Chapter 1 Introduction To Portfolio Theory: 1.1 Portfolios of Two Risky Assets
Chapter 1 Introduction To Portfolio Theory: 1.1 Portfolios of Two Risky Assets
1
Introduction to Portfolio
Theory
Updated: August 9, 2013.
This chapter introduces modern portfolio theory in a simplified setting
where there are only two risky assets and a single risk-free asset.
1
2 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
The expected returns, and , are our best guesses for the monthly
returns on each of the stocks. However, because the investment returns are
random variables we must recognize that the realized returns may be different
from our expectations. The variances, 2 and 2 , provide measures of the
uncertainty associated with these monthly returns. We can also think of the
variances as measuring the risk associated with the investments. Assets with
high return variability (or volatility) are often thought to be risky, and assets
with low return volatility are often thought to be safe. The covariance
gives us information about the direction of any linear dependence between
returns. If 0 then the two returns tend to move in the same direction;
if 0 the returns tend to move in opposite directions; if = 0 then
the returns tend to move independently. The strength of the dependence
between the returns is measured by the correlation coefficient If
is close to one in absolute value then returns mimic each other extremely
closely, whereas if is close to zero then the returns may show very little
relationship.
Example 1 Two risky asset portfolio information
Table 1.1 gives annual return distribution parameters for two hypothetical
assets A and B. Asset A is the high risk asset with an annual return of
= 175% and annual standard deviation of = 258% Asset
B is a
lower risk asset with annual return = 55% and annual standard deviation
of = 115% The assets are assumed to be slightly negatively correlat
ed
with correlation coefficient = −0164 Given the standard deviations a
nd
the correlation, the covariance can be determined from = =
( −0164)(00258)(0115) = −0004875 In R, the example data
is
> mu.A = 0.175
> sig.A = 0.258
> sig2.A = sig.A^2
> mu.B = 0.055
> sig.B = 0.115
> sig2.B = sig.B^2
> rho.AB = -0.164
> sig.AB = rho.AB*sig.A*sig.B
¥
Table 1.1: Example data for two asset portfolio.
The portfolio problem is set-up as follows. We have a given amount of
initial wealth 0 and it is assumed that we will exhaust all of our wealth
between investments in the two stocks. The investment problem is to decide
how much wealth to put in asset A and how much to put in asset B. Let
denote the share of wealth invested in stock A, and denote the share
of wealth invested in stock B. The values of and can be positive or
negative. Positive values denote long positions (purchases) in the assets.
Negative values denote short positions (sales).1 Since all wealth is put into
the two investments it follows that + = 1 If asset is shorted, then
it is assumed that the proceeds of the short sale are used to purchase more
of asset Therefore, to solve the investment problem we must choose the
values of and
Our investment in the two stocks forms a portfolio, and the shares and
are referred to as portfolio shares or weights. The return on the portfolio
over the next month is a random variable, and is given by
which is a linear combination or weighted average of the random variables
and . Since and are assumed to be normally distributed,
is also normally distributed. We use the properties of linear combinations of
random variables to determine the mean and variance of this distribution.
proceeds from the short sale are usually kept on account with a broker and there often
restrictions that prevent the use of these funds for the purchase of other assets. The short
position is closed out when the asset is repurchased and then returned to original owner.
If the asset drops in value then a gain is made on the short sale and if the asset increases
in value a loss is made.
4 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
= [ ] = + (1.4)
2 2 2 2 2
= var( ) = + + 2 (1.5)
q 2 2 (1.6)
2 2
= SD( ) = + +
2
That is,
2
∼ ( )
The results (1.4) and (1.5) are so important to portfolio theory that it i
s
worthwhile to review the derivations. For the first result (1.4), we have
by the linearity of the expectation operator. For the second result (1.5), w
e
have
2 2
var( ) [( − ) ] = [( ( − ) + ( − )) ]
2 2 2 2
= [ ( − ) + ( − ) + 2 ( − )( − )]
2 2 2 2
[( − ) ] + [( − ) ] + 2 [( − )(
− )]
2 2 2 2
+ + 2
Notice that the variance of the portfolio is a weighted average of the variance
s
of the individual assets plus two times the product of the portfolio weight
s
times the covariance between the assets. If the portfolio weights are bot
h
positive then a positive covariance will tend to increase the portfolio variance
,
because both returns tend to move in the same direction, and a negativ
e
covariance will tend to reduce the portfolio variance. Thus finding assets wit
h
negatively correlated returns can be very beneficial when forming portfolio
s
because risk, as measured by portfolio standard deviation, is reduced. Wha
t
is perhaps surprising is that forming portfolios with positively correlate
d
assets can also reduce risk as long as the correlation is not too large.
Example 2 Two asset portfolios
Consider creating some portfolios using the asset information in Table 1.1
.
The first portfolio is an equally weighted portfolio with = = 05
Using
(1.4)-(1.6), we have
= (05) · (0175) + (05) · (0055) = 0115
2 2 2
= (05) · (0067) + (05) · (0013)
+2 · (05)(05)(−0004866)
= 001751
√
= 001751 = 01323
This portfolio has expected return half-way between the expected returns
on assets A and B, but the portfolio standard deviation is less than half-
way between the asset standard deviations. This reflects risk reduction via
diversification. In R, the portfolio parameters are computed using
> x.A = 0.5
> x.B = 0.5
> mu.p1 = x.A*mu.A + x.B*mu.B
> sig2.p1 = x.A^2 * sig2.A + x.B^2 * sig2.B + 2*x.A*x.B*sig.AB
> sig.p1 = sqrt(sig2.p)
> mu.p1
[1] 0.115
> sig2.p1
[1] 0.01751
> sig.p1
[1] 0.1323
Next, consider a long-short portfolio with = 15 and = −05 In this
portfolio, asset B is sold short and the proceeds of the short sale are used to
leverage the investment in asset A. The portfolio characteristics are
= (15) · (0175) + ( −05) · (0055) = 0235
2 2 2
= (15) · (0067) + ( −05) · (0013)
+2 · (15)(−05)(−0004866)
= 01604
√
= 01604 = 04005
This portfolio has both a higher expected return and standard deviation than
asset A. In R, the portfolio parameters are computed using
6 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
> x.A = 1.5
> x.B = -0.5
> mu.p2 = x.A*mu.A + x.B*mu.B
> sig2.p2 = x.A^2 * sig2.A + x.B^2 * sig2.B + 2*x.A*x.B*sig.AB
> sig.p2 = sqrt(sig2.p2)
> mu.p2
[1] 0.235
> sig2.p2
[1] 0.1604
> sig.p2
[1] 0.4005
VaR = 0
¥
where is the quantile of the distribution of and is given by
The weighted asset quantile (1.9) is not equal to the portfolio quantile (1.8)
unless = 1 Hence, weighted asset VaR is in general not equal to portfolio
VaR because the quantile (1.9) ignores the correlation between
0 050 = ( + 05) and
0
Example 3 Portfolio VaR
0 050 = ( + 05)
0
Consider an initial investment of 0 =$100,000. Assuming that returns are
simple, the 5% VaRs on assets A and B are
VaR 005
= (0175 + 0258(−1645)) · 100 000 = −24 937
=
VaR005
= (0055 + 0115(−1645)) · 100 000 = −13 416
=
and the weighted average of the individual asset VaRs is
The 5% VaR on the long-short portfolio with = 15 and = −05 is
VaR005 = 0050 = (0235 + 04005(−1645)) · 100 000 = −42
371
and the weighted average of the individual asset VaRs is
> w0 = 100000
> VaR.A = (mu.A + sig.A*qnorm(0.05))*w0
> VaR.A
[1] -24937
> VaR.B = (mu.B + sig.B*qnorm(0.05))*w0
> VaR.B
8C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
[1] -13416
> VaR.p1 = (mu.p1 + sig.p1*qnorm(0.05))*w0
> VaR.p1
[1] -10268
> x.A*VaR.A + x.B*VaR.B
[1] -19177
> VaR.p2 = (mu.p2 + sig.p2*qnorm(0.05))*w0
> VaR.p2
[1] -42371
> x.A*VaR.A + x.B*VaR.B
[1] -30698
Example 4 Create R function to compute portfolio VaR
The previous example used repetitive R calculations to compute the 5%
VaR
of an investment. An alternative approach is to first create an R functio
n to
compute the VaR given (VaR probability) and 0, and then a
pply
the function using the inputs of the different assets. A simple functi
on to
compute VaR based on normally distributed asset returns is
normalVaR <- function(mu, sigma, w0, ta i l . p r o b = 0.01, invert
=FALSE) {
## compute normal VaR f o r collection of assets given mean an
d sd vector
## inputs:
## mu n x 1 vector of expected returns
## sigma n x 1 vector of standard deviations
## w0 scalar initial investment i n $
## ta i l . p r o b scalar tail probability
## invert l o g i ca l . If TRUE report VaR as positive number
## output:
## VaR n x 1 vector of left tail return quantiles
## References:
## Jorian (2007) pg 111.
if ( length(mu) != length(sigma) )
stop("mu and sigma must have same number of elements")
if ( ta i l . p r o b < 0 || ta i l . p r o b > 1)
stop("tail.prob must be between 0 and 1")
VaR = w0*(mu + sigma*qnorm(tail.prob))
if ( i n ve r t ) {
VaR = -VaR
}
return(VaR)
}
Using the normalVaR() function, the 5% VaR values of asset A, B and equally
weighted portfolio are:
> normalVaR(mu=c(mu.A, mu.B, mu.p1),
+ sigma=c(sig.A, sig.B, sig.p1),
+ w0=100000, tail.prob=0.05)
[1] -24937 -13416 -10268
1. Returns are covariance stationary and ergodic, and jointly normally
distributed over the investment horizon. This implies that means, vari-
ances and covariances of returns are constant over the investment hori-
zon and completely characterize the joint distribution of returns.
2. Investors know the values of asset return means, variances and covari-
ances.
3. Investors only care about portfolio expected return and portfolio vari-
ance. Investors like portfolios with high expected return but dislike
portfolios with high return variance.
Given the above assumptions we set out to characterize the set of efficient
portfolios: those portfolios that have the highest expected return for a given
level of risk as measur ed by portfolio va
riance. These are the p ortfolios that
0.20
investors are most inter ested in holding.
0.15
10 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
0.10
0.05
p
0.00
Figure 1.1: Portfolio frontier of example data.
For illustrative purposes we will show calculations using the data in the
Table 1.1. The collection of all feasible portfolios, or the investment possi-
bilities set, in the case of two assets is simply all possible portfolios that can
be formed by varying the portfolio weights and such that the weights
sum to one ( + = 1). We summarize the expected return-risk (mean-
variance) properties of the feasible portfolios in a plot with portfolio expected
return, , on the vertical axis and portfolio standard deviation, , on the
horizontal axis. The portfolio standard deviation is used instead of variance
because standard deviation is measured in the same units as the expected
value (recall, variance is the average squared deviation from the mean).
Example 5 Investment possibilities set for example data
The investment possibilities set or portfolio frontier for the data in Table 1.1
is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Here the portfolio weight on asset A, , is varied
from -0.4 to 1.4 in increments of 0.1 and, since = 1 − the weight on
asset B then varies from 1.4 to -0.4. This gives us 18 portfolios with weights
> x.A = seq(from=-0.4, to=1.4, by=0.1)
> x.B = 1 - x.A
> mu.p = x.A*mu.A + x.B*mu.B
> sig2.p = x.A^2 * sig2.A + x.B^2 * sig2.B + 2*x.A*x.B*sig.AB
> sig.p = sqrt(sig2.p)
> p l o t( si g . p , mu.p, type="b", pch=16,
+ ylim=c(0, max(mu.p)), xlim=c(0, max(sig.p)),
+ xlab=expression(sigma[p]), ylab=expression(mu[p]),
+ col=c(rep("red", 6 ) , rep("green", 13)))
> p l o t( si g . p , mu.p, type="b", pch=16,
+ ylim=c(0, max(mu.p)), xlim=c(0, max(sig.p)),
+ xlab=expression(sigma[p]), ylab=expression(mu[p]),
+ col=c(rep("red", 6 ) , rep("green", 13)))
> text(x=sig.A, y=mu.A, labels="Asset A", pos=4)
> text(x=sig.B, y=mu.B, labels="Asset B", pos=4)
¥
Notice that the plot in ( ) − space looks like a parabola turned on its
side (in fact, it is one side of a hyperbola). Since it is assumed that investors
desire portfolios with the highest expected return, for a given level of risk,
combinations that are in the upper left corner are the best portfolios and
those in the lower right corner are the worst. Notice that the portfolio at the
bottom of the parabola has the property that it has the smallest variance
among all feasible portfolios. Accordingly, this portfolio is called the global
minimum variance portfolio.
Efficient portfolios are those with the highest expected return for a given
level of risk. These portfolios are colored green in Figure 1.1. Inefficient port-
folios are then portfolios such that there is another feasible portfolio that has
the same risk () but a higher expected return (). These portfolios are
colored red in Figure 1.1. From Figure 1.1 it is clear that the inefficient
portfolios are the feasible portfolios that lie below the global minimum vari-
ance portfolio, and the efficient portfolios are those that lie above the global
minimum variance portfolio.
12 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
1.2.1 Computing the Global Minimum Variance Port-
folio
It is a simple exercise in calculus to find the global minimum variance port-
folio. We solve the constrained optimization problem3
2 2 2 2 2
min = + + 2
+ = 1
This constrained optimization problem can be solved using two methods.
The first method, called the method of substitution, uses the constraint to
substitute out one of the variables to transform the constrained optimization
problem in two variables into an unconstrained optimization problem in one
variable. The second method, called the method of Lagrange multipliers, in-
troduces an auxiliary variable called the Lagrange multiplier and transforms
the constrained optimization problem in two variables into an unconstrained
optimization problem in three variables.
The substitution method is straightforward. Substituting = 1 −
into the formula for 2 reduces the problem to
2 2 2 2 2
min = + (1 − ) + 2 (1 − )
The first order conditions for a minimum, via the chain rule, are
2 min 2 min 2 min
0= = 2 − 2(1 − ) + 2 (1 − 2
)
and straightforward calculations yield
2
min − min min
2 2 =1 − (1.10)
+ − 2
=
The method of Lagrange multipliers involves two steps. In the first step,
the constraint + = 1 is put into homogenous form + − 1 = 0
In the second step, the Lagrangian function is formed by adding to 2 the
homogenous constraint multiplied by an auxiliary variable (the Lagrange
multiplier) giving
2 2 2 2
( ) = + + 2 + ( + − 1)
3 A review of optimization and constrained optimization is given in the appendix to this
chapter.
Example 6 Global minimum variance portfolio for example data
Using the data in Table 1.1 and (1.10) we have
The expected return, variance and standard deviation of this portfolio are
= (02021) · (0175) + (07979) · (0055) = 007925
2 2 2
= (02021) · (0067) + (07979) · (0013)
+2 · (02021)(07979)(−0004875)
= 000975
√
= 000975 = 009782
> xA.min = (sig2.B - sig.AB)/(sig2.A + sig2.B - 2*sig.AB)
> xB.min = 1 - xA.min
> xA.min
[1] 0.2021
14 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
> xB.min
[1] 0.7979
> mu.p.min = xA.min*mu.A + xB.min*mu.B
> sig2.p.min = xA.min^2 * sig2.A + xB.min^2 * sig2.B +
+ 2*xA.min*xB.min*sig.AB
> sig.p.min = sqrt(sig2.p.min)
> mu.p.min
[1] 0.07925
> sig.p.min
[1] 0.09782
¥
approaches a straight line connecting the portfolio with all wealth invested in
asset B, ( ) = (0 1), to the portfolio with all wealth invested in asset
0.15
A,
( ) = (1 0). This case is illustrated in Figure 1.2. As approac
hes
0.10
zero the set starts to bow toward the axis, and the power o
f diversifica-
0.05
tion starts to kick in. If = −1 then the set actually touches the axis.
What this means is that if assets A and B are perfectly negatively correlated
then there exists a portfolio of A and B that has positive expected return
0.00
and zero variance! To find the portfolio with 2 = 0 when = −1 we use
(1.10) and the fact that = to give
min min
= 1 −
+
=
The case with = −1 is also illustrated in Figure 1.2.
1
1
Asset A
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
p
1.2.3 Optimal Portfolios
Given the efficient set of portfolios as described in Figure 1.1, which portfolio
will an investor choose? Of the efficient portfolios, investors will choose the
one that accords with their risk preferences. Very risk averse investors will
want a portfolio that has low volatility (risk) and will choose a portfolio very
close to the global minimum variance portfolio. In contrast, very risk tolerant
16 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
investors will ignore volatility and seek portfolios with high expected returns.
Hence, these investors will choose portfolios with large amounts of asset A
which may involve short-selling asset B.
1.3.1 Efficient portfolios with one risky asset and one
risk-free asset
Consider an investment in asset B and the risk-free asset (henceforth referred
to as a T-bill). Since the risk-free rate is fixed (constant) over the investment
horizon it has some special properties, namely
= [ ] =
var( ) = 0
cov( ) = 0
Let denote the share of wealth in asset B, and = 1 − denote the
share of wealth in T-bills. The portfolio return is
= (1 − ) + = + ( − )
The quantity − is called the excess return (over the return on T-bills)
on asset B. The portfolio expected return is then
= + ([ ] − ) = + ( − ) (1.11)
4 The default-free assumption of U.S. debt has recently been questioned due to the in-
ability of the U.S. congress to address the long-term debt problems of the U.S. government.
The more we invest in asset B the higher the risk premium on the portfolio.
Because the risk-free rate is constant, the portfolio variance only depends
on the variability of asset B and is given by
2 2 2
=
The portfolio standard deviation is therefore proportional to the standard
deviation on asset B
= (1.12)
which we can use to solve for
=
Using the last result, the feasible (and efficient) set of portfolios follows the
equation
−
= + · (1.13)
which is simply straight line in ( ) − space with intercept and slope
−
of the CAL is called the Sharpe ratio (SR) or Sharpe’s slope (named after the
economist William Sharpe), and it measures the risk premium on the asset
per unit of risk (as measured by the standard deviation of the asset).
Example 8 Portfolios of T-Bills and risky assets
The portfolios which are combinations of asset A and T-bills and combina-
tions of asset B and T-bills, using the data in Table 1.1 with = 003 are
illustrated in Figure 1.3 which is created using the R code
. This line is often called the capital allocation line (CAL). The slope
1 C H A PT ER 1 IN TR OD U C T I ON TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
8
0.20
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
p
0.15
Figure 1.3: Portfolios of T-Bills and risky assets.
0.10
>r.f = 0.03
0.05
#T- b i l l s + asset A
>x.A = seq(from=0, to=1.4, by=0.1)
0.00
>mu.p.A = r.f + x.A*(mu.A - r.f)
>sig.p.A = x.A*sig.A
#T- b i l l s + asset B
>x.B = seq(from=0, to=1.4, by=0.1)
>mu.p.B = r.f + x.B*(mu.B - r.f)
>sig.p.B = x.B*sig.B
#plot portfolios of T-Bil l s and assets A and B
>plot(sig.p.A, mu.p.A, type="b", col="black", ylim=c(0, max(mu
+.p.A)),
+ xlim=c(0, max(sig.p.A, si g.p.B)), pch=16,
> xlab=expression(sigma[p]), ylab=expression(mu[p]))
>points(sig.p.B, mu.p.B, type="b", col="blue", pch=16)
>text(x=sig.A, y=mu.A, labels="Asset A", pos=4)
text(x=sig.B, y=mu.B, labels="Asset B", pos=1)
> text(x=0, y=r.f, labels=expression(r[f]), pos=2)
Notice that expected return-risk trade off of these portfolios is linear. Al
so,
notice that the portfolios which are combinations of asset A and T-bills
have
expected returns uniformly higher than the portfolios consisting of asset
B
and T-bills. This occurs because the Sharpe ratio for asset A is higher
than
the ratio for asset B:
0175 − 003
S − = = 0562
0258
R
=
− 0055 − 003
SR
= = = 0217
0115
Hence, portfolios of asset A and T-bills are efficient relative to portfolios
of
asset B and T-bills. ¥
The previous example shows that the Sharpe ratio can be used to r
ank
the risk return properties of individual assets. Assets with a high Sha
rpe
ratio have a better risk-return tradeoff than assets with a low Sharpe
ratio.
Accordingly, investment analysts routinely rank assets based on their Shar
pe
ratios.
1 Efficient portfolios with two risky assets
.
4
and a risk-free asset
Now we expand on the previous results by allowing our investor to fo
rm
portfolios of assets A, B and T-bills. The efficient set in this case will still
be
a straight line in ( ) − space with intercept . The slope of the
efficient
= 0217 and the CAL intersects the parabola at point B. This is clearly
set, the maximum Sharpe ratio, is such that it is tangent to the efficient
set
constructed just using the two risky assets A and B. Figure 1.4 illustrat
SR = = 0562
es and the new CAL intersects the parabola at
point A.
why this is so.
If we invest in only in asset B and T-bills then the Sharpe ratio is SR
=
−
not the efficient set of portfolios. For example, we could do uniformly be
tter
if we instead invest only in asset A and T-bills. This gives us a Sharpe
ratio of
−
However, we could do better still if we invest in T-bills and some combinati
on
of assets A and B. Geometrically, it is easy to see that the best we can
do
is obt ained for the com
0.20
bination of assets A and B such that the CAL is just
0.15
20 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
0.10
0.05
p
0.00
Figure 1.4: Efficient portfolios of two risky assets and T-Bills.
tangent to the parabola. This point is labeled “Tangency” on the graph and
represents the tangency portfolio of assets A and B. Portfolios of T-Bills and
the tangency portfolio are the set of efficient portfolios consisting of T-Bills,
asset A and asset B.
We can determine the proportions of each asset in the tangency portfolio by
finding the values of and that maximize the Sharpe ratio of a portfolio
that is on the envelope of the parabola. Formally, we solve the constrained
maximization problem
−
max
SR
=
= +
2 2 2 2 2
= + + 2
1 = +
After various substitutions, the above problem can be reduced to
( ) + (1 )(
m − −
− ) 1
a 2
x
(2is
This 2a + 2 2
(1 − ) + 2 (1 −
straightforward, albeit )
very )
tedious, calculus problem and the
so-
lution can be shown to be
( − )2 − ( − )
(1.14)
( − ) 2 + ( − )2 − ( − +
− )
=
= 1 −
Example 9 Tangency portfolio for example data
For the example data in Table 1.1 using (1.14) with = 003
we get
= 04625 and = 05375 The expected return, variance
and standard
deviation on the tangency portfolio are
22 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
> x.A.tan = top/bot
> x.B.tan = 1 - x.A.tan
> x.A.tan
[1] 0.4625
> x.B.tan
[1] 0.5375
> mu.p.tan = x.A.tan*mu.A + x.B.tan*mu.B
> sig2.p.tan = x.A.tan^2 * sig2.A + x.B.tan^2 * sig2.B +
+ 2*x.A.tan*x.B.tan*sig.AB
> sig.p.tan = sqrt(sig2.p.tan)
> mu.p.tan
[1] 0.1105
> sig.p.tan
[1] 0.1251
¥
where represents the fraction of wealth invested in the tangency portfolio
(and 1 − represents the fraction of wealth invested in T-Bills), and and
are the expected return and standard deviation of the tangency portfolio,
respectively. This important result is known as the mutual fund separation
theorem. The tangency portfolio can be considered as a mutual fund of the
two risky assets, where the shares of the two assets in the mutual fund are
determined by the tangency portfolio weights ( and determined from
(1.14)), and the T-bill can be considered as a mutual fund of risk-free assets.
The expected return-risk trade-off of these portfolios is given by the line
connecting the risk-free rate to the tangency point on the efficient frontier of
risky asset only portfolios. Which combination of the tangency portfolio and
the T-bill an investor will choose depends on the investor’s risk preferences.
If the investor is very risk averse, then she will choose a portfolio with low
volatility which will be a portfolio with very little weight in the tangen
cy
portfolio and a lot of weight in the T-bill. This will produce a portfolio
with
an expected return close to the risk-free rate and a variance that is cl
ose
to zero. If the investor can tolerate a large amount of risk, then she wo
uld
prefer a portfolio with highest expected return regardless of the volatili
ty.
This portfolio may involve borrowing at the risk-free rate (leveraging) a
nd
investing the proceeds in the tangency portfolio to achieve a high expect
ed
return.
Example 10 Efficient portfolios chosen by risk averse and risk tolerant
in-
vestors
A highly risk averse investor may choose to put 10% of her wealth in the t
an-
gency portfolio and 90% in the T-bill. Then she will hold
(10%)×(4625%) =
4625% of her wealth in asset , (10%) × (5375%) = 5375
% of her wealth
in asset and 90% of her wealth in the T-bill. The expected return
on this
portfolio is
and the standard deviation is
0.20
orrow Risky s 100% of her w
ealth at the risk-free rate and
uses the proceed to purchase 200% of her wealth in the tangency portfo
0.15
lio.
Then she would hold (200%) × (4625%) = 9250% of her weal
th in asset
0.10
A, (200%) × (5375%) = 1075% in asset B, and she would owe
100% of her
0.05
wealth to her lender. The expected return and standard deviation on t
his
portfolio is
0.00
= 003 + 2(01105 − 003) = 01910
= 2(01251) = 02501
24 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
p
Figure 1.5: The efficient portfolio labeled “safe” has 10% invested in the
tangency portfolio and 90% invested in T-Bills; the efficien portfolio labeled
“risky” has 200% invested in the tangency portfolio and -100% invested in
T-Bills.
portfolio on the efficient frontier that is directly above = 0115
To find
the shares in the tangency portfolio and T-bills in this portfolio recall
from
(1.16) that the standard deviation of an efficient portfolio with invest
ed
in the tangency portfolio and 1 − invested in T-bills is =
Since
we want to find the efficient portfolio with = = 0115 we s
olve
0115
= = 09195 = 1 − = 008049
01251
=
That is, if we invest 9195% of our wealth in the tangency portfol
io and
8049% in T-bills we will have a portfolio with the same standard
deviation
as asset B. Since this is an efficient portfolio, the expected return should
be
higher than the expected return on asset B. Indeed it is since
Notice that by diversifying our holding into assets A, B and T-bills we
can
obtain a portfolio with the same risk as asset B but with almost twice
the
expected return!
Next, consider finding an efficient portfolio that has the same expec
ted
return as asset B. Visually, this involves finding the combination of the ta
n-
gency portfolio and T-bills that corresponds with the intersection of a
hor-
izontal line with intercept = 0055 and the line representing e
fficient
combinations of T-bills and the tangency portfolio. To find the shares
in
the tangency portfolio and T-bills in this portfolio recall from (1.15) th
at
the expected return of an efficient portfolio with invested in the t
an-
gency portfolio and 1 − invested in T-bills has expected return equal
to
= + ( − ) Since we want to find the efficient portfoli
o with
= = 0055 we solve
− 0055 − 003
= = 03105 = 1 − = 06895
− 01105 − 003
That is, if we invest 3105% of wealth in the tangency portfolio and
6895%
of our wealth in T-bills we have a portfolio with the same expected return
as
asset B. Since this is an efficient portfolio, the standard deviation (risk)
of
this portfolio should be lower than the standard deviation on asset B. Inde
ed
it is since
= = 03105(0124) = 003884
26 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
Notice how large the risk reduction is by forming an efficient portfolio. The
standard deviation on the efficient portfolio is almost three times smaller
than the standard deviation of asset B!
The above example illustrates two ways to interpret the benefits from
forming efficient portfolios. Starting from some benchmark portfolio, we
can fix standard deviation (risk) at the value for the benchmark and then
determine the gain in expected return from forming a diversified portfolio5.
The gain in expected return has concrete meaning. Alternatively, we can
fix expected return at the value for the benchmark and then determine the
reduction in standard deviation (risk) from forming a diversified portfolio.
The meaning to an investor of the reduction in standard deviation is not
as cl ear as the meaning to a
n inv 0.20 estor of the increase in e
xpect ed return.
It would be helpful if the risk reduction benefit can be translated into a
number that is more interpretable than the standard deviation. The concept
0.15
of Value-at-Risk (VaR) provides such a translation.
0.10
value over a given horizon with a stated probability. For example, consider an
investor who invests 0 = $100 000 in asset B over the next year. Assuming
that ∼ (0055 (0115)2) represents the annual simple return on
0.00
asset B
, the 5% VaR is
costs associated with selling the benchmark portfolio and buying the efficient portfolio.
1.5 FURTHER R E A D I N G 27
p
Figure 1.6: The point e1 represents an efficient portfolio with the same stan-
dard deviation as asset B; the point e2 represents an efficient portfolio with
the same expected returns as asset B.
Notice that the 5% VaR for the efficient portfolio is almost fifteen times
smaller than the 5% VaR for the investment in asset B. Since VaR translates
risk into a dollar figure, it is more interpretable than standard deviation.
1.5 Further Reading
The classic text on portfolio optimization is Markowitz (1954). Good in-
termediate level treatments are given in Benninga (2000), Bodie, Kane and
Marcus (1999) and Elton and Gruber (1995). An interesting recent treat-
ment with an emphasis on statistical properties is Michaud (1998). Many
practical results can be found in the Financial Analysts Journal and the
Journal of Portfolio Management. An excellent treatment of value-at-risk
and risk budgeting is given in Jorian (1997).
28 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
Clearly the minimum of this function occurs at the point = 0 Using
calculus, we find the minimum by solving
2
min =
The first order (necessary) condition for a minimum is
2
0= ( ) = = 2
and solving for gives = 0 The second order condition for a minimum is
2
0 ( )
and this condition is clearly satisfied for ( ) = 2
Next, consider the function of two variables
2 2
= ( ) = + (1.17)
This function looks like a salad bowl whose bottom is at = 0 and = 0
To find the minimum of (1.17), we solve
2 2
min = +
and the first order necessary conditions are
0 = = 2
0 = = 2
Solving these two linear equations gives = 0 and = 0
Now suppose we want to minimize (1.17) subject to the linear constr
aint
+ = 1 (1.18)
The minimization problem is now a constrained minimization
2 2
min = + subject to ()
+ = 1
Given the constraint + = 1 the function (1.17) is no longer min
imized
at the point ( ) = (0 0) because this point does not satisfy +
= 1
One simple way to solve this problem is to substitute the restriction (1.
18)
into the function (1.17) and reduce the problem to a minimization over
one
variable. To illustrate, use the restriction (1.18) to solve for as
= 1 − + (1 −
2
)
Now substitute (1.19) into (1.17) giving
2
= ( ) = ( 1 − ) =
(1.19)
(1.20)
The function (1.20) satisfies the restriction (1.18) by construction. The c
on-
strained minimization problem now becomes
2 2
min = + (1 − )
The first order conditions for a minimum are
2 2
0= ( + (1 − ) ) = 2 − 2(1 − ) = 4 − 2
and solving for gives = 12 To solve for use (1.19) to
give =
1−(12) = 12 Hence, the solution to the constrained minimization pr
oblem
is ( ) = (12 12)
Another way to solve the constrained minimization is to use the meth
od
of Lagrange multipliers. This method augments the function to be minimiz
ed
with a linear function of the constraint in homogeneous form. The constra
int
(1.18) in homogenous form is
+ − 1 = 0
30 C H AP TE R 1 I N T R O D U C TI O N TO PORTFOLIO THEORY
The augmented function to be minimized is called the Lagrangian and is
given by
2 2
( ) = + − ( + − 1)
The coefficient on the constraint in homogeneous form, is called the La-
grange multiplier. It measures the cost, or shadow price, of imposing the con-
straint relative to the unconstrained problem. The constrained minimization
problem to be solved is now
2 2
min ( ) = + + ( + − 1)
The first order conditions for a minimum are
( )
0 = = 2 +
( )
0 = = 2 +
( )
0 = = + − 1
The first order conditions give three linear equations in three unknowns.
Notice that the first order condition with respect to imposes the constraint.
The first two conditions give
or
=
Substituting = into the third condition gives
2 − 1 = 0
or
= 12
The final solution is ( ) = (12 12 −1)
The Lagrange multiplier, measures the marginal cost, in terms of the
value of the objective function, of imposing the constraint. Here, = −1
which indicates that imposing the constraint + = 1 reduces the objective
function. To understand the roll of the Lagrange multiplier better, consider
imposing the constraint + = 0 Notice that the unconstrained min
imum
achieved at = 0 = 0 satisfies this constraint. Hence, imposing
+ = 0
does not cost anything and so the Lagrange multiplier associated with t
his
constraint should be zero. To confirm this, the we solve the problem
2 2
min ( ) = + + ( + − 0)
The first order conditions for a minimum are
(
0) = 2 −
( )
0 = = 2 −
( )
0 = = +
The first two conditions give
or
=
Substituting = into the third condition gives
2 = 0
or
= 0
The final solution is ( ) = (0 0 0) Notice that the
Lagrange multiplier,
is equal to zero in this case.
Bibliography
[1] Black, F. and Litterman, R. (1992). “Global portfolio optimization,”
Financial Analysts Journal, September-October, 28 - xx.
[2] Benninga, S. (2000), Financial Modeling, Second Edition. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
[3] Bodie, Kane and Marcus (199x), Investments, xxx Edition.
[5] Jobson, J.D. and Korkie, B. (1981). “Estimation for Markowitz Efficient
Portfolios,” Journal of the American Statistical Association, 75, 544-554.
[6] Jobson, J.D. and Korkie, B. (1981). “Putting Markowitz theory to
work,” The Journal of Portfolio Management, Summer, 70-74.
[7] Jobson, J.D. and Korkie, B., and Ratti, B. “Improved estimation ofr
Markowitz Portfolio Using James-Stein Type Estimators,” Proceedings
of the American Statistical Association, Business and Economics Sta-
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33
34 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[11] Markowitz, H. (1991). Portfolio Selection: Efficient Diversification of
Investments. New York: Wiley, 1959; 2nd ed., Cambridge, MA: Basil
Blackwell.
[12] Michaud, R.O. (1989). “The Markowitz optimization enigma: Is ‘opti-
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