Sampling

Sampling is a scientific process of selecting a part from a statistical population and

may also embrace the derivation of estimates and any inferences derived from
them for that population.

Why We Need Sampling

 Sampling makes possible the study of a large, (different characteristics)
population.
 Sampling is for economy
 Sampling is for speed.
 Sampling is for accuracy.
 Sampling saves the sources of data from being all consumed.

Types of sampling
 Probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling

Probability Sampling
Sampling techniques can be divided into two categories: probability and non-
probability. In probability sampling, each population member has a known, non-
zero chance of participating in the study. Randomization or chance is the core of
probability sampling techniques. If you are using this type of sampling you need to
specify this in research methodology chapter of your dissertation briefly
mentioning its advantages and disadvantages as discussed below.
In non-probability sampling, on the other hand, sample group members are
selected non-randomly, therefore, in non-probability sampling only certain
members of the population has a chance to participate in the study.
Probability sampling comprises the following sampling techniques:
  Simple Random Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Multi-Stage Sampling
 Cluster Sampling

Application of Probability Sampling

Let’s suppose, your dissertation topic is ‘A study into employee motivation of
ABC Company and the ways of increasing it’. You chose survey primary data
collection method to achieve research objectives. ABC Company has 400
employees and you decided that the sample size of 60 employees should be
sufficient for the purposes of the research.
In this case, simple random sampling, the most basic form of probability sampling
technique can be applied via using a table of randomly generated numbers.
Now, all you have to do is to choose a starting point in the table (a row and column
number) and look at the random numbers that appear there. In this case, since the
data run into three digits, the random numbers would need to contain three digits as
well. You need to ignore all the random numbers after 400, since your target
population has only 400 members. Also, choose a specific number only once and if
a number recurs, simply skip it and move to the next number. In this way, the first
60 different numbers between 001 and 400 that represent 60 employees of ABC
Company constitute your sample group.

Advantages of Probability Sampling

1. The absence of systematic and sampling bias

2. Higher level of reliability of research findings
3. Increased accuracy of sampling error estimation
4. The possibility to make inferences about the population

Disadvantages of Probability Sampling

1. Higher complexity compared to non-probability sampling

2. More time consuming
3. Usually more expensive than non-probability sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling (also referred to as random sampling) is the purest and
the most straightforward probability sampling strategy. It is also the most popular
method for choosing a sample among population for a wide range of purposes. In
simple random sampling each member of population is equally likely to be chosen
as part of the sample. It has been stated that “the logic behind simple random
sampling is that it removes bias from the selection procedure and should result in
representative samples.” Ideally, the sample size of more than a few hundred is
required in order to be able to apply simple random sampling in an appropriate
manner.

Many dissertation supervisors advice the choice of random sampling methods due
to the representativeness of sample group and less room for researcher bias
compared to non-random sampling techniques. However, application of random
 sampling methods in practice can be quite difficult due to the need for the
complete list of relevant population members and a large sample size.
The following 8-step procedure may be followed in drawing a simple random
sample of n units from a population of N units.
 Assign serial numbers to the units in the population from 1 through N.
 Decide on the random number table to be used.
 Choose an N-digit random number from any point in the random number
table.
 If this random number is less than or equal to N, this is your first selected
unit.
 Move on to the next random number not exceeding N, vertically,
horizontally or in any other direction systematically and choose your
second unit.
 If at any stage of your selection, the random number chosen exceeds N,
discard it and choose the next random number.
 If, further, any random number is repeated, it must also be discarded and
be replaced by a fresh random number appearing next.
 The process stops once you arrive at your desired sample size.

Application of Simple Random Sampling

Application of simple random sampling method involves the following stages:

1. A list of all members of population is prepared. Each element is marked with

a specific number (suppose from 1 to N).
2. n items are chosen among a population size of N. This can be done either
with the use of random number tables or random number generator software.

There are two popular approaches that are aimed to minimize the relevance of bias
in the process of random sampling selection: method of lottery and the use of
random numbers.
In method of lottery you will have to number each member of population with a
consequent manner, writing numbers in separate pieces of paper. These pieces of
 papers are to be folded and mixed into a box. Lastly, samples are to be taken
randomly from the box by choosing folded pieces of papers in a random manner.
The use of random numbers, an alternative method also involves numbering of
population members from 1 to N. Then, the sample size of n has to be determined
by selecting numbers randomly. The use of random number table similar to one
below can help greatly with the application of this sampling technique.

3)The Aromatic Company is planning to conduct a study to estimate the proportion

of toilet soap users who prefer a certain color or flavor of their product. A simple
random sample of customers may be used for this purpose. It is assumed in this
case that a list (sampling frame) of the consumers is available to the research team.
4)A forester in Chittagong Hill Tracts may wish to estimate the volume of timber
or proportion of diseased trees in a forest by se geographic points in the area
covered by the forest and then attaching a plot of fixed size and shape to that point.
All the trees within the sample plots may be studied. But again the basic design is a
simple random sample.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

1. If applied appropriately, simple random sampling is associated with the

minimum amount of sampling bias compared to other sampling methods.
2. Given the large sample frame is available, the ease of forming the sample
group i.e. selecting samples is one of the main advantages of simple random sampling.
3. Research findings resulting from the application of simple random sampling
can be generalized due to representativeness of this sampling technique and a little
relevance of bias.

Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

1. It is important to note that application of random sampling method requires a

list of all potential respondents (sampling frame) to be available beforehand and this can
be costly and time-consuming for large studies.
2. The necessity to have a large sample size can be a major disadvantage in
practical levels
3. This sampling method is not suitable for studies that involve face-to-face
interviews covering a large geographical area due to cost and time considerations

Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a probability sampling method and a form of random
sampling in which the population is divided into two or more groups (strata)
according to one or more common attributes.
Stratified random sampling intends to guarantee that the sample represents specific
sub-groups or strata. Accordingly, application of stratified sampling method
involves dividing population into different subgroups (strata) and selecting subjects
from each strata in a proportionate manner. The table below illustrates simplistic
example where sample group of 10 respondents are selected by dividing population
into male and female strata in order to achieve equal representation of both genders
in the sample group.
Stratified sampling can be divided into the following two groups: proportionate
and disproportionate.
Application of proportionate stratified random sampling technique involves
determining sample size in each stratum in a proportionate manner to the entire
population.
In disproportionate stratified random sampling, on the contrary, numbers of
subjects recruited from each stratum does not have to be proportionate to the total
size of the population. Accordingly, application of proportionate stratified random
sampling generates more accurate primary data compared to disproportionate
sampling.

Application of Stratified Sampling

Suppose, you dissertation aims to explore the leadership styles exercised by
medium-level managers at Bayerische Motoren Werke Aktiengesellschaft (BMW
AG). You have selected semi-structured in-depth interviews with managers as the
most appropriate primary data collection method to achieve the research
objectives.
Application of stratified random sampling contains the following three stages.
1. Identification of relevant stratums and ensuring their actual representation in
the population. 
 Apart from gender as illustrated in example above, range of criteria that can
be used to divide population into different strata include age, the level of
education, status, nationality, religion and others. Specific patterns of
categorization into different stratums depends aims and objectives of the
study.
In our case, BMW Group employees are employed across four business segments –
automotive, motorcycles, financial services and other entities. Accordingly, each
segment can be adapted as stratum to draw sample group members.
2. Numbering each subject within each stratum with a unique identification
number.
3. Selection of sufficient numbers of subjects from each stratum. It is critically
important for samples from each stratum to be selected in a random manner so that
the relevance of bias can be minimized.
As it is illustrated in the table below, following the procedure described above
results in the sample group of 16 respondents, BMW Group medium level
managers that proportionately represent all four business segments of the company.

Automotive Motorcycles Financial services Other entities

Manager       
N ü N Manager ü N Manager ü N Manager
   

00 00
Hudson   Conrad ü 001 Guzman   001 Sparks
1 1

00 00
Bass ü Braun   002 Craig   002 Atkinson
2 2

00 00
Richmond   Gentry   003 Green ü 003 Montes
3 3
 00 00
Tucker   Hartman ü 004 Ballard ü 004 Mcguire
4 4

00 00
Chavez ü Levine   005 Cox   005 Spencer
5 5

00 00
Riddle   Griffin ü 006 Dunlap ü 006 Davies
6 6

00 00
Mckinney   Valentine   007 Patrick   007 Bradford
7 7

00 00
Terrell ü Mcdonald   008 Gardner ü 008 Collins
8 8

00 00
Hayes   Brown ü 009 Carpenter   009 Chen
9 9

01 01
Escobar ü Kaufman   010 Vasquez   010 Hess
0 0

Advantages of Stratified Sampling

1. Stratified random sampling is superior to simple random sampling because

the process of stratifying reduces sampling error and ensures a greater level of
representation.

2. Thanks to the choice of stratified random sampling adequate representation

of all subgroups can be ensured.
3. When there is homogeneity within strata and heterogeneity between strata,
the estimates can be as precise (or even more precise) as with the use of simple random
sampling.

Disadvantages of Stratified Sampling

1. The application of stratified random sampling requires the knowledge of

strata membership a priori. The requirement to be able to easily distinguish between
strata in the sample frame may create difficulties in practical levels.

2. Research process may take longer and prove to be more expensive due to the
extra stage in the sampling procedure.

3. The choice of stratified sampling method adds certain complexity to the

analysis plan.

Systematic Sampling
In systematic sampling (also called systematic random sampling) every Nth
member of population is selected to be included in the study. It is a probability
sampling method. It has been stated that “with systematic sampling, every Kth
item is selected to produce a sample of size n from a population size of N”.
Systematic sampling requires an approximated frame for a priori but not the full
list.

 
As it is the case with any other sampling method, you will have to obtain
confirmation from your dissertation supervisor about your choice of systematic
sampling, total size of population, size of your sample group and the value of N
sample fraction before starting collecting the primary data.
 

Application of Systematic Sampling

Application of this sampling method can be divided into four stages:
1. Label each member of the sample group with a unique identification number
(ID).
2. Calculate the sampling fraction by dividing the sample size to the total number
of the population:

The sampling fraction result is guidance for applying systematic sampling. For
example, if your sampling fraction is equal to 1/5, you will need to choose one in
every five cases; that is every fifth case from the sampling frame. In instances
where calculations result in a more complicated fraction, especially for large
sample sizes, you can round your population to the nearest 10 or 100.
3. The first sample has to be chosen in a random manner. It is important to select
the first sample randomly to ensure probability sampling aspect of the systematic
sampling. In other words, if the first sample is selected from the start of the sample
frame all the time, the samples between the sample fractions (samples between
every fifth cases in example above) will not have a chance of being included in the
sample group. Therefore, the first case needs to be selected randomly to overcome
this issue.
4. Additional members of sample group are chosen by recruiting each Nth subject
(5th subject in example above) among the population.
 
Let’s illustrate the application of stages above using a specific example.
Suppose your dissertation topic is A Study into the Impact Leadership Style on
Employee Motivation in ABC Company and you have chosen semi-structured in-
depth interview as primary data collection method. ABC Company has 200
operational level employees who could be potentially interviewed. You identified
your sample size as 24 subjects, i.e. you will interview 24 employees.
You will have to do the following:
 1. Label each employee with a unique number.
2. Calculate the sampling fraction.
Sampling fraction = Actual Sample Size/Total Population = 24/200 = 3/25.
This sampling fraction can be narrowed down to 1/8. Accordingly, every
8th member of the sampling frame needs to be selected to participate in the study.
3. Choose the first sample randomly.
Suppose you randomly selected the sample #47 as the starting point for selecting
samples. Accordingly, your sample group will comprise of ABC Company
employees under the following numbers: #47; #55; #63; #71; #79; #87; #95; #103;
#111; #119; #127; #135; #143; #151; #159; #167; #175; #183; #191; #199; #7;
#15; #23; #31.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling

1. When done correctly, this method will approximate the results of simple
random sampling.
2. The selection of a sample is very convenient and is cost and time efficient.
This is an aspect of systematic sampling which makes it applicable in many situations.
3. Systematic sampling is effectively suitable in collecting data from
geographically disperse cases (that do not require face-to-face contact).

Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling

1. Systematic sampling can be applied only if the complete list of population is

available.
2. If there are periodic patterns within the dataset, the sample will be biased.
3. If study participants deduce the sampling interval, this can bias the
population as non-participants will be different from study participants.

Multi-stage sampling
Multi-stage sampling (also known as multi-stage cluster sampling) is a more
complex form of cluster sampling which contains two or more stages in sample
 selection. In simple terms, in multi-stage sampling large clusters of population are
divided into smaller clusters in several stages in order to make primary data
collection more manageable. It has to be acknowledged that multi-stage sampling
is not as effective as true random sampling; however, it addresses certain
disadvantages associated with true random sampling such as being overly
expensive and time-consuming.

Application of Multi-Stage Sampling:

Contrary to its name, multi-stage sampling can be easy to apply in business studies.
Application of this sampling method can be divided into four stages:

1. Choosing sampling frame, numbering each group with a unique number and
selecting a small sample of relevant discrete groups.
2. Choosing a sampling frame of relevant discrete sub-groups. This should be
done from relevant discrete groups selected in the previous stage.
3. Repeat the second stage above, if necessary.
4. Choosing the members of the sample group from the sub-groups using some
variation of probability sampling.

Let’s illustrate the application of the stages above using a specific example.
Your research objective is to evaluate online spending patterns of households in
the US through online questionnaires. You can form your sample group
comprising 120 households in the following manner:

1. Choose 6 states in the USA using simple random sampling (or any other
probability sampling).
2. Choose 4 districts within each state using systematic sampling method (or
any other probability sampling).
3. Choose 5 households from each district using simple random or systematic
sampling methods. This will result in 120 households to be included in your sample
group.
 Advantages of Multi-Stage Sampling

1. Effective in primary data collection from geographically dispersed.

population when face-to-face contact in required (e.g. semi-structured in-depth
interviews)
2. Cost-effectiveness and time-effectiveness.
3. High level of flexibility.

Disadvantages of Multi-Stage Sampling

1. High level of subjectivity.

2. Research findings can never be 100% representative of population.
3. The presence of group-level information is required.

Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling (also known as one-stage cluster sampling) is a technique in
which clusters of participants that represent the population are identified and
included in the sample. Cluster involves cluster of participants that represent the
population are identified and included in the sample.  This is popular in conducting
marketing researches.
The main aim of cluster sampling can be specified as cost reduction and increasing
the levels of efficiency of sampling. This specific technique can also be applied in
integration with multi-stage sampling.
A major difference between cluster and stratified sampling relates to the fact that in
cluster sampling a cluster is perceived as a sampling unit, whereas in stratified only
specific elements of strata are accepted as sampling unit.
Accordingly, in cluster sampling a complete list of clusters represent the sampling
frame. Then, a few clusters are chosen randomly as the source of primary data.

Area or geographical sampling can be specified as the most popular version of

cluster sampling. Specifically, a specific area can be divided into clusters and
primary data can be collected from each cluster to represent the viewpoint of the
whole area.
The nature of cluster analysis depends on comparative size of separate clusters. If
there are not major differences between sizes of clusters, then analysis can be
 facilitated by combining clusters. Alternatively, if there are vast differences in
sizes of clusters probability proportionate to sample size can be applied to conduct
the analysis.

Application of Cluster Sampling

Imagine you want to evaluate consumer spending on various modes of
transportation in Greater London. Since Greater London is a large area, we need to
sample from only 6 boroughs out of total 32 boroughs of the Greater London.
There are three stages for the application of cluster sampling:

1. Select a cluster grouping as a sampling frame. In example above, all 32

boroughs of the Greater London represent the sampling frame for the study

2. Mark each cluster with a unique number. We can easily number each
borough from 1 to 32.

3. Choose a sample of clusters applying probability sampling. We can choose 6

boroughs from the total 32 boroughs. Households residing in 6 boroughs will represent
samples for the study.

Advantages of Cluster Sampling

1. It is the most time-efficient and cost-efficient probability design for large

geographical areas
2. This method is easy to be used from practicality viewpoint
3. Larger sample size can be used due to increased level of accessibility of
perspective sample group members

Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling

1. Requires group-level information  to be known

2. Commonly has higher sampling error than alternative sampling techniques.
3. Cluster sampling may fail to reflect the diversity in the sampling frame
Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling (also known as non-random sampling) not all
members of the population has a chance of participating in the study. This is
contrary to probability sampling, where each member of the population has a
known, non-zero chance of being selected to participate in the study.
Necessity for non-probability sampling can be explained in a way that for some
studies it is not feasible to draw a random probability-based sample of the
population due to time and/or cost considerations. In these cases, sample group
members have to be selected on the basis of accessibility or personal judgment of
the researcher. Therefore, the majority of non-probability sampling techniques
include an element of subjective judgement. Non-probability sampling is the most
helpful for exploratory stages of studies such as a pilot survey.
The issue of sample size in non-probability sampling is rather ambiguous and
needs to reflect a wide range of research-specific factors in each case.
Nevertheless, there are some considerations about the minimum sample sizes in
non-probability sampling as illustrated in the table below:

Nature of study Minimum sample size

Semi-structured, in-depth interviews 5 – 25

Ethnographic 35 – 36

Grounded theory 20 – 35

Considering a homogeneous population 4 – 12

Considering a heterogeneous population 12 – 30

 Minimum non-probability sample size
The following is the list of the most popular non-probability sampling methods:
 Purposive Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
 Extensive Sampling
 Snowball sampling

Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Possibility to reflect the descriptive comments about the sample

2. Cost-effectiveness and time-effectiveness compared to probability sampling
3. Effective when it is unfeasible or impractical to conduct probability
sampling

Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Unknown proportion of the entire population is not included in the sample

group i.e. lack of representation of the entire population
2. Lower level of generalization of research findings compared to probability
sampling
3. Difficulties in estimating sampling variability and identifying possible bias

Purposive sampling
Purposive sampling (also known as judgment, selective or subjective sampling) is
a sampling technique in which researcher relies on his or her own judgment when
choosing members of population to participate in the study.
Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method and it occurs when
“elements selected for the sample are chosen by the judgment of the researcher.
Researchers often believe that they can obtain a representative sample by using a
sound judgment, which will result in saving time and money”.
 TV reporters stopping certain individuals on the street in order to ask their opinions
about certain political changes constitutes the most popular example of this
sampling method. However, it is important to specify that the TV reporter has to
apply certain judgment when deciding who to stop on the street to ask questions;
otherwise it would be the case of random sampling technique.
Alternatively, purposive sampling method may prove to be effective when only
limited numbers of people can serve as primary data sources due to the nature of
research design and aims and objectives. For example, for a research analysing
affects of personal tragedy such as family bereavement on performance of senior
level managers the researcher may use his/her own judgment in order to choose
senior level managers who could particulate in in-depth interviews.

In purposive sampling personal judgment needs to be used to choose cases that

help answer research questions or achieve research objectives.
According to the type of cases, purposive sampling can be divided into the
following six categories:

1. Typical case. Explains cases that are average and normal.

2. Extreme or deviant case. Deriving samples from cases that are perceived as
unusual or rare such as exploring the reasons for corporate failure by interviewing
executives that have been fired by shareholders.
3. Critical case sampling focuses on specific cases that are dramatic or very
important.
4. Heterogeneous or maximum variation sampling relies on researcher’s
judgment to select participants with diverse characteristics. This is done to ensure the
presence of maximum variability within the primary data.
5. Homogeneous sampling focuses on “focuses on one particular subgroup in
which all the sample members are similar, such as a particular occupation or level in an
organization’s hierarchy”
6. Theoretical sampling is a special case of purposive sampling that is based
on an inductive method of Grounded Theory.

Application of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling)

Suppose, your dissertation topic has been approved as the following:
A study into the impact of tax scandal on the brand image of Starbucks Coffee in
the UK
If you decide to apply questionnaire primary data collection method with use of
purposive sampling, you can go out to Oxford Street and stop what seems like a
reasonable cross-section of people in the street to survey.
Another example. Your research objective is to determine the patterns of use of
social media by global IT consulting companies based in the US. Rather than
applying random sampling and choosing subjects who may not be available, you
can use purposive sampling to choose IT companies whose availability and attitude
are compatible with the study.

Advantages of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling)

1. Purposive sampling is one of the most cost-effective and time-effective

sampling methods available
2. Purposive sampling may be the only appropriate method available if there
are only limited number of primary data sources who can contribute to the study
3. This sampling technique can be effective in exploring anthropological
situations where the discovery of meaning can benefit from an intuitive approach
 Disadvantages of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling)

1. Vulnerability to errors in judgment by researcher

2. Low level of reliability and high levels of bias.
3. Inability to generalize research findings

Quota sampling
Quota sampling method is a non-probability sampling and it can be defined as “a
sampling method of gathering representative data from a group”. Application of
quota sampling ensures that sample group represents certain characteristics of the
population chosen by the researcher.
Quota sampling can be divided into two groups: controlled and uncontrolled.
Controlled sampling involves introduction of certain restrictions in order to limit
researcher’s choice of samples.
Uncontrolled sampling, on the other hand, resembles convenience sampling
method in a way that researcher is free to choose sample group members according
to his/her will.
The main difference between quota and stratified sampling can be explained in a
way that in quota sampling “researchers use non-random sampling methods to
gather data from one stratum until the required quota fixed by the researcher is
fulfilled”. Accordingly, the quota is based on the proportion of subclasses in the
population.
 

Application of Quota Sampling

Your research objective is to evaluate the impact of cross-cultural differences on
employee motivation in Virgin Media in the UK. You need to assess the
effectiveness of employee motivational tools taking into account gender
differences among the workforce.
Quota sampling can be applied in the following manner:
 

1. Dividing the population into specific groups.

 Virgin Media employees in the UK as the sampling frame need to be divided into
the following five groups according to their cultural background:

1. European
2. Asian (India)
3. Asian (China)
4. Black (African)
5. Other

2. Calculating a quota for each group.

You supervisor confirms that in order to achieve research objectives, 30

representatives from each group and the total sample size of 150 respondents
would be appropriate.
 

3. Determine specific condition(s) to be met and quota in each group

Both genders, males and females need to be represented equally in your sample
group. This is a specific condition that has to be satisfied. Accordingly, you recruit
15 males and 15 females from each group.
Application of quota sampling ensures that sample group represents certain
characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher. In example above, an
equal representation of both genders, males and has been chosen as an important
characteristic of sampling.
 

Advantages of Quota Sampling

1. Quota sampling emerges as an attractive choice when you are pressed for
time, since primary data collection can be done in shorter time with this method
compared to many alternatives.
2. The application of quota sampling can save costs and time.
3. Quota sampling is not dependent on the presence of the sampling frames. In
occasions where suitable sampling frame is absent, quota sampling may be the only
appropriate choice available.

Disadvantages of Quota Sampling

1. Same as other non-probability sampling methods, in quota sampling it is not

possible to calculate the sampling error and the projection of the research findings to the
total population is risky.
2. While this sampling technique might be very representative of the quota-
defining characteristics, other important characteristics may be disproportionately
represented in the final sample group.
3. There is a great potential for researcher bias and the quality of work may
suffer due to researcher incompetency and/or lack of experience

Convenience sampling
 
 
Convenience sampling (also known as availability sampling) is a specific type
of non-probability sampling method that relies on data collection from population
members who are conveniently available to participate in study. Facebook polls or
questions can be mentioned as a popular example for convenience sampling.
Convenience sampling is a type of sampling where the first available primary data
source will be used for the research without additional requirements. In other
words, this sampling method involves getting participants wherever you can find
them and typically wherever is convenient. In convenience sampling no inclusion
criteria identified prior to the selection of subjects.  All subjects are invited to
participate.
In business studies this method can be applied in order to gain initial primary data
regarding specific issues such as perception of image of a particular brand or
collecting opinions of perspective customers in relation to a new design of a
product.
In its basic form, convenience sampling method can be applied by stopping
random people on the street and asking questionnaire questions. ‘Pepsi Challenge’
marketing campaign can be referred to as a relevant example for this sampling
method. ‘Pepsi Challenge’ is occasionally held in large shopping centres and other
crowded locations and all members of population are invited to participate in the
contest without any discrimination.

Convenience sampling technique may prove to be effective during exploration

stage of the research area, and when conducting pilot data collection in order to
identify and address shortcomings associated with questionnaire design.

Application of Convenience Sampling:

The use of convenience sampling technique is discouraged by many dissertation
supervisors due to inability to generalise research findings, the relevance of bias
and high sampling error.  Nevertheless convenience sampling may be the only
option available in certain situations. For example, “it may be that an organisation
you intend to use as a case study is ‘convenient’ because you have been able to
negotiate access through existing contacts”.
Application of convenience sampling is the easiest compared to other sampling
methods. Suppose, your dissertation is devoted on the following topic:  A study
into the sustainability of viral marketing as a marketing tool in the future.
Using convenience sampling method, you can send a link to the
online questionnaire to individuals on your mobile phone’s contact list, to
 individuals you are connected to via social networking websites such as Facebook,
LinkedIn, Google+ and to individuals whom you know in person. This would be
the easiest and the most convenient way of recruiting the sources of the primary
data for your research.

Advantages of Convenience Sampling

1. Simplicity of sampling and the ease of research

2. Helpful for pilot studies and for hypothesis generation
3. Data collection can be facilitated in short duration of time
4. Cheapest to implement that alternative sampling methods

Disadvantages of Convenience Sampling

1. Highly vulnerable to selection bias and influences beyond the control of the
researcher
2. High level of sampling error
3. Studies that use convenience sampling have little credibility due to reasons
above

Snowball sampling
 
Snowball sampling (also known as chain-referral sampling) is a non-
probability (non-random) sampling method used when characteristics to be
possessed by samples are rare and difficult to find. For example, if you are
studying the level of customer satisfaction among elite Nirvana Bali Golf Club in
Bali, you will find it increasingly difficult to find primary data sources unless a
member is willing to provide you with contacts of other members.
This sampling method involves primary data sources nominating another potential
primary data sources to be used in the research. In other words, snowball sampling
method is based on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects.
Therefore, when applying this sampling method members of the sample group are
recruited via chain referral.
Also, snowball sampling is the most popular in business studies focusing on a
specific company that involve primary data collection from employees of that
company. Once you have contact details of one employee she/he can help you to
recruit other employees to the study by providing contact details.
There are following three patterns of snowball sampling:
1. Linear snowball sampling. Formation of a sample group starts with only one
subject and the subject provides only one referral. The referral is recruited into the
sample group and he/she also provides only one new referral. This pattern is
continued until the sample group is fully formed.

2. Exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling. The first subject

recruited to the sample group provides multiple referrals. Each new referral is
explored until primary data from sufficient amount of samples are collected.

3. Exponential discriminative snowball sampling. Subjects give multiple

referrals, however, only one new subject is recruited among them. The choice of a
new subject is guided by the aim and objectives of the study.
 Application of Snowball Sampling
Application of snowball sampling involves the following stages:

1. Establish a contact with one or two initial cases from the sampling frame.
This stage is usually the most difficult one.
2. Request the initial cases to identify more cases
3. Ask new cases to identify further cases (and so on)
4. Stop when:
5. a) Your pre-specified sample size has been completed;
6. b) There are no further cases left;
7. c) Pursuing further cases will make the project unmanageable due to the
large size.

If using questionnaire as primary data collection method, you can effectively apply
snowball sampling with the use of emails. Specifically, body of the email
requesting sample group members to participate in the survey can include a
sentence along the following lines:
I would be very grateful if you could provide me with e-mail addresses of other
employees in your department/managers who are known to practice democratic
leadership style/other people who have bought the same product/etc. who could
also participate in this survey.

Advantages of Snowball Sampling

1. The ability to recruit hidden populations

2. The possibility to collect primary data in a cost-effective manner
3. Studies with snowball sampling can be completed in a short duration of time
4. A very little planning is required to start primary data collection process

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

1. Oversampling a particular network of peers can lead to bias

2. Respondents may be hesitant to provide names of peers and asking them to
do so may raise ethical concerns
3. There is no guarantee about the representativeness of samples. It is not
possible to determine the actual pattern of distribution of population.
4. It is not possible to determine the sampling error and make statistical
inferences from the sample to the population due to the absence of random selection of
samples