s O fan o pp o n en t s

’

argu m e n t wh e n th ey d o n ot c orresp on d wit h

,

th e thre e p ro p o siti o n s o f a c a tego ric al syllogi s m ,

w o uld req ui re in ord e r t o b e stat e d in fo r m to b e

, ,

e x p an d e d i n to t w o or m or e c a te g o ric al syllo gi sm s .

I n re sp o n d i n g to an O pp on en t it is by n o m e an s
,

n ece ssa ry t o u n f old in o n e s m i n d th e O bj e c t i o n s h e

’

h as add uce d i n t o as man y s tric t c a tegor ic al sy llo

gi sm s as will le ad to h is c o n clusi on for th i s w o uld
O ften be a tr ifl i n g an d te d i o u s pr o c e ss t o th e res .

p o n d e n t ; th o ugh i t is h ighly d e sir able t o p o sse s s

th e sk ill th a t w o ul d en able h i m if req uir e d t o go
, ,

th r o ugh it .

S ho uld th e re sp o n d e n t fro m th e s ubtlety Of h is

,

oppo n en t s so p h i sm or an y o t h e r c au se e x p e rie n ce
’

, ,

gre at d i ffi c ulty in d i sc o ve ri n g t h e pith of t h e Ob j ec

ti o n th e Mo d era tor u su ally a s sist s h i m by re
, ,
106 A PP E ND I X .

’
s t ati n g th e o pp o n e n t s a rgu m e n t in a m or e luci d
a n d i n telligible f orm ; an d so m e ti m e s d i recti n g his
a tte n ti on t o th e q u arte r in wh ic h th e fal la cy is
h i dd e n .

I t h as been al r e ad y s ta te d t o b e th e o pp on e n t s
’

p rov i n ce sho ul d th e r e sp on d e n t d en y th e m i n or Of
,

h is syllo gi sm t o c o n fi rm it by so m e m e d iu m O f
,

p roo f Th i s In th e DiVin it y Sch OOl is gen e r ally d o n e

.
,
r
,

by an appe al t o t e x ts O f S c rip t ure wh ic h it may b e ,

O bser v ed ar e c o mm o n ly cite d witho ut bei n g c alle d

,

for by t h e r e sp o n d e n t as t h ey o fte n affor d gro u n d

,

for c r itic al an imad v e rsi o n on th e p ar t of t h e p ro

fessor a n d O pp or tu n i ty for a fu r th e r tr i al Of th e
,

S kill an d k n o wle d ge O f th e d i spu ta n t s .

I t is u su al for t h e p ro fe ssor t o c all on th e resp on

d e n t for an i n te rp reta ti o n i n to L a tin O f th e m o re
ab st r u se an d d i ffic ult t e x ts of th e N ew Tes tam e n t ,

th a t may h appen to be qu o t e d by th e O pp on e n t .

F or cita ti o n s fro m t h e O ld T es ta m e n t th e V ulga te ,

is e m ploye d * .

"Vh e n th e r esp o n d e n t h a s rep lie d t o th e o pp o

n en t s O bj e c t 1 0 n t h e m o d e r a t or o cc as i o n ally d e m an d s
’

A c op y O ft h e Greek N ew Te sta m ent a n d oft h e V u lga te ,

v e r sion o f t h e O l d are p l a c ed on t h e desk of t h e re sp on

,

de nt s ro strum
’
.
1 08 A PP E N D I X .

A bo u t days before t he act is k ept the res

t en ,

po n de n t sho uld wait on the professo r in o r der to ,

obtain o fhim the seco n d q u estion This is always .

chose n exclusi v ely by the profe ssor him s elf who , ,

whe n the disp u tatio n is en ded deli ve r s a thesis ,

( called a D et er min a t ion) upon it I t is the p ro .

vi n ce of the respo n d en t to an swer the arg umen ts

bro ught agai n st both q u estio n s * .

I t is grea tly t o b e regr ette d th a t m an y c lergy m e afte r

,
n,

e n te ri n g on t h e p u b l ic du ti e s o f th e ir of fi c sh ould ofte e, n

n egle ct t o c u ltiva t e t h e a dv a n t a ges c n fe rr ed on th em b y a o

U n ive r sity e duc ati o N ot th a t it is de s ira b le

n . r e v en de , o

fe n sib le th a t a m i i te r of t h e G p el sh uld m ploy m u ch

, . n s os o e

o f h is ti m e e ith e r i clas ic al or phi l sophic al research es ;

n s o

b ut som e fam i li a rity with t he l g ic l G ree k a n d L ti n m i g ht

o o a a

fa irly b e e p ect ed o fe ve ry divi ne h oweve r a rdu ou s t h e du

x ,

ti es of h is p a ri h m ay b e I t is i n cre di b le h w m u ch ti m e
s . o

m ay b e s a tch e d for i m pro vem e n t ou t o f t h e b u si es t an d

n
”
m os t lab o ri u s l i fe
o E r a sm u s wrote h is
. P r a i se o f F olly ,

w hi le tra v e lli n g on h or seb a c k i n t o I t al y ; n t tu m illud e o

tem p us q u o e quo fuit in siden du m illit era t is f b ulis te re re , a

”
t ur .

No on e i sc on ti n ued for m an y y e a rs a m ode ra te

wh o h as d
c ul tiva ti on o f G ree k a n d L a ti n c an proc eed t o t he hi gh e r
,

deg rees a t t h e U n iv e rs ity with ou t di sa g reea b le a n ticip a ti on s

,

o f e m b a rr assm en t a n d di sg r a c e in t h e a ttem pt t o h ol d a
,

p ub lic di spu ta ti on .

T h e writi n g s o f L im b orc h m ay b e v e ry use ful t o any one

pre p ari ng for a divi n ity ac t .
 O N A C A D E M I C A L D I S P U T AT I O N . 1 09

Onthe profe ssor havi n g ascen d e d his rostr um ,

he directs t h e respon den t to b e gi n : A gas D o ,

” ”
mi n e The respon den t the n says O rem u s an d
. , ,

”
pron o un ces the p r ay e r A ction es n ostras &c
“
, .

H e afte rwa r ds proposes the qu estion s th u s :

u e s t ion es s un t :
Q ( ex em li
p g r a t ici
'

1 . O b la t io C h ris t i scme l fa c t a p mfect a redem

p t io
’
est .

2 . F ides j u st ifi ca ns non p otes t d b ou t s b

o er i us
p dis
j un

As the q u e stion on which the respo n de n t has

composed his th e sis is al ways p r oposed fi rst he ,

”
th e n says “
D e p riori an d proceeds to d elive r
, ,

h is thesis .

When the th e sis is con cluded the fi rst oppo n e n t ,

is directed by the profe ssor to ascend the rostru m

”
A scen dat opp on en t ium p rim u s .

The Oppo n en t the n reads t h e two q uestio n s as ,

the respon de n t had done before an d p r oceeds to ,

his argu me n ts .

T o gi v e as clear an idea as possib le of the manner

o f Opposi n g an d responding the disc u ssion of the
,

fi rst argument is here exhibited in the form of dia

log ue .
 1 10 A PP E N D I X .

O PP ON E N S .

C on t r a p r ior em .

“
1 S i D ivu s
. P a ulu s C h rist um ap pellet , A gnum
”
n ost rum p a sch al em , ca di t qu aest i o ;
“
S ed D ivu s P a ul u s C hrist um appellat , A gn um n os

t rum p asch alem

E r go cadi t qu mst io .

P rov oco a d priorem P aul i Ep i st . ad C o ri n th . ca p .

com . 7 1110 .

R E S P O N DE N S .

C on ce do m i no r em , et n e go cons e q uen ti am .

O PP ON E N S .

2 . S i a gn u s p asch alis n on e ss et sacrificiu m p ia culare ,

v al et c on se qu e n t i a ;
S ed agnu s p asch al is non erat sacrifi cium piaculare ;
E r go v al et c on s e qu en t i a .

R E S P ON DE NS .

N ego m i n o r em .

O PPON E N S .

P rov oc o ad E x odi cap 1 2 m m

. comm . 1 3m) .
et
’

u n de app aret sacrifi cium p asch al e p rim it us inst it ut um

fu i ss e in id ta n t u m , u t , san gu i n e forib u s asp e rso , an ge
lus v i n dex dom os I sra é lit aru m agn os ceret , et ill aesas
praet erir et ; et in saaculis sub secut is ob servat um fu i ss e
in id ta n tu m , u t m aj oru m suoru m ex E gypto l i b e
r ation em J u daei com m em oraren t .

S i domi n u s resp on den s n un c con cedat minorem ,

n ecesse est co n seq u e n tiam n e et : e t opponen s per

g
git ad sy llogism um terti u m .
 1 12 A PP E N D I X .

tita , n ullam aliam vim habere videt ur nisi comme

m orat ivam .
*

When the respon d en t has rep lied to the fi rst

obj e ction the professor either sign i fi e s his app r o
,

b a t ion of the a n swer or s u ggests an othe r more a

,
p
p r0 p ria t e an d satisfac tory H e the n directs the .

oppo n en t to proceed to his n ext argum e n t “ P ro

”
bes aliter .

S econ d A rgu m en t .

O PP ON E N S .

1 . doctri na de redem p t ion e h um an e h oc funda

Si .

m en to n it a t u r sc i l i c e t n e c e ss e fu i ss e u t D iv in ae j u sti
, ,

t i a: pr o h om in um p ec cat is sat isfi eret cadi t quie st io ,

.

Thec on diti ona l sy llog i sm s of which thi s obj e cti on

c on si sts c orresp on d with t he three prop ositi on s of a regu lar
,

c ate goric al syllogi sm a n d it m ay b e vi ewed as Cela ren t with

,

t h e pr i s tr p C hri st was t h e p asch al lam b ;

“
e m se a ns ose d ;
t h e p a sch al l a m b wa s not a pi a c ul ar sa cri fi c e ; th er efor e
”
C hri st was n o t a pi ac ular sa cri fi c e .

Cc T h e p as ch al l am b was n o t a pi ac ula r sa cri fi c e ;

- la C hri s t wa s t h e p asch al lam b ; th e re fore
- ren t C h ri st was n ot a pi a c ula r sa cri fi c e
. .

In t h e m aj o r prop ositi on t h e m i ddle te r m ( t h e p asch a l

,

la mb ) is u se d in it s pri m a ry and l ite ral se ns e ; in t h e m i n or

prop os iti on in it s se c on da ry an d m e ta ph oric al sense I t is
, .

n ot ,
th e re fo re fa irly c om p ared wi th t h e te r m s o f t h e con
,
”
e lu s i on or q u e sti on Thi s is F alla ci a aequ i o t
.
“
,
v c a ion is .

A fte r all t h e tr u th of t he m aj o r prop ositi on a dm its of

,

doub t .
 0N A C A D E M I C A L D I S P UTA T I O N . 1 13

S ed do ctri n a de re dem
p t ion e h u m an a h oc fun da ~

m en to n it it u r ;
E rgo c a di t q u ze st io .

2 S i, ut 11 0 0 e t fi c ere t u r , p oen a: pe c c a t is hu m a n is
—
.

deb i ta: in C h rist u m t ra n sl a t zn fu erin t , u n u m i n te r

om n es
p ec c at i lab e p u r u m ,
a v al e t c on se qu en ti a .

S e d, u t h oc e flic eret u r, & c .

E rgo v ale t c onse qu en ti a .

P r ov oc o a d E sa im c ap 5 3 tiu m .
.
com . 6 l0 ~
et ad p riorem
P etri E p is t olam c ap 2 5 c om ,
.
0 '
.

3 . S i v eroj ustiti ae propri um sit pmn as n on n i si de ,

n oc en t ib u s ex ig ere , v alen t c on seq u en ti a e t a rg um en

t um .

propri um e st
S e d j us t it iae , &c .

E r go v alen t c on sequ en t i a et a rgum en tum * .

p un i sh m en t o f t h e i nn oc e n t for t h e gu ilty say s

Th e ,

t h e opp onen t b e i n g re p u g n a n t t o t h e pri n cip l es o f j us tic e

, ,

c ould n o t h av e sa ti sfi ed D ivi n e j u stic e for t he si n s of m en .

T h i n o c en c e an d vic a ri ou s p u n i s h m en t o f C hri s t b e i n g
e n

s upp ose d t o b e c on c e de d t h e o bj e cti on s t a t e d in form w i ll

, , ,

a pp ea r th u s

Cc Wh a t is irrecon c ileab le with j u stic e c an no t sa ,

t is fy D ivin e j u st ic e .

—
la i n fl ict t h e p un i sh m e n t ofgu ilt on t h e i n n oc e n t
To ,

is irre on c ile a b le with j u s tic e ; th e re fo re

c

~
ren t I t c oul d n ot sa ti sfy D ivi n e j u stic e
. .

U n de r t h e m o ra l gov e r n m en t which G o d e e rci ses h e re x

,

t h e i n n o c en t v e ry fr e q ue t ly s u ffe r for t h e gu i lty I f th e n

n .
, ,

we a l lo w t h e m o r al go ve r m e n t a n d a ttri b u te s o f God vic a

n ,

r io u s p u n i sh m e n t a n d t h e D ivi n e j u stic e wi l l n o l on e r b e
g

K
1 14 A P PEN D I X .

R E S P ON S U M .

E Sac ris S cri p t uris h oe c oll i gen dum est de reun um

dem p t ion e h um an a ; sc i l i cet C hr i sti m ortem hu n c

u t h om i n es a p e ccati poan a l ib e
‘

e fl e c t um h ab uisse ,

r are t Q u od rat ioni sat is con sent an eum e st V i

. .

dem us e n im r e rum n atu ram a D iv ino Op ifi ce et Rec

tor e i ta con st it ut am u t p lu ri m a nob i s cont in gant ben e
,

fi cia aliorum op e qui saap e i n c omm oda volen t e s su b eun t

, ,

in id ta n t um u t n os a dj u ven t N ih il i g i tur ob j ici potes t .

c on tra doc t rinam de redem tion e h uma n s in S a cris

p .

S crip t uris t ra dit am qu od n on pari j u r e con tr a qu oti

,

dianum r eru m h um an arum e t Divin ae prov ident ia:

ordin em a dh ib eat u r .

Th ir d A rgu men t .

1 . Si D iv u s P aul us doceat ccs nam Dom in icam i dem

e sse C hrist ianis qu od ep ul aa i ca les
sacrif t um J u daeis
t um E t h n icis, ca di t qu ae st io .

S e d D i vu s P aulu s docet , & c .

E rgo ca di t qu ae st i o
—2 1
.

Pro voc o a d 1 C or x . . 16 .

2 . S i i g i tu r c oen a Dom i n i s i t epulum ex ob lat is valet ,

c on e s qu en tia .

S ed c mn a D omin i est & c ,

.

E rg o v al e t con s e qu en t i a .

c on si de red i n comp a ti b le T h e m i nor prem i ss of t h e c a te

.

g oric a l sy ll ogi sm wi ll b e de n i e d in th i s c ase t o b e u n i , ,

v e rsall
y tru e .
1 16 A PP E N D I X .

R E S P ON S U M .

N on docet P au l u s D om in ic am p rorsa s i dem

c oen am

s
es e C h rist ianis qu od J u daais a t qu e E t h n icis Ep ula:
sa c rifi cales A flirm a t q u an dam e ss e sim ilit u din em , et
.

h ae t an tu m p a r te , qu od in sit u t riqu e sa c rifi c an t iu m

c om m u n icat io c u m num ne i . N ec c om p ara t io a rc t ius

p rem en da e st A p ost ol u s n on a ffi rm a t C hri sti an os, in

.

E u ch arist ia c el eb r an da , e t E t h n icos, in E p ul is sa crifi

c alib us, i m i li te r a ge r e qu dd ob lat is v escan t u r
in h oc s ,

sed q u dd et C h ri st i a n i v e r o cu m D eo e t E t h n iei c u m ,

idolis su i s religiosa m c omm u n ic a t ion em i n sti tu an t

, .

F ou r t h A rg u m en t .

This an d the followi n g arg u m e n t a r e agai n st

the seco n d q u estio n accordi n g t o the r ules for,

k eepi n g a fi rst oppo n en cy .

C on t r a S ec u n da m .

1 . S i fides j u st ifi cat ion em an t ec e da t , c a di t qu ae st i o .

S e d fi des j u st ifi c a t ion em a n t e ce dit ;

E r go c a di t qu ae stio .

2 . Si Op er a q u aliac un qu e an e t j u st ifi cat ion em per

acta r at i on em p ec c a ti h ab ean t , v ale t c on se qu en t i a .

a nd th u s ,
p a rticul a r it a g re es with t h e m aj or te rm ;
in t ha t ,

in t h e m i n o r pre m i ss it is t a k en si m p ly a d th u s in
, ,
n ,

a n ot her p a rtic ula r ( viz it s pr opiti a t o ry ch a r a cte r ) it a g r ee s

,
.
,

w ith t h e m i no r t e r m I t is n ot th e re fo re fa irly c o mp a re d
.
, ,

w ith t h e t e r m s o f t h e c on c lu s i on Thi s m ay b e r e fe rre d t o

.

”
F a lla ci a a dicto se cu ndum q u i d ad dict um si m pliciter ,
.
 oN A C A D E MI C A L D I S P U T A T I O N . 1 17

S ed p e ra q u aliacu n qu e
o ,
&c .

E r go v alet c on se qu e n t i a .

3 .S i i g i tu r fi des q u aj u st ific at ionem c onsequ im u r,

e x ist ere po ssit a b on i s op erib us disj n uota , va len t c ou se

q uen t ia e t a rgum e n t um .

S e d fi de s qu a, & c .

E rgo v alen t c on se qu en t i a et a rg um en tum *

.

T he pp on e n t con ten ds th a t as j u stify i n g fa ith p re

o ,

c e de s j us ti fi c a ti on a n d a ll wor k s b e fore j u sti fi c a ti on a re

,

s i n ful th e re f
, or e j u s tifyi n g fa ith m a y e x i s t a p a rt from g ood

wo r k s T h e fo r m al s ta te m e n t o f thi s arg u m e n t r eq u ir es
.

fou r c a tegoric al sy llogi s m s .

1 .

Cc Wor k s th a t h a ve in th em t h e n atu re o f sin a re n ot

g ood wo r k s
- 1a A ll wo r k s don e b e fo re j us ti fi c at i on h a v e in th em
t h e n a t u re o f sin ; th e r e fo re
-
re t N o wor k s don e b e fo re j usti fi c a ti on a re good wor k s
n . .

2 .

Bar Wh ateve r is pre c e de d b y j u sti fi ca ti on is pre c e de d

b y wh a t p r c e des j u st ifi c a t ion
e

ba r G ood wo r k s a re prec e ded b y j usti fic a ti on th e re fore

- ra . Th ey a re pre ce de d b y wh at pre c e des j u sti fi c a ti on .

3 .

Ba r Wh a t prec edes j usti fi c a ti o n pre c ede s g ood wo r k s .

h c n c lu s ion f t h e la s t )
( q p
E u i o llen t t t
o e o o .

-
ba F a it h pre c de s j usti fi c a ti n th e re fore
e o

- ra . It pre c edes g oo d wor k s .

1 18 A PP E N D I X .

R E S P ON S U M .

C ogit a t ion e sola di stin gu i p ossun t fi des et op era

b on a F i de s fon s est op e r a bon a sun t fi u ent a ; fi des
.
,

c au sa op er a b on a e fi ect u s S im ul a c fi des ex ist at

‘

.
, ,

j u st ifi cat io in cip i t n ullaqu e m ora in t erp osit a sub se

, ,

q u u n t ur o p e ra b on a U t sol i g i tu r an t e r a di os sola r e s
.
,

it a fides an te op e r a b on a ; s ed fi de e x i st en te op er a ,

b on a prov en ian t n e c ess e est N e qu e m agi s disj un gi .

p ossun t a fi de qu am lux a sole ,

.

F ift h Argum en t .

p ran ti m er ce s t n b u at ur grati a sed

'

1 . Si o e n on e x

ex de b i to ca di t q u mst io
,
.

S ed op e r an ti m er c es & c , .

E rgo c a di t qu aest i o .

P rov oc o a d R om iv 4 . . .

4 .

B ar Wh ateve r pre ce des g ood wo rk s is di sti n ct from

th em 5
b a J u stifyi n g fa ith pre c edes goo d wo r k s th er e fore
ra I t is di sti n ct from th em
. .

F a ith m ay b e se p a r a ted fr om good wor k s o nly in th oug ht .

F a ith is t h e fou n ta i n h ead ; goo d wo r k s t h e s tr ea m s th a t

-
,

fi ow from it F a ith is t h e c a u se ; g ood work s t h e e ffe ct

.
, .

A s so on a s th e r e is fa ith j u s ti fi c ati on b e g i n s a n d g oo d
, ,

wo r k s i m m edi a tely fol lo w A s th e re fo r e t h e su n m u s t

.
, ,

h av e e i s te d b e fore t h e sunb e a ms so fa ith m u s t b e pr evi ou s

x ,

t o g ood wo r k s B ut if th e r e b e fa ith good wo r k s a re o f

.
,

n e c e ssity pr odu c ed ; nor c an th ey a n

y m or e b e se p a ra ted
fro m fa ith th an li g ht c an b e p arted from t he sun
, .
1 20 A PP E N D I X .

R E S P ON S U M .

F a t e ndum est , j u st ifi ea t ion em n ost ram D ivi n a ex

g r a t i a sol umm odo concessam esse n on au te m se qu i

3 .

Ce Wh a t is n ot t h e rewa r d ofh im wh o wo rk s
, h as no

c o nn ex i on with good wor k s

-
13 .

r ks ; I th ere fore
wh o- wo
- ren t I t h as n o c on nex i on with good wor k s
. .

4 .

Cc i n str um e ntal ca use of j usti fi c a ti on h as n o

Th e
m o re conn ex i on wi t h g ood wor k s th a n j ust ifi c a ,

ti on it sel f h a s ;
la J u stifyi n g fa ith is t h e i n str um en ta l c ause o fj rist i
fi c a t ion ; th e r e fo re
- re u t I t h as n o m ore c on nex i on with good work s th an
.

j ustifi c a ti on itself h as .

T h e m aj o r prop os iti o n o f t h e thir d sy l log i s m is u n duly

a ssu m e d Th a t wh ich is not t h e rewa rd o f wor k s m ay y e t
.

h a v e c onn ex i on with th em in ot her r esp e ct s Th ou g h j us .

t ifi e a t ion is a fa v ou r n ot a rewa r d o f wo r k s y e t wor k s m a y

, ,

b e re qu ired as a c on dit ion of j u sti fi c a tio n ; an d in thi s re

s p e ct th ey m a y b e i n se p a ra b ly c on ne cte d Thi s circum .

s t a n c e does n o t di m i n i s h o u r de b t o f g ra titu de t o G o d t o ,

w h ose g ra c e as t he e f ,
fi ci en t c ause a ll spi ritual b lessi ngs are
,

a scri b a b le .

Th ey wh o o bj e ct t o c all g oo d wo rk s “ C on di ti on s o f ,

salv a ti o n m a y t e r m th em t h e n e c e s sa ry fru its o f t h e fa ith

”
, ,

w h e r e b y we o b ta i n sa l va ti on ; al th oug h sal v a ti on it sel f m us t

b e a cc ou n te d a g ra t uito us b ene fi t o f God .

 O N A C A D E M I C A L D I S PU T A T I O N . 12 1

t u r, lic e t b on a op era p ro c au sa j ust ifi c at ion is n on h a

b en da s i n t n i h i l e sse i nte r fi denr e t b on a op e ra c om
,

m u ne F i e ri en i m p otest q uod S ac rae S cript u ra: r e v e r a

.
,

doc e n t u t op e ra b on a s i n t c on dit iones salut is qu am

, ,

t a m e n D iv in ee g ra t iaa q u a s i cau sm e ffic ie n t i a c c ept am

, ,

re fe rre deb em u s .

Si i p e ra b on a con dit iones sa lu t is app ellari t un e

n ol s o ,

e a l ic e t a pp ell e s fr uc tu s n ece ssarios fi dei illiu s q u a

,

s a l ut em con se qu im ur c um t am en sal us ip sa sit D e i

b e ne fi c iu m grat u it u m .

The o ppo n e n t whe n his last ar g ume n t has be e n

,

a n swere d by t he re spo n de n t d e sc e n ds from t h e ,

rost r um upo n t h e moderator th us dismissi n g him

”
S atis disp ut asti .

A C TS I N T H E C IV I L LAW .

B efore k ee pi n g the C i v i l L a w t he
an A c t in ,

st u den t s ub m its to t h e R egi u s P r o fessor in that

,

fac ulty a fe w q uestio n s that he m ay fi x on on e of

, ,

th em as a fi t s ubj ect for a La ti n th e sis * .

A c an di da te for t h e de gree of L L B m us t su b m i t t o .

t h e P r o fe sso r t h e q u sti o n h e m e a n s t o write u p o n a t l ea s t

e
,

on e te r m b e f re t h e a c t is k e pt
o A c a n di da te for t h e de
.

g re e o f LL D m u s t do t h e sa m e a t least t wo te r m s p re
. . ~

v io u s l
y t o h is a c t .
 A PP E N D I X .

A secon d q uestio n is also chosen by the professor

exclu sively who reads a D eterm in atio n on it whe n
, ,

the disp u tatio n is fi n ished .

O n the day of the exercise t h e respo n de n t ,

havi n g occ upied his rostr um an d the professo r ,

bei n g seated the F ather of the respon de n t s college

,
’

directs him t o begin D omi n e resp on den s ,

agas .
’I

Th e followi n g is a c opy oft h e pri nted q uesti on s prop osed

b y t h e P r o fessor in h is ex a m i n ati on p ap e r o f t h e presen t
y ea r O th e r q uesti ons in MS are al so g iv en t o e ach st u
. .

den t a cc ordi n g t o t h e na tu re o f t h e su bj ects prop ose d for

,

di sc u ssi on in t h e S ch ool s .

1 E p l a i n t h e n a tur e an d u ti lity ofsy llogism s in ge ner al

. x .

2 E x p l a i n t h e n a tu r e of t h e sy llog i sm s used in t h e law

.

s ch o ols .

3 S ta te a n i n stan c e of a D i lemm a in fa vo u r of y ou r fi r st
. .

q u e s t i on from
4 P rove y ou r fi rst qu esti on t o b e tr ue b y I n du c t i on from
.

5 F o rm an a rgum en t in t wo hyp oth e tic al sy l log i sms in

.
,

favour of y ou r fi rs t qu esti on from ,

6 F o r m in La tin an a rgum en t In th ree hyp oth e tic a l sy l

.
, ,

l ogism s a ga i n s t y ou r fi rs t qu esti on from

, ,

7 F o rm in L a ti n an a r g u m en t a ga i n s t y ou r se c on d
.
, ,

q uesti on in three hyp o th e tic al syl log i sm s fr om

, ,

Le t t h e m i n o r of t h e se c on d sy llog i sm b e fal se .

8 Ma k e a s h ort s tat em en t in E nglis h of y ou r fi r st

.
, ,

q u es ti on .

9 Ma k e a sh ort s ta tem en t in L a t in o f y ou r s ec on d
.
, ,

q u esti on .
1 24 A PP E N D I X .

In the co urse of t h e act the professor at his , ,

disc r e tion tries t h e abi lity o f the re spon de n t by In

, ,

t erroga t ories on s u ch s ubj ects as are con n ected with

t h e q u estio n .

Th e followi n g is a specim en of the n at ure oft h e

q uestio n s disc u ssed an d of the mann e r o fa r gu i n g

,

agai n st th e m The st ud en t may easi ly c ollect fr o m

.
,

the r efere n ces * t h e n at u re an d force of the a r g u

,

Quaes t ion es su n t :

I . D ec em vir i c r edit or ib u s in de b it ores j us t rit ce a t

que
n ecis non de der un t .

2 . R om a n i p rim os C hris t ian os n on ideo p cr secu t i

su n t ,
gu ia cact us no c t u r n os cele bra b a n t .

C on t r a p r ior em .

1 . S i in l ege D e c em vir al i de deb it ore , p mn a c a piti s

n on n i s i de ul ti m o su pp l i c i o est a cc ip ien da , c a dit

q u azst io .

S ed in lege D e c em vir ali , & c .

E rgo cad i t qu ze st io .

2 . S i dom i n i s in se rv os j u s er at vi ta atqu e necis ,

v ale t m i n or .

py A co of t he Corp us J ur is Civilis ,
isp la c e d on t he

r ostr um o f t h e resp on den t ,

a nd a n o th e r o n th a t of t he

o pp onen t .
 ON A C A D E MI C A L D I S P U T A T I O N . 1 25

S e d dom i n i s in se rv os , &c .

E r go v a l e t m i n or .

3 . S i sari s j u r e D e c em viral i in servit u t e m

con v ic t i

re digeb a u t u r, v alen t c on se qu en t i a e t a rgu m en tu m .

S ed ae ri s c on v ic t i, &c .

E rg o v alen t c on se qu e n ti a et a rgum en tum .

The oppo n en t th e n re fe rs t h e r e spo n d e n t to the

follo wi n g a u thoriti e s in c on fir m atio n o f his a rg u
m en t an d it is the d u ty of the respo n d e n t to ma k e
,

his a n sw er .

In s 1 8 1
. . . .

D 1 5 5
. . . .

M att 18 25 . . .

L iv H ist 6 l 4
. . . .

Con t ra a lt er a m .

1 . c au sa p ersecu t ion um qu ib u s p ri m i C h ri sti an i

Si
vex ab an t u r au t ab
, ip sa C h ri st i rel i gi one au t ex
q u adam r a ti on e civi l i p et en da est c a dit qu aest i o ,
.

S e d c au sa p ersec u t ionu m & c ,

.

E rgo c adi t qu ae st i o .

2 . S i Ro m an i om n i b u s fer e g en t i b u s su am r el i g i o
n em e t suos ritu s c eleb ra r e p erm it t eren t v alet c ou se ,

qu en t ia .

S e d R om an i , & c .

E rg o v alet c on se q u en t i a .

3 S i i g it u r n e c e sse e st u t q u ee dam ra t i o civi li s eos

.

ex c it a re t a d C h ri s t i an os v ex an dos v ale t c on s e qu en ti a ,
.

S ed n e c esse e st u t & c , .

E rgo v a le t c on se qu en t i a .
 1 26 APP E N D I X .

4 . i sta ratio fu i t metu s ne qui d detrimen ti caperet

Si
resp u b lica v al en t con se qu en t i a e t a rgum en tum
,
.

S ed i sta rati o fuit & c ,

.

E rgo v ale n t con se qu e n tia et argumen tum .

T ac A nn a" 1 , 73
'
. . .

x ii Tab . .

Le g G ab . .

SC T Marc .

D 4 7 , 22, I
. .

D 47, 1 1 , 2
. .

In the p rogress O f this ar g ume n t the opponent ,

might if occasion req uired refe r to the sacred

, ,

S cripture as well as to the a u thorities abo v e m en

,

t ion ed .

Th e
’

respo n dent s answer will be s uggested partly

fr om his own i n terpretation of these a u thorities
cited by t h e oppone n t an d partly fr om his o wn ,

v iew O f the q u estio n in ge n eral .

A C TS I N ME DI C I N E .

A medical thesis may be c omposed on an y prae

tic al physiolo gical or pathologi cal q ues tion I t
, , .

m u st be of s uch a len gth as n ot to cons u m e mo re

t h an h alf an ho ur in the deli v ery
- -
.
 12 8 A PP E N D I X .

Qu ees t ion es su n t :

1 Venwsect io p r im u m
. et
p r wcip u u m r emediu m es t

E n t er it idis .

2 . B ilis é sa ngu ine venoso se cern it u r .

O PP ON E N S .

C on t r a p r ior em .

1 . S i in t est inor um in fi am m at io ab alvo diu ast ri c t a

e t su pp ressa smp e oria t u r, c a dit qu ze st io .

S e d in t e st in or um & c . sasp e orit u r ;

Ergo ca di t qu iest io .

R E S P O N DE N S .

C on c e do in t est in orum in fi amm at ionem cum al vo diu

as t rict a sasp iirs c on u n ct am j e sse , e t aliqu a n do ex h ac
o ri g i n e exor tam .

O PP ON E N S .

2 . solve r e et pu rg a re p ri m u m e t pr aec ip uum

S i al vu m
s it h u u s m al i r em e di u m v al e t c on s e q u e n t i a
j , .

S ed a lv um solv e r e & c ,
.

E r go v ale t c on seq u en ti a .

R E S P O N DE N S .

C on c e do qu oqu e m ax i m i esse m om e n t i ut al vu s as
t i c ta
s r solv a t u r .

O PP ON E N S .

3 .S i igi tu r in t e st inorum in fi amm a t io ab al v o

a s t ric t a orta , opti m e cu re t ur m edic a m en t is p u rg an t ib u s ,

v alen t c on sequ en ti a et a r g um en t um .

S e d in t est ino ru m in fia m m at io, & c .

E rg o v al e nt c onse q u en ti a et a rgu m en tu m .
 ON A C A D E M I C A L DI S P U T A T I O N . 129

R ESP O N DE N S .

I n h oe m orb o re s m ax i m i m om en ti est u t dep ella t u r

in fi am m a t io, id qu od
pti m e p er v en te sec t ion em
o

e fiic it u r A nim a dvert en dum q u oqu e m edi cam en ta

.

r an t ia sze e vim su am n on e x erere n rsr p ost de

p g
u p ,

t ract ion em san gu i n i s .

O PP ON E N S .

C on t ra a lt er a m .

1 . S i in i al i a glan du l a c orp ori s praet erqu am

om n ,

h ep at e se cret io h u m oris fi a t e sa n guin e a r teri os o

, ,

cadi t qu ae stio .

S e d in om n i & c .

E r go ca di t q u asst io .

R E S P O N DE N S .

C on ce do m i norem e t ne g o c ons e quen ti am .

O P P O NE N s .

2 . S i in r eb u s ob sc u ris in v est igan dis c on fi dere

ne cesse s it com p arat ion r sim ilit udinis v el analogies ,

v alet c on se qu e n t i a .

S ed in r eb u s ob scu ri s & c .

E rgo v ale t c onseq uen ti a .

R E S P O N DE N S .

C on c e d o m i nor em & c .

O PP ON E N S .

3 . i gi tu r ab h a c c om p a r at i on e con cluden du m
Si
s i t ut b i l i s e san g ui n e arte ri oso secern at u r v alen t
, ,

c on s e qu en t i a e t ar gum en tum .

S ed ab h ac c om para t i on e & c .

E rgo v alen t c ons equen t i a e t a rgum e ntum .

130 A PP E N D I X .

R E S P O N DE N S .

A rg um en to dom i n i opp on e n t is refra ga t ur quidem

anal ogi a qu um j e cori qu od b i lem secern it
, , , sa ngui s
v en os us supp edit e t ur ( ex V en a P ort arum
,
s c i l ic et )
,

sim il i m odo qu o c aet eris glan dulis san guis arteriosu s ,

ex art eriis s uis .

A C TS I N T HE S C H O O L O F AR T S .

The P relim in ar i e s of these A cts are o fn ecessity , ,

well k n ow n to all wh o are con cern ed in k e epi n g

th e m N 0 on e can oppose or r espo n d in the S chool
.

o f A rts till he has resided se v en Te r ms in the

,

U n i v ersity A part i c ular in trod uctio n to the

.

follo wi n g q u estio n s wo ul d there fore b e sup erfl u

, ,

0 118.

Qua s t iones s un t :

1 . Re ct é s t a t uit N ewt on us in n ort h sud sec t ion e lihr i

2 . Re c t é ses e ha ben t C a lcu li t u m

t ia lis t um I n t egr a lis .

3 . Re ct é st a t uit P a leius de Vir t u t e .

C on t r a p r im a m .

1 . piral i s r ec i p roca in a n t ecedent ia revol

S i c um s

va t u r e a dem v eloc i tat e a n gul ari u a c or u s in cous e

q p
qu en t ia m ovet ur o rb i ta in fi x o spatio descript a fi a t
,
132 A PP E N DI X .

Sed i n ter l i m i te s & c .

E r go c a dit q u at st io
—d —b
.

u
n l a lt
2 . i n ter eosdem l i m ite s
Si x x fi at
n

v ale t c on se qu en tia .

S e d i n ter & c .

E r go v al e t c on s eq u en ti a .

a b 0
1 1
3 S i i g i tu r
. c um n " o, fiat 0
seu
0
se u

o, v alen t con se qu en t i a et a rgum en tum .

S e d c um & c .

E rg o v alen t c on s e qu en t i a et argu m en tum .

R E S P ON S U M .

”
h La ‘2
1 +h l
.
2
+ &c
.

a . . a . n + 71 .

h l b l 2
l +h l 6
. .

+& c
.

+ n2
-
. . . 71 ,

1 . 2

—h
{ It I z b
} +& c
"
a . a . . n .

l —h l
{
" n b" h l Q l b
m
u
. a . .
2
+& c
.

a n
h
.

l 2

aR —h '

E r go v alor frac t ion is cu m n _: o n on e va n esc it ,

-

se d fit h l
. .

g idq u e n u ll a discrepan t ia ex ist it .

The fi rst oppo n e n t prod uces on e o ther simi lar

arg umen t agai n st this q uestio n .
 ON A C A D E MI C A L D I S P UT A T I O N . 133

C on t r a t er t ia m .

1 . S i D ei v ol un ta s sit virtu ti s r egula cadi t qu wst io

,
.

S ed D ei v olun ta s est ,
&c .

E rg o c adi t q u ee st io .

2 . S i D eiv olun tas i deo nos a st ringat qu i a p roem i a

p wn ze qu e v it w fu tu ra: e x Dei a rb itrio p en de n t v ale t ,

c on se qu en t i a .

S e d Dei v olu n tas & c .

E rgo v al e t c on s e qu en tia .

3 . i g i tur p os i to qu od angeloru m m alorum p ri n

Si ,

c e p s s um m o r e rum i m p eri o p ot it u s e sset v olu n ta s ,

ej u s n os p a ri j u re as t rin g e re t v alen t c onse qu en ti a et

,

a r gu m e n tu m .

S e d p osito q uod & c

,
.

E rgo v al ent c on s e qu en ti a e t a rg um e n tum .

R ESP ON S U M .

Ut al i a t aceam Deu s h om i n es fel ic e s v ult ; an ge

,

lor u m m a lom m p ri n c ep s m iseros ; h u i c u t resist a m us

, ,

i ll i u t ob ediam u s r at i o et n atu ra su a dent P riusq u am

,
.

a n g el oru m m al oru m prin c e p s h om inu m felicit at em

v elle p ossit n atu r am su am se ex u at n ec esse est
, .

A gai n st t h e third q u estio n on e a r g ume n t o n ly

is prod uced .

FI N I S .