A step-by-step guide to creating your own

arcade game on the VIC; plus four

excellent, finished games which show
the process from the first idea to the
completed program.

Robert Camp

A COMPUTE! Books Publication $12.95

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 CREATING

ARCADE
GAMES ON THE

Robert Camp

COMPUTEr Publications,lnc.<
One of the ABC Publishing Companies

Greensbora North Carolina

VIC-20 is a trademark of Commodore Electronics, Ltd.

Copyright 1984, COMPUTE! Publications, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections
107 and 108 of the United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright
owner is unlawful.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 0-942386-25-6

10987654321

COMPUTE! Publications, Inc., Post Office Box 5406, Greensboro, NC 27403,

(919) 275-9809, is a subsidiary of American Broadcasting Companies, Inc., and is not
associated with any manufacturer of personal computers. VIC and VIC-20 are
trademarks of Commodore Electronics, Ltd.
Contents
Foreword v
Chapter 1: The VIC Is a Game Machine 1
Chapter 2: Game Design 17
Chapter 3: Setting Up Your Screen 41
Chapter 4: Custom Characters 61
Chapter 5: Getting Your Figures Moving 77
Chapter 6: Collisions 99
Chapter 7: Sounds and Music 115
Chapter 8: Introductions, Instructions,
and Farewells 133
Chapter 9: The Shape of the Game 145
Chapter 10: Missiles and "Moonraker" 157
Appendices 167
A. A Beginner's Guide to Typing In Programs 169
B. How to Type In Programs 171
C. Screen Location Table 173
D. Screen Color Memory Table 174
E. Screen Color Codes 175
F. Screen and Border Colors 176
G. ASCII Codes 177
H. Screen Codes 181
Index 183

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 Foreword
Most people who play arcade games take them for granted. But
when you try to program such a game on your VIC, you quickly
learn to appreciate the amount of work and creativity behind
every game. Figures on the screen, movements or collisions,
sounds all must be fit together into a complex, yet harmonious
whole. It can easily seem impossible, especially if you're just
starting.
Until now, most game books for personal computers have
been simple listings of programs which could be typed in and
run. Now you can learn the principles and techniques of writing
your own games.

With this book — and your creativity and imagination —

you'll quickly be developing and writing games. Each step of the
process is outlined in clear and detailed language, including ex
amples from the four complete games included in the book. The
VIC-20's sound and graphics capabilities are unlocked in ways
you knew were possible, but learning how to do the program
ming was another matter.
As with all COMPUTE! books, this guide will be useful not
just once (when you write your first game), but again and again,
as you refer back to it for more information and more complex
game ideas and techniques.
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Dedication
To my wife Susan, who put up with those late nights on the VIC.
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The vie is a
Game
Machine
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 1
The vie is a
Game Machine
I looked for a book to tell me how to plan a game, how to make
figures move across the screen, and how to make things hap
pen when they collided. I wanted to know how to work sound
into the program, how to rack up scores, how to make shapes,
and on and on. I needed a book that would tell me, a new VIC
user, exactly what I needed to know for my specific purpose:
game design.
After spending hundreds of quarters on video arcade games,
I decided it would be a better investment to buy a computer. Then
I could play games as often as I liked at home, without waiting for
other people to finish playing, and without having to spend a lot?
of money before I finally got good enough to beat the machine.
But I had more than convenience in mind. I didn't just want a
videogame machine. I wanted to write my own games, maybe a
game so good that it too would end up in the arcade, among the
others that I had enjoyed so many times.
After sitting down with my VIC-20 for about an hour, I real
ized two things. First, programming wasn't exactly easy. There
were many things to think about, many things to remember, and
the computer wasn't very forgiving of my mistakes. And the sec
ond thing I noticed was that the VIC owner's manual didn't help
as much as I wanted it to.

The story has a happy ending. Eventually I learned how to

program games. And in this book I've done my best to provide
you with exactly the book I had wished for so many times. I'm
assuming that you're reasonably familiar with the basics of BASIC
— how to use PRINT and GOTO, FOR-NEXT loops and GOSUB-
RETURN subroutines. If you aren't comfortable with those, you
might want to scan your owner's manual, or at least keep it handy
in case questions come up while you're creating games. What this
book provides is the specific programming techniques you'll need
for game creation.
1
The Vic is a
Game Machine

I The Design of the Book

The place to start when creating a game is to plan how you want
the game to play. So in Chapter 2, you'll first design what will
actually go on between the computer and the player. When you
have a pretty clear idea of what you want to end up with, ifs
much easier to get the computer to give you exactly the right
results.
Once you have your game in mind, the next few chapters will
introduce all the BASIC programming tools you'll need. How to
set up a screen. How to design custom character sets and make
the characters move. How to set up relationships between differ
ent figures on the screen. The uses of sounds and how to produce
them. And how to help the player understand what he's sup
posed to do.
With the basics covered, you can go on to spend some time
refining certain techniques, polishing your programs, learning
strategies to make your programs use less memory and run faster.

I how to use This Book

I Each chapter will include different problems to solve and ques
tions to answer. Sometimes you won't need to actually try the
sample program — it may be something you've already learned.
But many things can't be explained. They have to be shown. And
since I won't be leaning over your shoulder while you sit at your
computer, the only way I can show you is for you to type in
example programs or work out problems.
If you get stuck on any problem, remember that there are
usually several ways to solve it, and sometimes the sample solu
tion is used because it's the easiest for a beginner to understand,
not because it's necessarily the fastest or most useful way to solve
the problem. If you come up with a solution that works, then
your answer is as right as mine.
The only way to really learn a programming technique is to
try it out. In fact, the most helpful thing you can do for yourself is
to experiment. Once you've tried the example I give you, think of
problems for yourself and try to solve them using the techniques
you've just learned. After all, you're learning a language — and
languages are only learned through practice.
Besides, the fun of programming isn't in reading a book — it's
 1
The vic is a
Game Machine

in the programming, giving the computer instructions and seeing

what happens. The point of this book is to help you have fun
making games, so the more creating you do while reading the
book, the more value it will have for you.

Be Patient
Your learning process won't be just like mine. You'll grasp some
things faster than I did; other things may take more effort. One
thing is sure — unless you're already an expert programmer, pro
gramming a game is going to take time. Not only the time to type
the program lines in the first place, but also the time it takes to fig
ure out why the game isn't working. Because unless you're a
miracle worker, your program is going to have some bugs in it,
some places where things aren't happening the way you
planned.
So be patient with yourself. Even with the help of this book,
programming takes a while to learn. Don't expect to learn every
thing in a few hours one night. And don't expect your first pro
gram to run smoothly. If you're like me, there'll be more than a
few nights when you sit there staring at some program lines, try
ing to figure out why the program crashes whenever it gets there,
only to discover that you typed a zero instead of the variable O; or
that you forgot to have your countdown FOR-NEXT loop STEP
-1, so it's only executing once; or that you put the wrong variable
as the subscript of an array; or that your GOSUB refers to a line
that you deleted in your last series of revisions.
That sort of thing happens to everybody. It's just one of the
realities of working with a computer. Your VIC will always do ex
actly what you say — not what you really meant to say.

Look at Other People's Programs

In almost every computer magazine there are programs listed in
full so readers can type them in and use them. At first those pro
grams look like a lot of gibberish to a beginning programmer. But
you've probably already noticed that some of those programs be
gin to make sense to you. You can see at a glance what's going on
in certain subroutines; you can spot where loops begin and end,
and what they're accomplishing.
You can learn quite a bit about programming just by typing in
other people's programs. Besides getting typing practice, you can
see how they solved particular problems.
1
The vic is a
Came Machine

You'll notice recurring patterns, techniques you can use. But

you'll also notice places where they took the long way to solve a
problem, where you know a shortcut. I remember how surprised
I was to see widely published programs using some roundabout,
slow methods that I wouldn't have used.
Then, when you have their program typed in and saved on
tape or disk, experiment with it, just the way you'd experiment
with the exercises in this book. If you don't like the colors they
used, find where the program assigns the color values and
change them. If you want a ghost turned into an octopus, find out
where the program sets up the character set and redefine the
characters. Sometimes your experiments may crash the program,
but then you can figure out why and do better on the next try.
One of the biggest advantages, you see, is that you have a
complete program that already works. It's easier to find out and
learn from your mistakes when you know the error must be in the
two or three lines you changed.

write Down Your ideas

While you're reading this book, especially after an hour or so of
steadily working at the computer, you're going to start getting
some ideas. That's the way creativity works — when your mind is
working hard on something exciting, the ideas start to flow.
Often it will be an idea completely unrelated to the problem
you're working on at the moment. It might be an idea for a special
effect, or a game scenario, or a movement pattern — anything
at all.
You should write it down. Because once that creative mood
has passed, it's often as hard to remember a good idea as it is to
remember a dream as it slips away from your conscious mind.
And those ideas are valuable. Not all of them will be fantastic.
Some of them may not even work.
But game design isn't just programming techniques. There
are plenty of excellent programmers who still can't come up with
a game worth spending a single quarter on. Why? They've mas
tered the skills, but they don't know what a player will have fun
with. And yet there are other programmers who are sometimes
clumsy and disorganized in their programming, but their ideas

difference between game design and game programming, and split

the jobs. The game designer writes down, in English, an exact
 1
The vic is a
Game Machine

description of every single thing that happens in the game — what

happens when you push the joystick up, down, left, right; what
the button does; what happens when object A and object B col
lide on the screen; how many points each goal should be worth;
how many seconds or fractions of a second each activity should
take; and so on.
When it's all there, on paper, the designed game is given to
the programmers, who do their best to create a program that does
exactly what the designer specified. Sometimes there have to be
compromises, because some ideas just can't be executed within
the available memory or within the available time. And the game
is certainly as much the creation of the programmer as of the
designer.
But it's a different kind of creativity. And even though I can
try to stimulate you with this book, I can't teach you how to think
up good game ideas the way I can teach you how to redefine a
character. That's something you have to develop yourself.
So save every idea you think of. You never know what it
might lead to. And it's your ideas more than your programming
skill that will make the difference between a run-of-the-mill game
and a great game that players can't wait to play again.

I it isn't Done when its Done

What happens when you've taken your game from the first idea
to a working game? All the bugs are out of the program, and it
works just the way you planned it. What now?
Well, if you were creating the game just for yourself, and
you're satisfied with the way it plays, then congratulations —
you're finished.
But if you want to offer the game to commercial software
houses or to magazines that publish games, you still have a few
things to do.

Test the Game

Play the game awhile. How fun is it for you? If you're already
bored with it, it may need some work.
Better yet, invite the world's toughest critics to test the game
for you. They live right in your neighborhood — any kids who
play arcade games will do. Tell them you've got a game you're in
the middle of programming, and you need players to test it. You
probably won't lack for volunteers.
1
The vic is a
Game Machine

Then watch them as they play. Don't ask questions; don't ex

plain; don't ask for their opinion. Friends might tell you a game is
better or worse than it really is — after all, they aren't game de
signers. Just watch them play, and ask yourself these questions:
1. Where in the game do they get puzzled, confused, an
noyed? That's exactly where your directions need to be clearer.
2. Are they excited, or at least interested? If they aren't enjoy
ing themselves, is it because the game is too easy or boring, or is it
because the game is too hard and frustrating?
3. How hard is it for them to get the hang of player move
ment? How responsive are your controls?
4. Watch how the scoring goes — are they beating the game
right away, or getting nowhere?
5. How long do they play? Is the game over instantly? When
it's done, do they immediately want to play it again, or do they
ask you if they have to play it again?
The surest test of a successful game is if they don't want to
quit. The surest test of a game with problems is if they come to
you within a few minutes and ask, "Got any other games?"

improve it
Just because the program rims doesn't mean the game is perfect
— it only means the program is perfect. After your own tests and
the neighborhood-kid tests, what can you think of that would
make the game more fun, or make it stay interesting longer?
If you can think of some things, analyze your program and
see how easy it would be to make the changes. If it's feasible, go
ahead and try the improvement. But make sure you save a couple
of tape or disk copies of the program that ran correctly, in case
your improvements go so far off track that it's easier to go back
and start over.

Market it
This might be a little premature, since your game isn't written yet,
but it doesn't hurt to know in advance what the market possibil
ities are.
A lot of commercial software companies are eager for games,
and they're especially eager for games for the VIC. Also, quite a
few magazine and book publishers have discovered that their
leaders enjoy typing in and playing games. Once your game is
ready, there might well be a software distributor or a publisher
who'll be glad to purchase the publication or software rights from
you.
 1
The vic is a
Game Machine

How do you submit the game? With the software houses,

send a letter describing your game, in detail, from the player's
point of view (that is, what happens during the game, how you
win) and listing the memory requirements and machine specifi
cations. You can send such a letter to a lot of different software
houses. Then submit a copy, on tape or disk, to the first dis
tributor that shows an interest. If that doesn't pan out, then send
a copy of the program to the next interested distributor.
If a software company wants the game, they will offer you a
cash advance and a royalty. If they offer a single flat payment, and
no royalty, don't accept — if the game sells a million copies, you
deserve a percentage of the money it earns.
Or you may prefer to submit your game to a magazine or
book publisher. Submit it with complete documentation and two
machine-readable copies of the game (the same tape, front and
back, will do). Magazines will pay you a flat rate for one-time use;
book publishers will usually pay you an advance and a royalty.
Some rules about submitting software:
1. Never send the actual software to two companies at once.
Publishers and software distributors assume, when they go to the
time and expense of paying someone to test and evaluate your
game, that they are the only company being offered the game at
that time. (The letter that you send to many companies at once is
not a submission. It is an inquiry, to find out if they want to see
the game in the first place.)
2. Give them time. You're anxious, of course, to hear whether
they want to use the game or not, but they have dozens or hun
dreds of submissions to look at, and they have no way of knowing
that yours is the greatest videogame of all time until they get
around to testing it. But if you haven't heard anything in six to
eight weeks, it doesn't hurt to send a letter asking if they've had a
chance to look at it.
3. Be flexible. Especially if you're a new programmer, it's quite
possible that the editors will see real possibilities in your game,
but will want improvements. They may make suggestions to you
— it won't hurt you to try to make improvements. If the game
needs to be translated into machine language, they may ask you
' to allow another person to work on your game — it's certainly
worth considering. They may want to buy just the story or ideas,
and incorporate them into a different game — that's high praise
for your creativity, and not at all a slur on your programming
skills. Or they may want to use a compiled version of the game, so
1
The VIC is a
Game (Machine

it plays faster. If you're willing to compromise, your chances of

selling the game are much better.
4; Be professional. Reputable companies deal fairly with peo
ple who submit games — after all, you're the lifeblood of their
business. Don't assume that anyone's going to try to steal your
game — they aren't. Don't assume that a long delay means they
don't like the game — often a delay means that it's getting serious
consideration. And your game will always get serious considera
tion. Publishers and software houses really want your game to be
brilliant. Every time they open a submission, they hope that this
is a blockbuster game like Space Invaders, Asteroids, Pac-Man, or
Donkey Kong.
And who knows? Maybe it will be.

I What You Should Have on Hand

In writing this book, I'm assuming that you have available some
basic resources:
1. A VIC-20.
2. A Datassette or a disk drive. After all the work of program
ming, you certainly want to be able to save the game and play it
again and again.
3. Personal Computing on the VIC-20. It came with your
computer.
4. The VIC-20 Programmer's Reference Guide (published by
Sams) or V7C-20 User Guide (published by Osborne). Available at
most bookstores, and extremely valuable in problem-solving.
5. Plenty of cassettes or disks to save your programs. If you're
using cassettes (as most of us VIC-users do), I suggest that you
use a low-grade, low-noise tape. They're cheap and work better
for computer purposes than high-quality sound cassettes. And
you'll always want to have some extra cassettes on hand, so you
can store different versions of the same program. All it will take is
one time when you have to quit in the middle of a revision and
you don't have a single blank cassette to use. You don't want to
wipe out a working program to save a half-finished job — but you
also don't want to have to start that job over again.
6. Graph paper. The best is the kind that emphasizes 8x8
groups of tiny squares.
7:A six-inch ruler. This is very helpful when you're typing in
a program out of a book. By putting it under the line you're
typing, you make sure you don't accidentally skip down into an-

10
 1
The VIC is a
Game Machine

other line with similar commands.

8. A pocket calculator. I know, you have a few bucks worth of
computer right there in front of you. But many times it's a lot
simpler to use a calculator, which is designed to do nothing but
arithmetic, than to set up PRINT statements on the VIC in order
to solve a problem.
9. A color TV. How are you going to design color games on a
black-and-white monitor? I paid only $130 for a used 19-inch TV
with remote control — you don't have to break the bank to see
your games in color.

I introducing the VIC-20

If you just got your VIC and aren't really familiar with it, then
let's spend a page or two getting acquainted with the machine. If
you're already familiar with the computer, then you can probably
skim or skip the rest of this chapter and go right on to Chapter 2.

RAM
The more I get to know the VIC, the more I realize what a power
ful computer it really is. Its RAM (Random Access Memory) starts
at 5K (about 5000 bytes) and can be expanded to 32K (32,768
bytes). Every letter or symbol you see on the screen, every pro
gram instruction, every number you use takes up at least one byte
of RAM. That means that the more RAM you have, the larger and
more complex the programs you can run.
Even the unexpanded VIC is a powerful computer — on the
original vacuum-tube computers at the beginning of the com
puter age, 5K would have taken 40,960 vacuum tubes. That little
box you have in front of your TV would have looked like a miracle
back then.
But it's only natural that the 5K VIC won't be able to handle as
complex and detailed a game as a VIC with more memory,
especially if the game is written in BASIC, which takes up more
memory than a machine language program. Since we're working
with the basics in this book, well deal exclusively with BASIC
programs, and since I want this book to be valuable to the largest
number of readers, almost everything we do here can be done in
5K.
That means that the sample programs here will be pretty sim
ple. But you'll be learning all the principles of VIC game program
ming, so that if you have more than 5K on your computer, there's

11
1
The Vic is a
Game Machine

nothing to stop you from combining all the things you learn into
really dazzling 32K games.
And if you are working with only 5K, you'll soon find that
while your graphics displays might not be as pretty as those in
the arcade games, and your animation might not be as detailed,
you can make games that play very well and stay fun and interest
ing for a long time.
Besides, limited memory just forces you to be more creative,
finding ways to fit as many features into that 5K as you can. You
don't have to rush out and get an expander right away. It might
even be a good idea to work with the 5K for a while, learning
methods of shortening your programs. It can help you develop
good programming habits that you'll find useful even with larger
memory. You'll know when you really need the expander — and
by then the price will probably be half what it is right now.

The Screen
The VIC screen is 22 columns wide and 23 rows from top to bot
tom. That's fewer rows and columns than many other home com
puters, which is why each letter is bigger and takes up more
space. In effect, this means that each display screen is "smaller"
than with other computers — the screen displays fewer characters
at a time.
But that isn't necessarily a disadvantage. A 22-by-23 screen
means you have 506 squares to work with. That's a lot.
Besides, each square is really an 8-by-8 grid of 64 smaller
squares. That's how letters are made — by putting one color in
some of those squares, and another color in the rest of them. The
pattern makes the letter shape. Since the VIC displays 506 blocks
of 64 pixels, you really have 32,384 pixels at your command.
That's high-resolution graphics!
With the VIC, you can design your own character shapes.
And since each character block is bigger than those on most com
puters, you can change larger areas of the screen display with
each single command. What you may lack in fine-line drawing
you have gained in speed and memory space.

colors
With a color TV or monitor, the VIC can produce 16 different
screen colors and 8 character colors. The background, border, and
characters can have different colors, and in multicolor mode the
characters don't all have to be the same color, either, allowing you
hundreds of possible color combinations.

12
 1
The Vic is a
Game Machine

Graphics Characters
You can redefine characters — but that does use up memory.
Don't forget that the VIC provides 62 built-in graphics characters.
You can save a lot of memory by using as many of those existing
characters as you can before you start defining new ones. Many a
great game can be designed without a single character
redefinition.

Sound
With the VICs four voices, you can get a variety of sounds and
sound effects, from explosions and lasers to a Bach fugue.
Sounds are not really extras in a game. They serve several vital
purposes, and the VIC gives you plenty of sound resources to
work with.

Languages
The VIC has two languages easily available, BASIC and machine
language.
Machine language consists of eight-digit binary codes that
give instructions to the CPU (central processing unit), which is
the real brain of the machine. The binary number 10000101 (deci
mal 133) tells the CPU to store a certain value in a certain location.
Since machine language is the CPU's native tongue, so to
speak, the computer understands it very quickly. That's why
games written in machine language are very fast and run very
smoothly.
The trouble is that numbers like 10000101 aren't too easy for
human beings to work with. Even when they're translated into
hexadecimal (base 16) numbers, they don't carry much meaning.
So machine language programmers usually write their programs
with an assembler program, which uses a series of three-letter
mnemonics which stand for the machine language commands.
STA is the mnemonic for 10000101. The assembler program then
translates symbols like STA into machine language numbers. It's
that translated program that becomes the finished game.
However, machine language programming is very tedious
and very complex. Especially for beginners, BASIC is by far the
t easier language for programming. The commands are more like
English, they're easier to remember, and it takes fewer commands
to perform each operation.
What you get in ease of programming, however, you pay for
in running time. While your BASIC program runs, BASIC has to

13
1
The vic is a
Game Machine

translate each command into machine language every single time

it is used, and that takes up a lot of time. BASIC programs gener
ally run slower.
But BASIC is only slow by comparison with machine lan
guage. It is a very fast and powerful language in its own right, and
the more you work with it, the better you'll do at writing fast,
effective games in BASIC.
Once you are familiar with programming in BASIC and have
a good idea of what you can get the computer to do, it is much
easier to progress to machine language. You'll probably begin by
writing short machine language routines to include in your
BASIC programs, so that you can get the speed of machine lan
guage in a few places where you really need it. But machine lan
guage is beyond the reach of this book. Once you learn how to
make the VIC play good games, it's up to you to decide what lan
guage to use.

The 6502
The VIC has a brain made of silicon. The CPU (central processing
unit) is the famous 6502 microprocessor. MOS Technology, the
company that created the 6502, is now a subsidiary of Commo
dore, the company that made your VIC. The 6502 is now the CPU
in the Apple, the Atari, and other microcomputers. Because
Commodore owns the 6502 and many of the other special chips
in the VIC, they can offer the VIC at a lower price than if they had
to buy the 6502 from somebody else.

Program Translation
Just because Apple, Atari, and Commodore all use the same CPU
doesn't mean that you can run programs written for those
machines on your VIC.
For one thing, VIC BASIC is different in small but important
ways from the BASIC used by the other machines.
Also, the CPU doesn't control everything going on in the com
puter. Each computer has its own way of communicating with
cassette recorders, disk drives, keyboards, and the screen.
Each memory location can mean different things on different
computers. When the 6502 stores a 1, for instance, at location 50
in RAM, that might tell one computer to turn off the TV screen,
while another computer would take that as a command to erase
memory and start over.
However, as long as a BASIC program sticks to generally
accepted BASIC commands and doesn't PEEK and POKE into

14
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The vic is a
Game Machine

specific memory locations, it's quite possible to translate a pro

gram written in one computer's BASIC into another computer's
BASIC with some relatively simple changes.
Unfortunately for game designers, however, BASICs often
differ the most in graphics and sound handling, which are vital to
game programming. By the time you finish translating the game,
you've practically created a whole new program. That's why few
people bother to go through the translation process. It's often just
as easy to start programming from scratch.
Which is exactly what we're going to do in Chapter 2.

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 2
Game Design
If you don't know where you're going, how will you knc 1OW

when you get there?

It's important to plan your game before you start program
ming it. If you have a clear idea of how the finished game should
play, you'll also have a pretty good idea of what needs to happen
in your program.
Some things are obvious. If you're going to use the joystick,
you'll need to have a routine in your program that reads the joy
stick. If not, your program will have to read the keyboard to find
out what the player wants tado.
Some things, however, are more subtle. What will happen if
your player-figure touches the sides of the screen? Will it explode?
Appear on the opposite side? Bounce off? Lose points? Slow
down? Speed up? Get larger? Get smaller? Disappear? Cause five
new enemy creatures to appear? Cause the enemy creatures to
move faster or come closer?
There are hundreds of choices like that, and at some point
you'll need to decide how your game program will handle them.
If you make those choices beforehand, in the planning stage, then
you can design a program that will do everything right — and will
fit together the first time with a minimum of revision.

I The Design of "Joust"

L^t's begin by taking a closer look at one of the most popular
arcade games. My own favorites are Defender and Stargate, but the
same design principles apply to Donkey Kong, Ms. Pac-Man, or
Joust. What is the computer actually doing during the game?

words
Let's look at Joust in detail. When you put in a quarter, what hap
pens? There are words on the screen, telling you what to do next.
When you choose the one- or two-player option, there are more
words. Remember, too, that there are instructions written on the
outside of the game machine. All of these, combined, tell you
how to operate the controls.
This is documentation. If it is written down on paper or on the
machine, it is printed documentation. If it appears as part of the

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Game
Design

video display during the game, it is internal documentation.

Whichever form it takes, though, good documentation is vital to
make a game fun to play. If there's nothing to help a player under
stand what he's expected to do, or if the instructions are inaccurate
or incomplete, playing becomes frustrating instead of fun.

The Display
Then the words disappear from the main display area. What is on
the screen? The playfield — the area where the game action will
take place — consists of brown, rocklike islands. The bottom is
land rises from the base of the screen, with a lake of fire on either
side. The other islands, though, float in midair. Several of them
have white strips near the surface — these, the player will soon
discover, are the platforms where new player-figures and new
enemy knights will appear.
Besides the playfield, there are several other things on the
screen. The score is constantly displayed, for either one or two
players, so you can keep track of how many points you have to
earn before the next bonus knight. Also, there is a little box that
displays how many knights you have left; this lets you see at a
glance how many more turns you'll have.

Movement and Animation

Now the action begins. Your player-figure, a knight mounted on
an ostrich-legged bird, appears on the left side of the bottom is
land. When you hold the joystick to the left, the bird turns and
starts to walk; keep holding it, and it runs in that direction. Then
if you push the joystick right and hold it, the bird screeches to a
halt, pauses, turns right, and then starts walking.
When you push the flap button, your mount's wings flap
once. This makes your knight rise into the air a little, but almost at
once he begins to sink. When you push the button repeatedly,
however, the wings keep flapping and your knight rises higher
and higher.
The realistic flapping of the wings, the motion of the legs, and
the way the legs and wings seem to cause the figure to move are
animation. The overall pattern of movement, the relationship be
tween the player's joystick and button and the motion of figures
on the screen, is player movement.

Collisions
Now other knights start appearing on the screen. They're
computer-controlled characters that fly according to their own

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Game
Design

patterns. As you move your knight around the screen, he starts

bumping into things — islands and other knights.
If you collide with the bottom or edge of an island, or the top
of the screen, you bounce off. If you were going fast when you
hit, you go just as fast when you bounce off. Your bounce also
takes into account the direction you were going when you col
lided — if you were going upward to the right when you hit the
top, you go downward to the right after the bounce.
If you fall down onto the surface of an island, your mount ex
tends its legs and starts to walk — regardless of how fast or how
far you fell. Running into islands or the ceiling will never hurt
you.

One oddity is that if you glide into contact with the surface of
an island along an almost exactly horizontal path, the legs of your
mount won't come down. Youll just bounce along without walk
ing, belly-flopping your way across the screen.
When you collide with another knight, one of three things
can happen. First, if your knight and the other one are on almost
exactly the same level, you will simply rebound from each other
with a loud noise.
If your knight is lower on the screen than the other knight,
your knight will disappear, and a new one will come to life at one
of the creation platforms.
If your knight is higher, it is the enemy that disappears. In his
place, a large egg flies away from the mount, as the mount flaps
quickly off the screen.
Your knight has a certain amount of time in which to go col
lide with the egg before a new enemy knight hatches out of the
egg, and his mount flies out to join him. The egg trembles a bit
before it hatches, and the enemy's mount does take a while to
arrive and get in place, so there's plenty of warning — but if the
new enemy knight gets mounted, he is more formidable than the
one before. And the sooner you get the egg, the more points you
get.

intelligent Enemies
The enemy knights start out relatively slow and stupid, but even
at the start they tend to notice where your knight is and home in
on him. Also, the red and blue enemy knights are faster and
harder to beat. They have a habit of maneuvering right under the
edge of an island, or right along the top of the screen, so that it's
hard for you to get above them. They also use the island and
screen for rebounding — they fly quickly upward and then re-
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Design

bound downward so they come at you faster than you expect and
from a direction you weren't prepared for. If you follow their
strategies, you'll do better against them.

Other Hazards
From the third level onward, the sea of lava at the bottom of the
screen is uncovered. If your knight falls in, he is consumed. If he
comes too dose while moving too slowly, the lava troll reaches up
and seizes him, pulling him downward into the lava. The hand
sometimes seizes the other knights, but, after holding them
awhile, always lets them go. While they are being held, however,
they are vulnerable to you.

Creation
What happens after one of your knights has disappeared? One of
the platforms turns yellow, and your knight rises into view. Un
like the enemy knights, yours does not immediately fly away. If
you don't move, you have a few seconds in which your knight
cannot be harmed, to wait for enemy knights to leave you a clear
section of sky in which to take off.
You'll also notice that usually your new knights arise from a
platform in the area where the fewest enemy knights are flying.
Likewise, when enemy knights are being created, they will not
usually appear at a platform if your knight is hovering too close.

increasing Difficulty
The longer you play, the harder it gets. The most noticeable
change is that at higher levels there are more enemy knights.
Also, the knights move faster and make more erratic, unpredict
able movements. They also get smarter and evade you better.
If you take too long at any one level, a pterodactyl appears
(though I prefer to think of it as a phoenix). The pterodactyl flies
back and forth across the screen and doesn't home in on you very
accurately, but if you're careless it will get you — and then it
doesn't help you to be above it, for the pterodactyl is
''indestructible."
Or is it? The message on the screen says, "Beware the inde
structible (?) pterodactyl." That question mark leaves some doubt,
and you eventually learn that if you meet the pterodactyl head-
on, with your knight's lance exactly at the level of the monster's
mouth, you can kill it. At later stages, the pterodactyl comes on
the screen almost at once, and homes in on you faster and more
accurately.

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At higher levels, the platforms begin to disappear, which

makes the game more of a free-for-all, with fewer places to hide,
until finally you have no more hiding places at all.

increasing interest
If a game stays the same from beginning to end, except for getting
harder, it soon becomes dull. Joust adds some new elements to in
crease interest. There is a Survival Wave. If you can keep the same
knight alive throughout that wave, you get a substantial bonus. If
you are playing with someone else, you have waves of competi
tive play and cooperative play, in which you get bonuses for hit
ting each other or for not hitting each other.
There is also an Egg Wave, in which, instead of enemy
knights, all their eggs are strewn on the platforms. It is difficult
but not impossible to get all the eggs before they hatch. But when
the enemy knights hatch, they are significantly better fighters than
they were in the round before.
The pterodactyl, the lava troll, and the disappearing islands
also serve to change the game and add interest.

incentives
To encourage you to play again, improving each time, Joust gives
you a score for your achievements in the game. Each egg you get
is worth 250 points more than the last one, starting with 250
points and peaking at a maximum of 1000 points per egg. You also
get a bonus if you get the egg quickly.
If your knight is destroyed and a new one appears, the scor
ing starts over at 250. Likewise, the egg scoring starts over with
each new wave.
You get 1000 points for killing a pterodactyl.
Every 20,000 points, you get a bonus knight. This means that
the better you play, the more chances you have to play even
longer.
If your score is higher than the lowest score on the vanity
board (list of best players), you get to enter your initials at the end
of the game.

Sounds
Each event has its own sound. A collision in which you win has a
different sound from a collision in which you lose. Bumping into
different surfaces makes different sounds. There are sounds for
knights arising from platforms, for eggs hatching and birds com-

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Design

ing in, for the pterodactyl's arrival, and for collisions with eggs.
There are different sounds for walking and for flying. There is a
sound to tell you when you get a bonus knight.
Even while you're concentrating on your own knight, trying
to keep him alive, the sounds tell you a lot about what's going on
elsewhere on the screen.

Story
Everything we've analyzed so far is detail, the bits and pieces that
come together to make up the whole effect. But much of the fun
in Joust is the story. You get to be a knight on a fantastic steed, fly
ing rapidly among floating islands, jousting with dangerous
opponents and evading or attacking mythical monsters. It's a fas
cinating world, a fantasy tale that you are acting out as you play.
Whether you get a hundred thousand points or a tenth of that,
you still get the pleasure of doing something with the computer
that you could never do in real life. It is a pleasure just to visit the
world of Joust, and that sort of pleasure can also be part of your
game.

I complex programming for Simple Games

I When you analyze a game, the way we have just analyzed Joust,
you can see that the simple, smooth play that you enjoy so much
is actually the result of careful, meticulous planning and pro
gramming. Every single effect, every single rule of the game was
planned and programmed. What happens if A collides with B, or
with C, or with D? How does the game get harder as it goes
along? All these things go into making a game that plays well the
first time — and keeps on being fun the hundredth time you play.
Your first game doesn't have to be a Joust. It takes machine
language, for one thing, to keep so many different figures moving
around on the screen at those speeds. But even in fairly simple,
slow-moving games, you'll need to take into account every one of
these things in order to create a fun, interesting game.
In fact, it wouldn't be a bad idea to go to an arcade and study
some of the games. Stand behind a game wizard while he plays
and write down the things that happen on the screen. How do
the ghosts respond to the player in Pac-Man? How often do the
girders bounce out during the elevator sequence in Donkey Kong?
How are pickle movements different from frankfurter movements
in Burger Time?

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Once you become aware of how game creators have designed

the games in the arcades, you'll he much better prepared to plan
the same kinds of effects in your own games.

I The Story of Your Game

Donkey Kong is the story of Mario trying to save his girlfriend
from the gorilla. In Missile Command you are trying to save cities
from an enemy attack. Defender pits you against alien invaders. In
Robotron, you are trying to rescue little human figures from robot
attackers. In Asteroids, you're in space, threading your way among
asteroids while fighting off enemies. The stories range from al
most abstract games, like Qix and Tempest, to fully developed
stories like Venture and Donkey Kong.
Don't underestimate the importance of having a good story.
For one thing, if your story is too close to the story of an existing
game, you won't ever be able to release your game commercially
— you'd get sued! But more important than just being different is
the fact that a good story will give you ideas for game events that
will make it more fun to play.
Let's say you wanted to design a game that has the same
movement pattern as Centipede — a chain of linked segments
moving back and forth across the screen> getting closer and closer
to the player at the bottom. Naturally you can't just duplicate Cen
tipede — there's no future in plagiarism. But what other story
could explain that movement?
Your player could be a roller coaster repairman, and the mov
ing segments could be a roller coaster. Of course, shooting roller
coaster cars isn't exactly sociable behavior, so you may want to
change the play action be having your player-figure patch holes in
the roller coaster track or remove obstacles that are being put in
the way by a terrorist. A roller coaster doesn't just get to the bot
tom of the screen and disappear, either — unlike Centipede, your
game might have the roller coaster climb slowly to the top again,
during which your player-figure has time to patch some holes.
You see how the game changes as you develop the story. And
that can only improve your game. Even if an arcade game was
your starting point, there's no reason why your game shouldn't
be better than its inspiration. Look how much Galaxians improved
on Space Invaders, only to have Firebird and Galaga improve even
more.

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Game
Design

Nowhere is this clearer than in Iron. What is the cone se

quence except good old Breakout? Here, though, it has a story;
with a character trying to get through the blocks, it takes on a
whole new meaning. Tron also includes a traditional tank shoot-
out, and the light cycles sequence is nothing but a variation on
the old Atari VCS cartridge, Surround. Even the spiders aren't
really new. But the story has changed and reshaped them, and
the result is a game that is new.
Once you start thinking of new stories for games, you'll find
it's hard to stop. You can fill up notebooks full of game ideas and
plans in a very short time. And eventually there'll be one that you
like so much that you can't let it go. You keep thinking about it, re
fining it, coming up with new variations. Thafs the one that you
should program — the game you care about is the one that you'll
have the patience and insight to program well.

I Display: What Does the Player See?

On one level, all that goes on in a videogame is that a bunch of
dots on the video screen are lighting up in various colors, and
sounds are coining from a speaker.
But the dots, or pixels (short for "picture cells"), aren't just
lighting up at random. They form patterns that the human brain
recognizes as meaningful.
If the pixels form a yellow circle that has a wedge cut out of it,
we recognize Vac-Man.
Mix different colored dots in set patterns, and we recognize
the hardworking hero Mario from Donkey Kong, or the magnifi
cent flying mounts from Joust.

Characters
On your VIC, a whole set of shapes already exists. Every char
acter on the screen is a pattern of pixels that you recognize as let
ters or numbers or other symbols. None of them looks like a
spaceship or a gorilla, but that's all right — you can design your
own characters to replace some or all of the regular characters.
When your program PRINTs the letter A, for instance, what ap
pears on the screen will be the pattern you designed. Or several
new characters can be put together to make part of a larger picture
on the screen.

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Keep Memory in Mind as You Design

Every picture your program displays will require one or more
characters, and each character you redefine will use up memory,
first when you actually create the character pattern, and again
when you put that pattern on the screen. Since each character
takes eight bytes of data to define it, and a whole character set
contains 128 characters, you could use up 1024 bytes — a whole K
— just in the data for a character set. In a 5K VIC, that makes a real
difference in the amount of program space you have left.
So when you're planning the graphics display for your game,
you need to remember that every different shape you show uses
up memory. That's why it's a good idea to repeat shapes whenever
you can. If you are going to have ten aliens on the screen, you can
save a lot of memory by making them all look alike.

I Animation
The pictures are just pictures until they move. It is when the
wings of your steed start to flap that Joust comes alive. And half
the fun of Donkey Kong Jr. is making Junior climb up or slide down
the ropes and chains.
It is possible to make your animation as smooth and realistic
as the best cartoon movie. But you also face the same problems
that a cartoon animator faces. Each slight movement of a character
requires a new picture of that character. Each direction a character
faces, each action the character performs requires another draw
ing. And that takes memory.
So game designers compromise. They simplify the anima
tion. The gorilla in Donkey Kong stamps his feet and grimaces —
but that requires only two drawings per leg (stamping and not
stamping), two drawings for the face (grimacing and not grimac
ing), and a single drawing for the body. When Kong is rolling bar
rels, there are new drawings to show him doing that. But since he
rolls barrels to only one side, the programmer hadio create the
shape for only that side. And there's no attempt to make the
gorilla walk realistically — he just bounces, without moving his
legs. Ifs far from a classic Disney animated film, but it's good
enough to make a great game.
Remember that anything on the playfield that changes dur
ing a game requires the same sort of memory considerations. If a
trap door opens or a cup of milk empties, you'll need new char
acters for every new shape you show.

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Design

I Player Movement
When players press a key or move a joystick, something needs
to happen on the screen. And here is where the "feel" of a game
comes in. Pushing on the joystick only causes a movement on the
screen when your game program checks the joystick and makes
changes according to what it finds there. If your program checks
the joystick only once every second, the player-figure can't move
any more often than once every second. And that's going to feel
awfully sluggish to players.
As long as you're programming in BASIC, you'll want to de
sign your program so that it checks the joystick and allows move
ment as often as possible. (That isn't so important in machine lan
guage games, however — everything happens so fast that you
often need to insert timer routines to slow down the action.)
So when you're planning your program, you'll probably
build it around a central loop, a series of commands that repeat
over and over. At the heart of that loop will be a joystick-reading
routine. If the player isn't pushing the stick, then you can skip on
to other things. But if some action is requested, your program
needs to be able to perform it as quickly as possible after the
player asks for it.
This means that you want to have as few things happening
on the main loop as possible. If the computer-controlled enemy-
figures move as often as the player, then they will all have to be
moved every time you go through that loop. And in BASIC, that
will make your program crawl.
The solution is to compromise. Either have fewer computer-
controlled opponents, have them move less often, or give them
simple, regular actions. The back-and-forth movement of the
aliens in Space Invaders is a good example of this. They don't aim
when they shoot; they don't have to figure out a path when they
move. They just do the same thing, over and over. Nothing could
be simpler — or faster.
And as you design your program, move as much as possible
off the main loop. Using IF/THEN GOSUB or ON/GOSUB state
ments, you can have the program decide during the main loop
whether a particular routine is necessary. If it is, the program can
jump to the subroutine and then come back; if it isn't, the pro
gram can ignore it and go on, without wasting much time.
Eventually you may even start looking for books on machine
language, so that your game programs can perform some of these
functions much faster than BASIC allows. Still, don't despair if

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Game
Design

your first version of a program runs more slowly than you want.
You'll soon learn tricks to streamline your program and make it go
faster. As long as you don't expect the impossible, you'll be able to
get your game to play smoothly and well.

I Relationships on the Screen

The screen display may be dazzling, but the computer can't see
it. It can't just glance and see whether a player-figure has bumped
into a wall, or moved off the screen, or collided with an opponent.
The computer has to remember where everything is, and
then check to see if there has been a collision. In our roller coaster
variation on Centipede, for instance, the computer won't be able to
see that the roller coaster is passing over a gap in its track. What it
will do, though, is remember that there is a gap in the track at col
umn X, row Y. That information can be stored in an array variable,
GAP. GAP(3,0) gives the column number of the third gap;
GAP(3,1) gives the row number. Each time the roller coaster
moves, then, the program checks all the gap location variables,
and if the roller coaster location is right above a gap location, the
program can make the roller coaster fall through the gap.
You have to program that sort of thing into your game, so that
the computer can do it over and over again. It sounds tedious, but
the computer doesn't mind. In fact, that's one of the greatest
things about videogames. Imagine playing Joust on a game board,
having to calculate all the tiny movements and collisions yourself.
The game would be slow — it wouldn't feel like you were flying.
But the computer does all the drudgery of figuring out where you
should be on the screen and whether you've bumped into any
thing, so that you can simply fly.

I intelligent Opponents
It's one thing to have the aliens in Space Invaders move mind
lessly back and forth across the screen, or a centipede mindlessly
dropping downward according to a set of rules. It's something
else again to have the computer operate seemingly intelligent
opponents that maneuver to try to get the better of you.
In a primitive form, like Berserk, it's a simple homing instinct
— the robots tend to move up if your player-figure moves up.
In Joust, however, the programming is much more complex.
The opponents have a general homing pattern — but they also
have built-in strategy. If you're near, they'll maneuver to gain alti-

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tude on you; they'll hover under the lip of a floating island; they'll
fly upward and rebound down on you. The algorithms to control
that kind of behavior are pretty complex, both as mathematics
and as programming — it verges on artificial intelligence.
But don't worry. Most arcade games aren't nearly so complex.
In Donkey Kong, for instance, the flames do have a tendency to
home in on Mario, but they also follow certain basic patterns.
When you learn them, you realize that the flames are only slightly
more complicated than the robots in Berserk.
There are three levels of intelligence in computer-controlled
figures: the mindless pattern, the homing pattern, and artificial
intelligence.

Mindless Patterns
Here, the figures move in a set pattern, regardless of what the
player does. Examples are the aliens in Space Invaders and the
birds in Donkey Kong Jr. Once you see the pattern, you can plan on
it and work around it. However, the computer usually makes up
for its lack of subtlety by having lots of opponent-figures for you
to cope with. One alien moving back and forth across the screen
would be a picnic; a few dozen, and it's suddenly a challenge.

The Homing Pattern

In this system, the computer-controlled figures change their pat
tern according to where the player-figure is. The response is
pretty simple, as in Berserk or Pac-Man. The monkeys in Kangaroo
seem more intelligent, but they are pretty much the same. They
move up and down the tree according to one of three set paths.
They respond to the player's position by stopping on the same
level as the kangaroo. Then they walk left a certain distance, de
pending on the left-to-right position of the kangaroo, and throw
fruit. Programming this behavior pattern requires some careful
planning and attention to detail, but no math more complicated
than simple arithmetic.

Artificial intelligence
With this kind of opponent, the computer anticipates what you
will do and plans strategies accordingly. Sports simulations often
require this, as the computer lines up a football team in a pattern
that it thinks will cope with whatever you have planned. The
complex knight movements in Joust require some anticipation.
But games that rely heavily on artificial intelligence algorithms are

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Design

relatively rare. Most games rely on mindless or homing patterns,

which are much easier to program and still make excellent game
opponents.

Give the Poor Human a Break

One thing to keep in mind, though, is that even in BASIC the
computer is usually faster than the human player's reflexes. In a
homing pattern, the computer can always recognize, instantly,
any change in the player-figure's movement and respond without
any delay. A human being, however, takes a moment to recognize
the change and respond to it. It's an easy matter to program an
opponent to home in on the player and destroy him every single
time. But that wouldn't be much fun to play.
So you need to build weaknesses into your computer-
controlled characters. Make them slow or dumb — or both. They
can get smarter as the game goes on, but no one enjoys playing a
game of sudden death, in which there's no chance of survival at all.

I Other complications
Besides the computer-controlled opponents, you'll probably
want to have other hazards. Most games have them.
In Vac-Man, for instance, the maze itself is a complication be
cause players have to keep turning and dodging, and can get
trapped in long corridors with ghosts at both ends.
In Joust, the lake of fire and the demon hand make the game a
bit trickier, while the islands make it impossible to have many
long, smooth flights. The eggs are one more thing to worry about
while you try to battle the other knights.
Donkey Kong makes you cope with ladders and elevators and
gaps between girders. Kangaroo makes you climb or leap from
level to level. Rally-X not only has a maze, but also puts random
rocks in the road and keeps you worrying about running out of gas.
The basic principle of complication is to make sure the player
has to think of several things at once. Not only do you have to
dodge the pickles, hot dogs, and fried eggs in Burger Time, but
you also have to make hamburgers and Egg McMuffins. The more
things going on at once, the busier the player has to be.
But, again, don't make it impossible. The complications
should come at a rate a human being can cope with. It isn't fun to
find out that a computer is quicker than you are. What's fun is
feeling like you're a match for the computer, at least for a while.

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I Entrances and Exits

Figures appear or disappear often during a game. But a simple
vanishing and reappearing act isn't very satisfying to the player.
Besides, things are often happening so fast that players need a
bigger effect to help them know what's going on.
For instance, when you eat a ghost in Pac-Man, it doesn't just
vanish and then reappear somewhere else. We can see the eyes of
the now-invisible ghost as it rushes from the site of its untimely
demise to the box in the middle of the screen. There, the ghost
gets back its shape — but it still wanders around inside the box for
a moment or two before reemerging. This gives players some time
without that ghost in the way, and helps them keep track of when
it will come out again.
Even more important than when an opponent disappears
and returns, however, is when the player's own player-figure is
wiped out. It can range from the big explosion in Asteroids and
other shoot-outs to Mario's head-over-heels tumble in Donkey
Kong, but something needs to happen to let players know that
they've been beaten, at least in this round.
However, as a matter of psychology, it helps if the player-
figure's doom isn't too unpleasant. Abusive comments, for in
stance, don't make anybody feel like playing the game again.
Thafs why so many arcade games have a cute ending — funny
sounds and an animated sequence that doesn't suggest death or
terrible pain.
Remember, if you've done well at creating a good player-
figure and an enthralling game, players will be taking events in
the game pretty personally. Your computer should be a good
sport about winning, and not gloat.

I Maintaining interest
One of the elements in games like Monopoly or Poker or Chess or
Go that has made them classics is that they remain a challenge, no
matter how often you play. You may not come up with a Monopoly
your first time, but you certainly don't want to create a game that
people will play once and then discard. So what is it about a
game that brings people back to play again and again?

Unpredictability
No game is completely unpredictable — the rules are designed, in
fact, so that it will play pretty much the same every time. What

32
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Design

good would baseball be if you never knew what order to run the
bases from one game to the next, or where the bases would be, or
the size of the ball? Yet every baseball game is different because
there are, within the framework of the rules, some things that can
never be predicted. The speed and spin of the pitch, the force and
direction of the bat, the angle and speed of the ball off the bat, the
arrangement of runners on the bases and players in the outfield
and the infield — these are never twice the same, even though the
rules never vary.
You'll notice that all those variables depend on what human
beings do. The trouble with computer games is that the computer
is absolutely predictable — it will always obey your program com
mands. The computer has only two ways of being unpredictable.
One is to generate a random number and use it in your program.
The other is to let the player's input change the way the program acts.
Space Invaders has very little unpredictability. The aliens will
tend to shoot more where the player is, and if you wipe out col
umns of aliens at the edges, it will take longer for them to reach
the edge and drop down to the next level. That's about it.
Missile Command uses the random method of being unpre
dictable. While the enemy always aims at the same targets, the
missiles never start at the same place and in the same pattern at
the top of the screen.
Dig-Dug depends on the player for its unpredictability. The
player, in effect, draws the playfield by carving a maze through
the rock. Even though the placement of the creatures at the be
ginning of each level is always the same, and their movement
starting times never vary, the levels can be as different as the
player wants to make them, because everything they do depends
on where the player has cut the maze and where the player hap
pens to be.

increasing Difficulty
Another way of keeping interest high is to make the game increas
ingly difficult. If you're a tennis player, you know that it's most
fun to play with an opponent who's just a little better than you.
And most arcade games use the same principle — no matter how
good you are, at some point the computer is going to be just a
little better.
How do you make a game harder from level to level? Speed,
accuracy, and complication are the keys.
Speed. At low levels, opponents move slowly and are easy to
catch or evade. Just by changing the timing, however, opponents

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Design

can be made to move faster, bit by bit, until they zip around the
screen. Players can also be allowed to move faster, so they have to
make decisions more quickly. And if opponents throw rocks or
shoot bullets, those projectiles can move faster so they're harder
to dodge.
Accuracy. At low levels, opponents can be programmed to
miss. In Asteroids, for instance, the big enemy ship fires some
where in the space around you — you usually have to practically
try to get hit for it to harm you. But the small ship, which comes
on later, fires much more accurately, predicting your future course
so that it's much harder for you to dodge in time.
Complication. Keeping track of four enemy knights is hard
enough at the beginning of Joust, when you're just starting out.
But in later levels, you have dozens to worry about, and the eggs
and pterodactyls, too.
Most games use a combination of these three, gradually in
creasing the speed, accuracy, and complications from level to
level. It's easy to do if you design your programs with some key
variables, so that you only have to change their values at the be
ginning of a level to have the game get faster and harder to play.
There's a problem, though, with having games get increas
ingly more difficult as you go from level to level. You have to get
through a lot of boring stuff that's easy to do before you can get to
the part of the game thafs challenging.
The solution is to let players choose their starting levels at the
beginning of the game. However, this might cause their total
score to drop, and those who care about high scores will be frus
trated. The designers of Tempest found one solution. If you decide
to start at a higher level, you get a progressively larger bonus
when you successfully complete that starting level. It's impossible
for someone who starts at level 1 to get as high a score as someone
who starts at level 11, even if both players end up at level 15, be
cause the bonus for starting at a high level is so large. In the
arcade, this also serves the purpose of encouraging players to
play harder, shorter games, so the quarters flow faster, but even at
home it's nice not to be penalized for starting out at a high level.

New Scenery
One thing that keeps players going with many games is the desire
to find out what awaits them at the next level. The changes can be
major ones, like the new screens introduced at each new level of
Donkey Kong, or they can be minor, like the succession of bonus

34
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Design

vegetables in Dig-Dug. In Galaga, it's fun to see what new crea

tures will appear, and in what pattern they'll fly, in each bonus
round. Later versions of Pac-Man vary the mazes; Tempest has
new and increasingly complex geometric patterns at each level;
Venture has new rooms, new treasures, and new monster
guardians.
Even working in limited memory, it's possible to have small
surprises hidden away for the player who makes it to higher and
higher levels. It turns videogaming into exploration, and that
adds a lot to the fun.

I incentives
Beating the machine and finding out what happens next are cer
tainly incentives to keep playing longer, better, and more often.
But you need to make sure that your game encourages players to
accomplish the tasks the game sets out for them.
Negative incentives are usually the first things people think
of. If you don't shoot the rockets out of the sky in Missile Com
mand, your cities will be blown up and the game will end. If you
don't punch out the monkeys and keep climbing in Kangaroo,
you'll be decked by a piece of fruit or a gorilla.
There need to be positive incentives, too, to keep the player
doing the right things. In Monopoly, for instance, you are encour
aged to buy properties early in the game because, if you do, you
get more rent later. You are encouraged to try for monopolies be
cause your rent is doubled and you can make property improve
ments. You are discouraged from mortgaging property because
you get no rent. That same kind of reward structure will help the
player of your game to do the things your game requires.

Scoring
Scoring is the easiest way to let players know how they are doing.
Each time players accomplish a goal, there should be a reward in
points. It doesn't matter if the players know exactly how the
points are awarded, but they should be given consistently, and
harder accomplishments should be rewarded with more points.
In Pac-Man, for instance, you get points for each dot you eat.
You also get points for each ghost you collide with after eating a
power pill. And each ghost you collide with on the same power
pill is worth progressively more points. The bonus for eating fruit
and keys increases with each screen, too, rewarding you more for
surviving farther and farther into the game.

35
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Design

But how many points? That's a tricky question, and it's really
up to you. The general rule is that easy things get few points and
hard things get lots of points. But no one accomplishment should
get so many points that it completely overbalances the game.
Point inflation. Also, you should keep "point inflation" in
mind. In Asteroids, you can't get less than ten points for anything.
The score always ends with zero. You could get rid of that last
zero, and it wouldn't affect anything, except that 1000 points
would only be 100 points, and so on. Your score would be just as
accurate.
So why does Asteroids multiply your "real" score by ten? Be
cause it feels a lot better to get 10,000 points than to get 1,000
points. The game inflates your score so that you feel like you've
accomplished more. After Asteroids, a game like Super Breakout,
which rarely lets you get above 4,000 points, feels rather tame, in
part because the score is lower.
But point inflation has limits. It's hard for players to visualize
a billion points, so if scores get into the billions and trillions, and
most of the score is meaningless zeros, players will tend to drop
off the zeros anyway, and talk about getting 15 or 30 instead of
15,000,000,000 or 30,000,000,000.
Vanity board. Part of the fun of scoring is to see if you can get
on the vanity board. Vanity boards began as a record of the high
score. Gradually, games began including the top three or top five
or top ten scores, and allowed the players to enter their initials or
even their names. Players quickly learned to use these for graffiti,
getting exactly the right scores so they could spell out messages of
varying degrees of cleverness. However, the vanity board was
erased when the machine was turned off. Now games often have
methods of storing part or all of a vanity board even when the
power is off. Most such games have split vanity boards. Half the
high scores are permanent and do not disappear; the other half
revert to zero when the game is off.
There are other variations, too. Some machines have default
values when they power up, so that your score won't show on the
vanity board until you get a minimum of, say, 10,000 points.
Others come up with phony initials and plausible but low default
scores, so that it looks like other players have left their initials and
scores even when no one has played the machine that day.
Ifs often a good idea, if your game has scoring at all, to have a
high score display at the end of a game, so that players can keep
track of the top score earned since the program started running.

36
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ne
Design

You can easily keep the top three or five scores, with initials, or
the top score for each player. And it's not hard to include a perma
nent vanity board as part of the program, which is automatically
saved each time the game ends.
However, vanity boards use up memory, and when things get
tight in your game program, the vanity board is expendable; it
just isn't a vital part of game play, the way scoring can be.

Bonus Turns
Games like Vac-Man and Donkey Kong never allow more than one
bonus turn, but Dig-Dug, Asteroids, Galaxians, Joust, and others re
ward players with bonus turns at regular intervals. Limiting the
number of bonus turns helps the arcade owners because it means
people can't play as long on a single quarter — but people playing
your game at home on their VIC don't need that restriction.
Of course, it can be carried to extremes, too. Endless games of
Asteroids that end up with scores in the millions are the result of
poor planning. The program should have been designed so that at
the higher levels a dozen little enemy ships come on the screen at
once. Then the game would have stayed challenging.

Story Rewards
There are rewards built into the story of the game. In Donkey Kong,
Mario saves the girl; in Donkey Kong Jr., Junior saves Papa. In Kan
garoo, the mother saves her child. In these games, you'll notice
that the objective is often achieved — the girl, Papa, and the baby
kangaroo are saved several times during the game.
In games like Defender, Missile Command, and Asteroids, the
win condition can never be achieved — there are always new
waves of enemies, and never any time when the computer says,
"Congratulations. You saved the earth." That makes these games
more frustrating than the games that allow the main objective of
the story to be achieved.

I Sounds
Sound isn't just decoration. It isn't just music to attract you to
the game when you hear it out on the street — though it does that
very well.

Feedback
e you ever played an arcade game with the sound turned off?
Have]
ade owners sometimes get so tired of the sounds from populai
Arcade popular

37
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Came
Design

games that they turn the sound off entirely. When you play a
silent machine for the first time, it throws your timing off com
pletely. You rarely realize how much you depend on sound until
it's gone.
Whenever players do something, your program should pro
vide a sound that lets them know that the computer got the mes
sage. The walking and jumping sounds in Donkey Kong are a real
help — sometimes it takes a moment to realize that Mario isn't do
ing what you told him, especially if you're glancing elsewhere on
the screen at the time, and the sound can make a real difference
in your timing.

News
Sounds also tell you about things happening elsewhere on the
screen. An explosion, a collision, an alarm going off, a sound for
having won a bonus round, a tune that tells you that the enemy is
vulnerable or to warn you that a new enemy is on the screen — all
these things help players keep track of what's going on while
they're concentrating on the player-figure.
Mood
And don't underestimate the importance of music for simply set
ting the mood for the game. Background music is something
chess never had. Videogame makers learned it from the movies.
Mysterious music can increase the suspense in a horror
movie — and in a videogame. Busy, tense music makes a chase
scene more exciting in an action film — and in a videogame. And
bright, cheerful music can be part of the reward for success.
However, unless you know how to put music into interrupts
— which can be done only in machine language — you'll have to
keep in mind that every use of sound takes up memory and slows
down the game. Most of the time, you'll probably use sound only
where it's really necessary — to give information to the player.

I Documentation
This is often one of the last things you'll add to a game program,
but it's the first thing a player will see. By the time you finish pro
gramming, you know your game intimately. You know every
thing that will happen at every level, and you are probably
already pretty good at beating the game. But other players won't
know anything at all, and you need to tell them enough that they
can have fun. If touching a balloon will blow them up, they
38
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Came
Design

should know that; if they have to pick up a pot of gold in order to

win, they should certainly be infQrmed.
Your documentation, whether written on paper or on the
screen, should tell the player several things:
1. How to use the controllers. What does the joystick do in this
game? What does the fire button do? What will pushing the func
tion keys do (if anything)? Players must know everything that will
happen when they push keys or buttons or move sticks or
paddles.
2. Game options. Beginning or advanced game? One or two
players? Nighttime or daytime screen? Shields, hyperspace, flip-
over, or no defense? All the possible options need to be
explained.
3. Game objectives. What are players supposed to accomplish?
How can they win? What gives them points? What gives them a
bonus?
4. Game hazards. What is going to attack the players? What
dangers can they run into? Anything that can cause players to lose
a player-figure or lose the game should be mentioned. If players
are trying to land a spaceship, they should know that touching
the walls of the landing slip, landing too fast, and not having per
mission from Landing Control can all cause the ship to crash.
5. Game rules. What can and cannot be done? Computer
games tend to be self-enforcing — if you try to do something
illegal, the computer just won't do it. So the game rules docu
mentation usually turns into a tips or hints section, where you let
players know the way something works. If you have a football
player trying to catch a pass, it helps to tell players what condi
tions have to be met for the pass to be caught.

I Start Where you Are

Now you have your brilliant, fantastic videogame designed, and
you discover that there isn't enough computer memory in the
world, let alone in your VIC, to actually carry it out. Or you find
out that some of the things you want to do would make the game
run too slowly. Or you discover that some of the things you want
to do are still out of your reach as a programmer.
That happens to all game designers, no matter how good
they are. As you do the actual programming, you'll find out that
some things in your plan just can't work the way you meant them
to. That's fine. Every videogame you've ever played is the result of
many compromises between the ideal game and the limitations of

39
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Design

the machine and the programmer. Also, new ideas will occur to
you while you're programming. The plan you make before the
programming begins is to help you, not to limit you — to point
out needs, not to eliminate alternatives. Once the creativity starts
flowing, it can only help the game.

40
Setting up
Your screen
Q
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G
 3
Setting up
Your Screen
The video display in your game is very important, because that
is where players have to "live" during the time they are playing
your game. If it is comfortable, showing the players all the in
formation they need to have, with attractive design and interest
ing graphics, they'll be glad to come back to that world again and
again. If it is cluttered and confusing and unattractive, the game
will be hard to play and they aren't likely to come back for more.
Changing colors
So let's start getting control of the screen. There are 128 possible
combinations of playfield and border colors. Instead of describing
them, 111 show them to you. Just type in this simple program:
10 FOR X = 0 TO 255.POKE 36879/X:NEXT
What does this program do? Location 36879 controls the back
ground and border colors. This program changes the number
stored at location 36879 by POKEing 256 different numbers there
— all the numbers from 0 to 255 — so each of the possible combi
nations is shown twice.
But this isn't very helpful. It all happens way too fast. So
here's a program that shows you the color combinations, but
more slowly. And the program will tell you what number is being
POKEd into 36879, so that if you like the colors, you can use them
in your game.
Anything between braces — { } — is the name of a special
VIC character. In line 10, you type the word PRINT, then a space,
then a quotation mark. But then you don't type { CLR }. Instead,
you press the SHIFT key and the CLR/HOME key. In line 30, you
don't type {2 DOWN} {8 RIGHT}. Instead, you type the
CURSOR DOWN key three times and the CURSOR RIGHT key
eight times. See Appendix B, "How to Type In Programs" for a
full explanation of all this.
10 PRINT "{CLR}11
20 FOR X=0 TO 255:POKE 36879,X
30 PRINT "{3 DOWN}{8 RIGHT}"X
40 FOR T=0 TO 1000:NEXT:NEXT

43
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Setting up
Your screen

Now the screen changes more slowly, so you can see what's hap
pening. Also, line 30 shows you the number being POKEd into
36879.
Notice that when a value from 96 to 103 is POKEd in, the
numbers on the screen turn into blue boxes. And from 104 to 111,
the screen seems completely blank. The numbers are still there,
but they're invisible because they're the same color as the rest of
the screen. If you ever PRINT or POKE a character onto the
screen, and it doesn't show up, the first thing to do is POKE a dif
ferent value into 36879 — chances are the character is invisible be
cause it's the same color as the screen.
Invisible objects. That's an important thing to remember —
anything that is the same color as the background disappears on
the screen. That means that you could put invisible objects on the
screen, and then make them suddenly appear by changing their
color or the background color. Magic — with a single POKE.
Here's a program to show you how that works:
10 PRINT "{CLR}"
20 POKE 36879,110+104*(PEEK(36879)=110):GOSUB 30:G
OTO 20
30 FOR 1=0 TO 19:PRINT CHR$(32)"{DOWN}{RIGHT}";:NE
XT:RETURN

Line 20 acts like an on-off switch. It POKEs 36879 with 110 —

unless 36879 already contains 110, in which case it POKEs 36879
with 6. But where does the 6 come from in that line?
On-off switch. It's a good thing to remember, with the VIC
and many other computers, that false has a value of zero and true
has a value of negative one. So the expression (PEEK(36879) = 110)
has a value of 0 if 36879 does not contain 110, and a value of -1 if
36879 does contain 110.
104 times 0 is 0 — so if 36879 holds any number other than 110,
the program POKEs it with 110 + 0, or 110.
104 times -1, however, is -104. So if 36879 does contain 110,
line 20 POKEs it with 110-104, or 6.
We could have done it another way, with two lines:
20 IF PEEK(36879) =110 THEN POKE 36879,6:0010 30
25 POKE 36879,110

Remember that in programming, there's usually more than

one way to do the job.
Default color. What color does the screen usually display?
Type RUN/STOP and RESTORE, to get the screen back to normal,

44
 3
Setting up
Your screen

and then type PRINT PEEK(36879). The number 27 appears on

the screen. That is the normal, 01; default value of 36879 — the
number that the VIC puts into that memory location when you
first turn it on.

I Hide and Seek

Why did POKEing 36879 change the screen color? Can one
POKE really do that much?
No. That POKE didn't actually change the colors. Color
changes are complex operations, since the VIC has to change its
entire signal to the television. That signal to the TV is handled by
the Video Interface Chip, which does all the communication be
tween the computer and the TV. The Video Interface Chip, or
VIC, is so important that they named the computer for it.
The VIC chip updates the screen display 60 times a second. It
does this automatically — you don't have to worry about it. The
important thing is that the VIC chip looks at certain locations in
memory in order to find out what the TV display should look like.
36879 is the location where the VIC looks — every 1/60 second —
to find out what color the background and border should be. By
putting a different number there, you are telling the VIC chip
what colors you want — and the VIC chip takes care of the rest.

I Screen Memory
That principle applies to everything about screen graphics. The
VIC chip looks at a lot of different locations to find out what you
want the screen to look like. By changing what is in those loca
tions, you can get the VIC chip to display exactly what you want
— as long as you follow the rides.
Besides checking 36879 to get the background and border
colors, the VIC chip also scans an area called screen memory to
find out which characters to display on the screen, and another
area, called color memory, to find out what foreground and back
ground color each of those characters should have, and still an
other area, the character set, to find out what the character
actually looks like. It checks some other things, too, that we
won't worry about right now. It does all this 60 times a second.
And by changing what the VIC finds when it scans through
these areas of memory, you control what gets displayed on the
television screen.

45
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setting up
Y&ur Screen

peeks and POKES

If you're already familiar with the rules about using PEEK and
POKE, you can skip this section.
POKE. This command puts a new number into a memory
location. POKE is always followed by two numbers. The first
number is the address that you want to change. The second num
ber is the new value that you want to store there. There is always a
comma between the two numbers:
POKE 36879,55

Legal POKEs. POKE always has to specify an address that

actually exists in the computer. That means you can't POKE to a
negative address number or to an address higher than 65535.
Also, you can POKE into an address only a number from 0 to 255.
Negative numbers or numbers above 255 will give you an error
message and stop your program.
POKE uses only integers — whole numbers, with no frac
tions. However, using a fraction will not stop your program.
POKE automatically chops off the fraction, both in the address
and the number you are POKEing. If you told the computer
POKE 36879.5,55.3
the computer would act as if you had said
POKE 36879,55

What can you POKE? The numbers you POKE don't always
have to be constants. They can be variables that contain the values
you want:

POKEADDR,NUM
POKEC(I),N(I)
In fact, you can even use expressions, like these:
POKE ADDR +X,INT((X*100)/256)
POKE SC +INT(I/256)*256,CHR$(N)
Everything to the left of the comma is calculated to decide the
address, and everything to the right of the comma decides what
value to POKE.
PEEK. You use this function to find out what is stored at a
certain location, without changing it at all. PEEK is not a com
mand — it can't stand alone. You can't just say PEEK 55 — the
computer won't know what to do. You have to have a command
that tells the computer to do something with the number it finds
when it PEEKs at a certain address. The address you are PEEKing

46
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Setting up
Your Screen

is always in parentheses right after the word PEEK:

X=PEEK(400)
You can use PEEK with many different commands:
PRINT PEEK(756)
IF PEEK(4096) =PEEK(500) THEN N =PEEK(9090)
FOR X =0 TO PEEK(5999)
And PEEK works with expressions, too.
A =PEEK(INT(N/256)*256 +X +3)
Whatever number results from all that calculating becomes the
address where PEEK looks to retrieve a value.

PEEKing and POKEing in screen Memory

POKE is the command you will use to directly change one spot
on the screen. You will use the PEEK function to find out what
is stored in a particular location in screen memory. Since the
computer can't actually see what is on the TV screen, this is the
only way your program can find out what is being displayed at
any given spot.
Let's see how that works with a sample program. The value
of ADDR will be 7680 (if you are using a VIC with 8K or more of
expansion memory, use 4096). The variable X will be added to
ADDR to select different locations on the screen:
10 ADDR=7680

If you have memory expansion, line 10 should be: 10

ADDR =4096.
20 POKE 36879,90
30 FOR X=0 TO 505
40 POKE ADDR+X,INT(RND(X)*256):NEXT
50 FOR X=0 TO 505
60 POKE ADDR+X,32:NEXT:GOTO 30

The program is simple, and yet it has a pretty thorough effect on

the screen, doesn't it?
Lines 30 and 40 put random characters on the screen. Lines
50 and 60 fill the screen with blank characters — the same char
acter you get when you press the space bar.
You might notice that wherever there was writing on the
screen before you typed RUN, the characters are blue, and in
verse characters have a blue background. This is because we are
doing nothing to change color memory. Well get to that later.

47
3
setting up
Ybur screen

Getting the Screen under Control

As you can see, changing the screen display is easy. The hard
part is changing it exactly the way you want, to get exactly the
effect you want — but we're getting there.
Codes. Notice that the screen doesn't display the numbers that
resulted from the expression in line 30. Instead, it treats those
numbers as codes for certain characters (letters, numbers, and
symbols), and it prints the characters on the screen. These are not
the same as the ASCII codes that you use with the CHR$ func
tion. You get very different results from these two statements:
PRINT CHR$(94)
POKE 7680,94

The CHR$ function uses the ASCII code. Almost every com
puter understands the ASCII character codes — that's why
BASIC uses them, so that your program can easily be trans
ported to another computer. But your VIC's operating system
has a harder time with them.
So you have two systems of code. But well go over character
sets in more detail in the next chapter.
10 POKE 36879,155:ADDR=7680:S$=MTHIS IS A TEST"
20 PRINT "{CLR}"S$
30 FOR X=l TO 14
40 A=PEEK(ADDR+X-1)
50 A$=MID$(S$,X,1)
60 PRINT A;TAB(5);A$;TAB(8);ASC(A$)
70 NEXT X

This example program puts a test message on the screen. Then

it PEEKs at the first 14 addresses in screen memory, where that
test message appears, and PRINTS the screen code number
stored at that address in memory, then the character, and then
the ASCII value of that character. By comparing the numbers,
you can see how different they are.
But it isn't just a random difference. You'll notice that the
screen code is always exactly 64 less than the ASCII code, except
for the blank character, which is 32 in both lists.
Let's add some lines to the program:
80 FOR X=l TO 14
90 A$=MID$(S$,X,1)
100 A=ASC(A$):IF A>32 THEN A=A-64
110 POKE ADDR+329+X,A
120 NEXT X

48
 3
setting up
Your Screen

Line 100 takes the test message apart, one letter at a time, so that
in line 110 the program can convert it to its ASCII numeric value
(ASC(A$)). Then, if the ASCII value is greater than 32, the pro
gram subtracts 64 to get the screen code. This formula doesn't
work with all the characters, though — it's a bit more complex
than that. The character code tables in Appendices G and H show
the ASCII codes and screen codes for every character.

Organization of Screen Memory

Computer memory is one long chain of addresses, one right
after the other. One section of this chain is used as screen mem
ory. The 506 bytes from 7680 to 8185 in the unexpanded 5K VIC
or with 3K expander, or from 4096 to 4601 in VICs with more
memory added, are used as a map of the TV screen.
To convert that memory into 23 rows of 22 characters each,
the VIC chip reads screen memory as if it were cut after every 22
addresses. At every twenty-third address, the VIC chip begins a
new row on the screen. (See the Screen Location Table in
Appendix C.)
In reading screen memory, the VIC chip starts in the upper-
left-hand corner of the screen, moves across the top row to the
right, and then jumps down to the leftmost character in the sec
ond row and moves across that row to the right. When it reaches
the lower-right-hand corner of the screen, it jumps back up to
the top-left corner and starts over.
The upper-left-hand corner is the lowest address of screen
memory (7680 or 4096). The lower-right-hand corner is the high
est address of screen memory (8185 or 4601). It may seem con
fusing that the top of the screen is "lower" in memory than the
bottom of the screen, but that just means that the lowest-
numbered address is at the top of the screen, and the highest-
numbered address is at the bottom. As long as you remember
that the VIC reads from left to right and from top to bottom, just
as we do, and the memory address numbers follow the same
order, it shouldn't be too confusing. Appendix C shows the
address of each screen location.

I Setting up a Screen
I Let's say we want to draw a cross (+) in the center of the screen.
The middle of the screen is character 11 in row 11 (counting from
0). To find x, the exact address in memory, multiply the row

49
3
setting up
Your Screen

number (11) by 22, the total number of memory addresses per

row. The answer is 242. Then add 11, because we want the twelfth
character (the first character is character 0). The answer is 253.
10 ADDR=7680:PRINT "{WHT}{CLR}m
20 POKE 36879,42
30 ROW=11:COLUMN=11:GOSUB 150
140 END
150 POKE ADDR+COLUMN+ROW*22/102:RETURN

If you type that in and RUN it, a small checkered square will ap
pear about the middle of the screen. (RUN this program each
time we add a new line to it, so you can see how each statement
affects the screen display.)
To put a character just to the left of that one, subtract 1 from
the value of COLUMN. Subtracting 1 always moves you to the
left, except when you are already at the left margin.
40 COLUMN=COLUMN-1:GOSUB 150

Now, to add a character to the right, add 2 to the value

COLUMN:
50 COLUMN=COLUMN+2:GOSUB 150

Moving up a row is almost as easy. Remember that each row

is 22 characters long. So the spot directly above our original char
acter on the screen is 22 addresses earlier in memory. However, in
this example program, the subroutine at 150 already takes care of
multiplying by 22. So to move up, we only have to subtract 1 from
ROW. We also want to get COLUMN back to its starting value.
60 ROW=ROW-1:COLUMN=COLUMN-1:GOSUB 150
Now down a row:
70 ROW=ROW+2:GOSUB 150

Borders
Now let's put a border around the screen. First, well fill the first
row:

80 ROW=0:FOR COLUMN=0 TO 21:GOSUB 150:NEXT COLUMN

Now the left-hand margin:

90 COLUMN=0:FOR ROW=0 TO 22:GOSUB 150:NEXT

The bottom row:

100 ROW=22:FOR COLUMN=0 TO 21:GOSUB 150:NEXT

And the right-hand margin:

110 COLUMN=21:FOR ROW=22 TO 0 STEP -1:GOSUB 150:NE
XT
50
 3
Setting up
Your screen

Now, to keep the READY message from spoiling the screen, well
make it so the program never ends.
120 GOTO 30

You'll have to press RUN/STOP to end the program.

Random screen Displays

The screen you just created will be the same every time you run
that program. Now let's design a screen that will be different
every time — stars and planets in space.

Program 3-1. starfield

10 ADDR=7680:POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{BLK}{CLR}h
20 Q=80*RND(9)+20:Ql=6*RND(9)+2
30 FOR 1=0 TO Q:X=505*RND(9):N=46:GOSUB 150:NEXT
40 FOR 1=0 TO Q1:X=505*RND(9):N=81:GOSUB 150:NEXT
50 FOR 1=0 TO 999:NEXT:PRINT "{CLR}":GOTO 20
150 POKE ADDR+X,N:RETURN

This program creates a starfield, with distant (small) and near

(large) stars. It waits about a second and then draws another,
completely different one.
There are three random elements: how many near stars, how
many far stars, and where the stars are placed.
Line 20 is where the program decides how many far stars (Q)
and near stars (Ql) there will be. In lines 30 and 40, these random
values are used to decide how many stars of each size will be
placed on the screen.
Lines 30 and 40 also generate a random number, X, which
represents the address on the screen where a particular star will
be placed. So the number of near stars, the number of far stars,
and their placement on the screen are all random.
Controlling the random numbers. How do these random
numbers work? The RND(n) function generates a random frac
tion between 0 and 1. The number in parentheses (the argument)
doesn't affect the range of the numbers. Your program then mul
tiplies the random fraction to get a random number in the range
that you want.
Integers. The number that results will almost always be a
fraction, so to get a whole number you need to use the INT func
tion. A = INT(500*RND(5)) will generate a random number be
tween 0 and 499. A = INT(5*RND(5)) will generate a random
number between 0 and 4.
Minimums. You establish minimums by adding to the

51
3
setting up
Your screen

random number. A = DSJT(5*RND(5) + 3) will generate a random

number between 3 and 7. A simple program like this will let you
experiment with random numbers:
500 A=INT(5*RND(9)+55):PRINT A,:GOTO 500
Hold down the CTRL key to make it print more slowly. You can
type RUN/STOP to stop the program at any time. You might want
to change the 5 and 55 to any value you like and see what
happens.
Random numbers are vital to most games, because they are
the easiest way of making sure that the game never plays the
same twice. But you need to make sure that you control the
values resulting from the RND function by setting the right
minimum and maximum.
Regular patterns. As a general rule, the more regular the pat
tern of your playfield, the simpler the program needed to gener
ate it. A simple checkerboard requires only a few lines:
10 ADDR=7680:POKE 36879,238:PRINT "{CLR}":N=160
20 FOR X=0 TO 20 STEP 2:FOR Y=0 TO 22 STEP 2:GOSUB
150:NEXT:NEXT
140 END
150 POKE ADDR+X+22*Y,N:POKE ADDR+X+1+(Y+1)*22,N:RE
TURN

Variety. Just because you use a regular pattern in your play-

field doesn't mean it has to be dull. You can make simple changes
in a screen setup routine that will make a big difference on the
screen. Add these three lines to the program you just typed:
30 READ N:IF N=0 THEN RESTORE:N=160
40 GOTO 20
200 DATA 102,81,78,86,77,127,255,79,80,0

Now the program reads a "table" of information in the DAIA

statement in line 200. Each new number causes a new character to
be printed to the screen. You can experiment by adding new
numbers to the table. Just make sure the only zero in the list
comes at the very end of the list.
You'll notice that the program keeps cycling through the char
acters, even though each character is listed only once at line 200.
The key to this is in line 30. The program READs the value of N
from the table. Each time it READs one number, BASIC remem
bers where it left off in the table, and on the next READ it will
bring back the next value in order. When it brings back a zero, the
IF-THEN statement notices and the statement RESTORE is

52
 3
Setting up
Your screen

executed. RESTORE simply puts the pointer back to the 1 w

of the list. Then the value of Nis set to 160 again, and the whole
loop starts over.
Also, many of the patterns completely conceal the fact that
the screen is divided into little rectangles. Just because the VIC
uses characters for its graphics doesn't mean you have to have
square-looking screens.
And see how much variety comes from changing the screen
color. Change the screen color POKE in line 10 to POKE 36879,8 or
POKE 36879,233 and see how much difference it makes.

Seeing What's on the Screen

Now that you have a checkerboard of characters on the screen,
how can you fill in the spaces between them? All you need is a
line that PEEKs at every location on the screen, and wherever it
finds a spot that meets certain conditions, it POKEs a character
there.
Here's a variation on the checkerboard program that shows
how PEEK can be used. Look at it carefully, because this tech
nique will be vital later, for figuring out whether your player-
figure has bumped into something on the screen.

Program 3-2. Fill in

10 ADDR=7680:POKE 36879,233:PRINT "{CLR}":N=160:P=
81
20 FOR X=0 TO 20 STEP 2:FOR Y=0 TO 22 STEP 2:GOSUB
150:NEXT:NEXT
30 FOR X=0 TO 505:IF PEEK(ADDR+X)<>N THEN POKE ADD
R+X,P
40 NEXT:READ N#P:IF N=0 THEN RESTORE:N=160
50 GOTO 20
150 POKE ADDR+X+22*Y,N:POKE ADDR+X+1+(Y+1)*22,N:RE
TURN
200 DATA 86,78,77,127,255,95,105,79,80,88,74,113,1
12,32,0,81

You'll notice that in line 30, the program scans the entire screen,
from position 0 to position 505, but the P character is POKEd only
if that spot on the screen does not contain the current Ncharacter.
Multiple READs. In line 40, the program READs two
numbers, N and P. That means that in the DAIA table, the num
bers for N alternate with the numbers for P. If you alter the table,
you need to make sure that your list comes out even, and that
there is a zero in the second-from-last position.

53
3
Setting up
Your Screen

Combining characters. Also, you can see how the alternating

characters combine to create shapes that never existed before.
That's how you'll make larger pictures on the screen — combining
several shapes to make one complete design. The graphics char
acters built into the VIC's character set — screen codes 64-127 and
192-255, and ASCII codes 96-127 and 160-255 - are designed so
that many of them fit together exactly, so you can make continu
ous drawings.

Screen Displays with print

Just because you can POKE to screen memory doesn't mean you
always want to. Sometimes PRINT statements can be even more
effective, since you can print entire strings all at once. Setting up
the strings takes more programming — and more typing — but
once strings are set up they can be PRINTed instantly anywhere
on the screen. This program demonstrates how quickly PRINTIing
a string can make a change on the screen. Think of it as a wiring
diagram, and imagine that you're controlling a spark trying to
escape from the opposite corner of the screen.

Program 3-3. wire

10 DIM A$(6),S$(8):POKE 36879,1 -.PRINT " {CLR} {WHT} "
:GOSUB 500
20 PRINT "{HOME}{DOWN}":FOR 1=0 TO 8:PRINT A$(0):N
EXT I
30 PRINT "{HOME}":GOSUB 150.-PRINT A? (N+3) :PRINT S$
(8)+A$(6-N)
40 PRINT "{HOME}{DOWN}"+S$(S)+A$(0):GOSUB 160:GOSU
B 170:PRINT "{HOME}{DOWN}"+S$(S)+A$(N)
50 FOR 1=0 TO 2000:NEXT:GOTO 30
150 N=INT(2*RND(9)):RETURN
160 N=INT(3*RND(9)):RETURN
170 S=INT(7*RND(9)+1):RETURN
500 FOR X=l TO 20:A$(0)=A$(0)+CHR$(221):NEXT
510 FOR 1=1 TO 5 STEP 4:FOR X=l TO 10:A$(I)=A$(I)+
CHR? (106 )+CHR$( 107): NEXT .-NEXT
520 FOR 1=2 TO 6 STEP 4:A$(I)=CHR$(221):FOR X=l TO
9
525 A$(I)=A$(I)+CHR$(106)+CHR$(107):NEXT:A$(I)=A$(
l)+CHR$(221):NEXT
530 FOR 1=0 TO 2:A$(l)=A$(l)+CHR?(32)+CHR$(32):NEX
T
540 FOR X=l TO 20:A$(0)=A$(0)+CHR$(221):NEXT
550 FOR 1=1 TO 3 STEP 2:FOR X=l TO 10:A$(I)=A$(I)+
CHR$(117)+CHR$(105):NEXT:NEXT

54
 3
setting up
Your screen

560 FOR 1=2 TO 4 STEP 2:A$(I)=A$(I)+CHR$(221):FOR

X=l TO 9
565 A$(I)=A$(I)+CHR$(117)+CHR$(105):NEXT:A$(I)=A$(
I)+CHR$(221):NEXT
570 S$(0)="{2 DOWN}":FOR 1=1 TO 8:S$(I)=S$(i-l) + "
{2 DOWN}11:NEXT: RETURN

As the screen changes, the spark will be forced to follow different

tracks. Right now, the changes are randomly generated, using the
RND(n) function, but in a game you might allow the player to
control the center interruption, moving it up or down and left or
right with the joystick, to counter the randomly shifting top and
bottom strips. You might want to save this program — well be
adding the spark and the player controls later.

Moving the Cursor with print

If you're using PRINT statements to create your screen display,
you need to have some way of starting the PRINT exactly where
you want it. You do this by including the HOME and cursor con
trol characters in the strings you are printing. This is easy to do
with the VIC. Once you have typed the quotation mark that starts
a string, pressing the HOME key or the cursor control keys will
cause their character to be included in the string, instead of caus
ing the cursor to move. Then, when the string is PRINTed, the
cursor will move just as if you were pressing tike cursor control
keys.
The easiest way to make sure the cursor always ends up in
the right place is to PRINT the HOME character, either by making
it the first character in a string or by PRINTing CHR$(19). This will
move the cursor to the upper-left-hand corner of the screen. Then
you can enter as many CURSOR DOWN and CURSOR RIGHT
commands as you need to get the cursor to the exact position
where you want the next string to start PRINTing.
An alternative to using HOME and CURSOR RIGHT char
acters is to use the TAB function. TAB will move the cursor to an
absolute column position. That means that no matter where you
are on the line, PRINT TAB(IO) will move the cursor to column 10
on that line, even if it means moving backward. In effect, TAB(n)
finds the left edge of the line and counts n columns to the right to
find the new cursor position. If the n in TAB(n) is a number
greater than 22, TAB will move to the next line and keep counting.
A combination of HOME and TAB(rc) can locate the cursor any
where on the screen.

55
3
Setting up
Your Screen

In contrast with TAB, the SPC(n) function starts counting

from the current cursor position and moves n spaces to the right
from there. This is a relative rather than an absolute cursor posi
tioning command, and it is usually not as useful for game
programming.

I Color Memory
Color memory is a map of screen locations, just like screen
memory, only instead of interpreting the numbers stored there as
characters, the VIC chip interprets the numbers in color memory
as color codes.
Color memory is a perfect shadow of screen memory. For
every location in screen memory, there is a matching location in
color memory that controls the color of whatever character is dis
played on the screen. That means that the tenth byte of color
memory controls the color of the tenth character in screen
memory.

Because of this arrangement, you can individually control the

color of every single character on the screen. By changing a partic
ular character to the background color, you make that character
vanish, turning into a blank space. Or you can turn a single char
acter into eight distinctly different characters by giving them dif
ferent colors.
Your computer already allows this with PRINT statements —
all you have to do is enter a COLOR key as part of the string to be
PRINTed. The COLOR keys, on the top row of your keyboard,
number 1 to 8, can be entered into a string by pressing CTRL and
the COLOR key at the same time. Every character PRINTed to the
screen from then on will be that color, until another COLOR key
is pressed.
It is usually better, though, to POKE colors directly into color
memory. It's easy to remember the numbers to POKE: just look at
your VIC keyboard, see which number is on the COLOR key you
want, and subtract I 0 =BLK, 1 = WHT, 2 =RED, and so on.

PEEKing and POKEing color Memory

Color memory is a peculiar area of memory, in that you can't
POKE any number higher than 15 into it. The numbers from 0 to
15 use the lowest four bits of a byte; if you POKE a number higher
than 15 into color memory, the upper four bits of that number are
chopped off. So if you POKEd 255 into a location in color mem
ory, only the number 15 would be stored there.

56
 3
setting up
Your Screen

However, if you PEEK at locations in color memory, you can

easily get numbers higher than 15. That's because the VIC is put
ting garbage in those upper four bits. Whenever you PEEK into
color memory, you should AND the value you get with 15, to
wipe out the garbage in the upper four bits:

COLOR =PEEK(LOCATION) AND 15

After this program line, the variable COLOR would contain the
color code stored in that particular LOCATION in color memory.

Finding Screen and Color Memory

Relocatable programs. So far weVe been using the numbers 7680
and 4096 as absolute locations for screen memory. But when you
write a program, you want to be able to RUN it no matter where
screen memory is. So instead of using the number 7680 or 4096,
well write a program line that finds out where screen memory is.
Fortunately, your VIC always stores the address of the start of
screen memory at location 648. It isn't the whole address, how
ever — it's just the "high byte," or the first byte of the two-byte
address in hexadecimal notation. If you don't know how to use
hexadecimal notation, don't worry. A simple program line will
convert it into a decimal number that you — and your program —
can understand.
SC =PEEK(648)*256

From then on, the variable SC (for SCreen) will contain the
address of the upper-left-hand corner of the screen.
The same system works for locating color memory, except
that the address of color memory must be found using a more
complicated formula:
CM =37888 +256*(PEEK(648)AND2)

Or, you can find out both addresses in the same program line:
SC =PEEK(648):CM =37888 +256*(SC AND 2):SC =SC*256
If you include this line at the beginning of your program, SC will
always be the address of the upper-left-hand corner of screen
memory, and CM will always be the address of the upper-left-
hand corner of color memory.

Playing with Color Memory

Here's a short program that will show you how color memory af
fects the screen — and which color code produces each color:
900 SC=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SC AND 2):SC=SC*256

57
3
Setting up
Your screen

920 FOR 1=0 TO 505:N=INT(RND(9)*8):POKE SC+I,N+48:

POKE CM+I,N
930 NEXT:GOTO 920

Line 900 establishes the values of CM and SC. Line 920 first gen
erates a random number in the range 0 to 7. It POKEs the screen
code for that number character (N + 48) into screen memory
(SC +1), and then POKEs the color code into the corresponding
location in color memory (CM +1). The same variable, I, leads us
to the corresponding locations in color and screen memory.
You'll notice that there are some blanks. These are the color
code that is identical to the background color. Whatever character
is being displayed there is invisible because there's no contrast
between the background color and the character color.
To see this working with graphics characters, try adding these
lines to 'Till In" (Program 3-2).
10 SC=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SC AND 2):ADDR=SC*25
6
15 POKE 36879,233:PRINT "{CLR}":N=160:P=81
25 GOSUB 300
45 GOSUB 300
300 Q=INT(RND(9)*8):IF Q=PEEK(36879)AND 7 THEN 300
310 IF Q=PEEK(CM)AND 7 THEN 300
320 FOR 1=0 TO 505:POKE CM+I,Q:NEXT I:RETURN

Now the background color will change with each screen change.
The IF statement in line 300 protects us against having characters
the same color as the background. Line 310 protects us against
having the character color the same twice in a row.
Or start again with the original version of Fill In, and add
these lines:
10 SC=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SC AND 2):ADDR=SC*25
6
15 POKE 36879,233:PRINT "{CLR}":N=160:P=81:GOSUB 3
00

300 FOR 1=0 TO 505:Q=INT(RND(9)*8):POKE CM+I,Q:NEX

T I:RETURN

Now the program assigns each location in color memory its own
random color value. What was once a completely regular, sym
metrical screen now looks completely unpredictable — and char
acters that used to fit together to make combined patterns now are
clearly separate.
If any of the material in this chapter is still unclear to you, it

58
 3
Setting up
Your screen

might be a good idea to go back and review it, studying the exam
ple programs to see how they work. Without a clear understand
ing of screen and color memory and how to use them, it will be
harder to make use of the more advanced techniques presented
in the rest of the book.

59
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
Custom
Characters
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
 4
Custom
Characters
The VIC comes with a complete character set, consisting of all
the numbers, letters, symbols, and graphics shapes that the
VIC can produce. These standard VIC characters offer plenty of
variety, and they can be combined to create many interesting
shapes and patterns, as weVe already seen in Chapter 3.
But there will be times when you need to draw a shape or a
figure that the character set just can't produce. Perhaps you need
a human figure, someone to live in the game world you've
created, to experience the problems and dangers your game will
present. The standard VIC graphics characters would produce a
stick-figure at best, and you want something better.
That is when you throw out the VIC character set and create
your own.

Creating a custom character set uses up more memory, leav

ing less room for your program, and it can take quite some time to
design the characters and add them to the program. But when
you have exactly the right figure or pattern that you want, you
and the people who play your game will agree that it was worth
the effort.

I Graphing a Character
I Once you've decided what kind of figures or patterns you want
to draw, you need to translate those shapes into a form your com
puter can understand. And your computer understands nothing
but numbers.
To see how shapes can become numbers, look at Figure 4-1.
This is the character matrix, a grid eight dots wide and eight dots
high. The matrix is not quite square because the dots are slightly
wider than they are tall.
Each character on the screen is created in this matrix. Dots, or
pixels, are either on (displaying the character color) or off (trans
parent, so the background color shows through). Figure 4-2
shows the pattern of on and off pixels that make up the @ char
acter on the VIC. If you compare Figure 4-2 to the @ character on

63
4
Custom
Characters

the TV screen, you'll probably be able to pick out the individual

pixels, depending on how sharp your eyes, and the TV image,
are.

Figure 4-1. The Character Matrix

Figure 4-2. The Pattern of the @ Character

Each row of the character is eight pixels across. These are

matched with the eight bits of a byte of memory. A1 in the byte
becomes an on pixel in the character. This means that to produce
the pattern _JC_ __XX_ _ we need the binary byte 01001100,
which is the decimal number 76. Each row of a character is stored
in a single byte; eight bytes in memory contain the entire char
acter pattern, in order, from the top row to the bottom row.

Translating Patterns to Numbers

The rightmost pixel has the lowest binary value, 1. If it is on, there
will be a 1 in that position; if it is off, there will be a 0. Each pixel to
the left has a value twice that of the one before. The second pixel
from the right, then, has a value of 2: if there is a 1 in that posi-

64
 4
Custom
Characters

tion, it adds 2 to the number; if there is a 0, it adds nothing. The

third pixel has a value of 4; the next is 8; then 16,32,64, and 128.
Figure 4-3 charts these values for you, using the pattern of the
character @. The top row of the character has three pixels on,
forming the binary number 00011100. The values of these three
bits, as you can see from Figure 4-3, are 16, 8, and 4. Add them
together and you get 28. That number must be stored in character
memory to create that row of pixels on the screen.

Figure 4-3. Translating @ to Numbers

Bit Values

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Total
0 28
1 34
2 74

Row 3 86
4 76
5 32
6 30
7 0

The second row has only two pixels on, the third and seventh
from the left, which form the binary number 00100010. The values
of this are 32 and 2, making a total of 34 for the second row. Check
the rest of Figure 4-2 to make sure the totals are correct.
You'll have noticed that the last row is completely empty and
has a value of zero. The reason for this is that the VIC produces
characters in the way outlined in Figure 4-3, but the 8x8 areas of
characters on the screen actually touch the adjoining characters.
This is what makes the screen a continuous field of dots. If you
want your characters to make one continuous pattern, draw them
right up to the edge of the matrix. If you want them to be clearly
separate, however, be sure to include spaces in your character de
sign, or one character will "bleed" into the next. If you leave space
at the bottom of the character, and on the left and/or right sides,
everything will work out fine. If all your characters have their left
column blank, you can fill in the right column and there'll still be
a separation. Note that this is what has been done with the @
character representation in Figure 4-3.

65
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Custom
Characters

Graphing Your own Character

To draw your own characters, you can either divide graph paper
into 8x8 squares, photocopy Figure 4-5, or simply draw your own
8x8 matrix. With this grid, create the image or images you'll need
for your game by filling in the appropriate boxes.
If you need to draw something larger than one matrix — a
large animal or space station, for instance — simply combine two
or more matrixes. The VIC will treat them as two separate char
acters, but when you put them together on the screen, they'll look
like a single drawing. However, the screen is not that large, and
smaller characters will give the impression of more space in the
playing area, especially when you want those characters to move
about the screen.
You will probably need several custom characters for your
game. Will the figures be throwing or shooting things at targets,
or at each other? What will the projectiles look like? What will be
the result when a figure is hit with one? All of these will need cus
tom characters.
After you have drawn your custom character(s), you might
have something similar to Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4. Running Figure 1

This running figure has 19 pixels on, while the other 45 are off. To
compute the value of each row of pixels, use the Character Work
Grid provided by Figure 4-5.

66
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Custom
Characters

Figure 4-5. Character work Grid

Bit Values

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Total
0
1
2
Row 3
4
5
6
7

Figure 4-6 shows the running character laid out on the work
grid, with pixel values totaled on the right.

Figure 4-6. Running Figure 1 on the work Grid

Bit Values

132 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Total
0 24
1
2
H
■n LJ
■
24
18

Row 3 124
4 88
5
6
H wM 20
100
7 m i n 0

When you're finished, you should have eight numbers for

each character. These numbers will be placed in DAIA statements
within your program so that the computer can READ them and
put them in character memory.
The two figures we have drawn so far, for example, would
have these DAIA statements.

@ DATA 28,34,7436,76,32,30,0
Running Figure 1 DATA 24>24>18,124>88,20,100,0

67
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Custom
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I Memory Locations
I In Chapter 3, we worked with screen and color memory. These
are areas of Random Access Memory, or RAM; we could not only
PEEK to see what was stored in each location, but we could also
POKE them to change what was stored there. The character set,
however, is located in Read Only Memory, or ROM. You can PEEK
there, but you can't POKE. The character set is permanently
stored in your VIC.
The VTCs character memory begins at location 32768, with
the top row of the @ character. The second row of that character is
stored at location 32769, the third row at location 32770, and so on.
A formula for finding the location of a particular row for a given
character is:
Location Number = beginning of character memory (32768)
+ row + (8*screencode).
Note that the first row must be numbered 0 for this formula to
work. The screen codes for each character can be found in the Pro
grammer's Reference Guide or the VIC-20 User's Guide.
How can you create custom characters, if the character set
cannot be changed? The memory location that instructs the VIC
where to find the characters is in a RAM location. This can be
changed to point to several sections of memory. In fact, changing
where the VIC looks for character memory changes what is on the
screen at the time. By making the character memory pointer point
to the RAM of your VIC, you can begin to program your character
set.
The location from which the VIC gets its character informa
tion is 36869. Its value is normally 240, or 242, but it can be
changed. Although you can begin any custom character set in a
RAM location ranging from 4096 to 7168, the best place to start is
at 7168. To move the pointer to this RAM location, use the com
mand POKE 36869,255. Now the computer will look at location
7168 for character data, instead of at the location in ROM, 32768.
Doing this, however, presents problems. First of all, creating
your own character set by telling the VIC to get the data from
RAM makes the standard character set unavailable. This may not
be a problem if your game uses only custom characters. Then you
can simply create the necessary figures and PRINT or POKE
them into your game program. The following program does just
that.

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Characters

Program 4-1. creating Characters

10 POKE 36869,255
20 POKE 52,292 POKE 56f29:CLR
30 FOR C=7168 TO 7183:READ D:POKE C,D:NEXT
40 DATA 24,24,18,124,88,20,100,0
50 DATA 24,24,18,62,88,20,98,0
60 PRINT M{CLR}A@A@A@A@M
70 GOTO 70

Program Explanation
Line Function
10 POKE 36869,255 tells the computer to go to location 7168 to
get the data for characters, rather than looking in ROM
location 32768.
20 Locations 52 and 56 tell the VIC to change the pointers to
the top of the available RAM memory. The normal value in
the unexpanded VIC is 30. A value of 29 takes 256 bytes of
memory from BASIC, the smallest possible block. Ordi
narily, this would be enough for a small custom character
set.
30-50 Tell the VIC to replace the A and @ characters in the stand
ard set with the new figures by READing the DA3A
statements.
60-70 PRINT the new custom characters on the screen and keep
them there.
A program such as this produces only the custom figures you
instruct it to. You do not have any of the letters, numbers, sym
bols, or graphic characters in the VICs standard set. If you elimi
nate line 70, for instance, and press any key but the A or @, only
garbage will show on the screen.
If you need any other characters from the VICs standard set,
you'll have to copy the letters, numbers, or symbols you intend to
use into the new character memory in RAM. When you move
your character set to location 7168, the topmost section of BASIC,
you must also protect it from that program's actions. Fortunately,
both problems can be corrected easily.
The following program copies the first 64 characters of the
VIC to RAM location 7168 and then protects them from BASIC.

Program 4-2. copying Characters

10 PRINT "{CLR}":POKE 36869, 255
20 POKE 52,28:POKE 56,28: CLR

69
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Custom
Characters

30 FOR 1=7168 TO 7679rPOKE I, PEEK (1+25600) :NEXT?

40 Eii>' j

Program Explanation
Line Function
10 Again, POKE 36869,255 tells the computer to go to location
7168 to get the data for characters, rather than looking in
ROM location 32768. (To send the computer back to 32768
for character data, just POKE 36869,240, its normal value.)
20 As in the first program example, locations 52 and 56 change
the pointers to the top address of available RAM memory.
A value of 28 takes 512 bytes of memory from BASIC, just
enough for the data for the 64 characters you are moving to
RAM. This line also protects the character memory from
BASIC.
30 This line may look complicated, but actually it's not. The
VIC is told to look at the data numbers for the first 64 char
acters in ROM (32768 to 33280), look at what's there
(PEEK(I + 25600)), and then POKE those same numbers
into locations beginning at 7168 and ending at 7679. In
other words, the first 64 characters have been copied from
their ROM locations to your new RAM location. The
number 25600 is 32768 minus 7168. Another way of doing
this would be:
30 FORX =0 to 511:POKE 7168 +X, PEEK(32768 +X): NEXT

After you run Program 4-2, you'll notice several things. First
of all, the flashing cursor is lost. Second, only the first 64 char
acters are available. If you copied all 512 characters in the VIC, two
kilobytes of RAM would be used up. Since you will rarely need
more than a dozen custom characters, 64 is usually enough to
give you custom characters and all the letters and numerals.
Try pressing random keys and see what happens. You'll see
that the characters with screen codes from 0 to 63 (refer to the
screen code tables in your reference guide) are available. These are
the characters from the @ character to the ? character. If you press
SHIFT and then another key, you'll often get garbage that means
nothing to you. Continue to press keys and then sit back and
watch. Some of the characters are changing before your eyes.
What is happening here is that the VIC thinks character
memory is 2K, or 256 characters, even if you use only 64. When
you press keys that call for characters with screen codes greater

70
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Custom
Characters

than 63, the VIC reads their patterns from screen memory, so that
the numbers stored there become patterns of the graphics char
acters. Your screen display is creating itself.
Now that your have the character set moved to RAM, avail
able for altering, and protected from BASIC, you can begin to
place your own custom characters in this set.

I Replacing Characters
Glance through the screen code table in either your Program
mer's Reference Guide or your VIC-20 User's Guide for a moment.
Remembering that the first 64 characters are available, decide
which of these you'll need for your game. How many of the letters
will you need for screen titles and other game indicators? If you
have the title "Lunar Lander" on the screen, as well as 'Time"
and "Fuel," you would not replace any of those letter characters
with your new custom characters.
You should make up a data sheet, using the blank provided
by Figure 4-7, to simplify the process of deciding which characters
to save and which to change to custom characters.
In the left columns, list the first 64 characters, then their
screen code values. You can find these values in the screen code
tables in your reference guide. The starting location can be found
by multiplying the screen code value by 8 and adding that to 7168,
the starting location. This gives you the starting location of each
character's eight bytes of data. The next column can be filled in
with the name of the new character, such as "Running figure,"
which will replace the old character of that row. If you wanted to
replace the @ sign with this new custom character, then write the
name in the first row. Next to this, list the eight data numbers for
the new character. In this example, the data numbers would read
24,24,18,124,88,20,100,0.
All this will take time, but it will be a valuable reference later
in your game designing and programming.
Now you're ready to actually replace certain characters with
your new custom characters. What you need to do is POKE your
new numbers where the old values are. The data sheet will make
this job easier, for it details the starting locations of each character,
as well as the new values.
As stated earlier, the most convenient way to replace the old
characters is with DATA and READ statements. You can put all the
numbers into the DATA statements and then have the VIC READ

71
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Custom
Characters

Figure 4-7. Character Data Sheet

Screen Code Starting
Letter (POKE) Value Location New Name DATA Statement

72
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Custom
Characters

them. The computer always READs the data in the order that it's
listed, so make sure the numbers are in the proper order, and that
there are eight numbers for each character. The DATA statements
can be anywhere in the program, and for this reason many pro
grammers put them at the end of the program, out of harm's way.
The standard format is:
FOR C(new character) =X to X +7:READ D:POKE C,D:NEXT

where X is the starting location of the new character from the data
sheet.
For example, if you wanted to replace the @ character with
the running figure, you would list it like this:

40 FOR C =7168 to 7175:READ D:POKE C,D:NEXT

50 DATA 24,24,18,124,88,20,100,0

Add these lines to Program 4-2, replacing the END statement

with this line 40. After running this program and typing an @,
you should see the running figure printed on the screen. If you
don't see the custom character, check the DATA statements for
errors.

Using this same format, you can replace characters with your
own set of custom characters. Make sure you insert your data
numbers in the proper locations for all the replacements.
If your new characters are replacing old ones which are right
after each other in the screen code table, you can place more than
one in a READ statement. Figure 4-8 is a character data sheet for
five characters which can replace sequential characters in the
standard set.
Notice that two of the figures are split between two 8x8
squares. One is split between two squares horizontally, the other
is split between two vertically. When both 8x8 squares are
printed on the screen, the figure will appear complete.
To POKE all five figures, and READ all seven DAIA state
ments that make up those figures, you could write:

Program 4-3. Characters in Sequence

40 FOR C=7432 TO 7487:READ D:POKE C,D:NEXT
50 DATA 24,24,18,124,88,20,100,0
60 DATA 1,1,1,3,6,1,3,0
70 DATA 128,128,32,224,128,64,32,0
80 DATA 0,56,56,16,124,16,124,68
90 DATA 56,56,16,124,16,124,68,68
100 DATA 0,0,0,56,56,84,124,16
110 DATA 56,40,40,0,0,0,0,0

73
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Custom
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Figure 4-a sequential Characters

Screen Code Starting
Letter (POKE) Value Location New Name DATA Statement

Running
! 33 7432 Figure #1 24,24,18,124,88,20,100,0
Running
34 7440 Figure #2 Lft 1,1,1,3,6,1,3,0
Running 128,128,32,224,128,
# 35 7448 Figure #2 Rt 64,32,0
Squatting
$ 36 7456 Figure 0,56,56,16,124,16,124,68
Rising
% 37 7464 Figure 56,56,16,124,16,124,68,68
Jumping
& 38 7472 Figure Top 0,0,0,56,56,84,124,16
Jumping
39 7480 Figure Bot. 56,40,40,0,0,0,0,0

74
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Custom
Characters

The standard characters from the ! (POKE 33) to the' (POKE

39) were replaced with this one FOR-NEXT statement. Replace
lines 40 and 50 in Program 4-2 and add the additional lines. After
running this program, you should see the figures printed on the
screen as you press the appropriate keys. Lines 100 and 110 in
clude the values for the figure which would normally be two 8x8
squares high. However, when you press the keys for & and', it
will print a jumbled character, for the screen wUl show the two
sections beside each other instead of one above the other. The
next chapter on movement and animation will show you how to
correctly display this figure on the screen.
If you choose to replace characters that are not next to each
other in the screen code table, you will have to write separate
lines for each character replaced. As you can see, replacing char
acters that are sequential will make it easier to write the program
and will reduce the amount of memory used.
As you begin typing in the lines for your own custom char
acters, remember several things.
Each character needs eight numbers in the DATA statement to
define it, even if one or more of the values are zero. Each character
also needs eight bytes of memory to hold those numbers. If you
don't have all eight bytes, the VIC will go on and read the next
location, and the next, until it has an eight-byte pattern. Of
course, this will not create your expected figures.
Be sure to list the DAIA statements in the same sequence as
the FOR commands to replace the characters. The VIC will read
the first data numbers when it finds the first READ command,
the second group of data numbers when it finds the second
READ command, and so on.
When you are finished replacing characters, RUN the pro
gram to see if it works properly. If some of the custom characters
turn out different from what you had expected, check the DATA
statements. Are they the correct values for the pattern of pixels
turned on? Were they typed in correctly? Also recheck the FOR
C = X TO Y statements to make sure the memory locations are cor
rect for the characters being replaced. Remember that if there is
an error, it is in the program, not in the computer. By examining
your program, you will always be able to solve the problem.
To find out how much memory is still available after building
your custom characters, type in:
PMNTFRE(O)

The number displayed is the number of bytes available for the rest
of your program.
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
Getting Your
Figures
Moving
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
 5
Getting Your
Figures Moving
Movement on the television screen is a series of still pictures.
They seem to move because each still picture is only slightly
changed from the one before, and each new picture comes on
the screen so quickly that the eye can't see the jump from one to
the next.

I Speed
Movies change their image 24 times per second — any slower,
and you begin to see flickering.
But the raster scan in your television refreshes the screen
image 60 times per second. That's almost four times faster than
the minimum for smooth animation. If you're programming in
machine language, that leaves you plenty of room to perform all
your calculations and still change the screen image often enough
to have smooth movement. In fact, most machine language
games have to insert delay loops or timing routines to slow them
down so you can see what's happening on the screen.
That's why, in arcade games, no matter how fast the game
goes, it can always go faster when you get to the next level. Even
when the computer is controlling dozens of figures on the screen
at the same time, it is probably marking time to stay slow enough
for you to play it.
Unfortunately, BASIC calculations are slower (but a lot easier
to program) than machine language calculations. It's sometimes
hard to perform all the calculations you need fast enough for
animation to be smooth. You need to make sure that your pro
gram performs as few calculations as possible between move
ments on the screen, or your game will run slower and slower
and slower.

I Movement and Animation

There are really two separate problems in programming move
ment on the screen. One is getting a figure to move from one

79
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Getting Your
Figures Moving

screen location to another. The other is making the figure's move

ments seem natural. Even though in many cases movement and
animation are pretty much the same thing, in this book I'd like to
use them to mean different things.
Movement is getting figures from one place to another on the
screen.

Animation is making the player seem natural in its

movements.
For instance, in Donkey Kong, movement is getting Mario from
one place to another on the screen — up and down ladders, along
ramps, jumping, and so on. Animation is the way Mario's legs
move, the way he seems to face the direction he's moving in, the
way he moves the hammer up and down — all the things that
make his actions seem human.

Three Steps to Movement

Let's assume that the figure we want to move is already on the
screen. We know he's at location 20 in screen memory. To make
the figure move, we need to carry out three steps:
1. Calculate where the new location should be.
2. Erase the figure at the old location.
3. POKE or PRINT the figure at the new location.
Perform those steps over and over again, and you have
movement.
Here's a program that will show you movement at its simplest:

Program 5-1. Movement Demonstration

10 POKE 36879,45:PRINT"{CLR}M
20 FOR 1=7680 TO 7680+505
30 POKE 1-1,32:POKE I#90
40 NEXT:POKE 1-1,32:GOTO 20

Even in BASIC, this program is so fast you can hardly follow the
movement, and your eyes probably fool you into seeing several
characters in a row instead of just one. So let's add a delay loop to
slow it down:
40 FOR X=0 TO 84:NEXT:NEXT:POKE 1-1,32:GOTO 20

The movement is still jerky, but that's because we are moving

from one character position to the next, with nothing in between.
If you want smooth movement, all you have to do is create custom
characters that, in combination, represent the half-moved figure.
But that requires more memory and more logic to process the

80
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Getting Your
Figures Moving

movement, and by the time you execute it, things have slowed
down enough that most of the gain in smoothness has been elim
inated. In machine language, of course, the speed problem is
eliminated, and smooth movement is relatively easy For our pur
poses right now, however, the direct character movement is good
enough.

Reading the Keyboard

Movement alone isn't enough, of course. The movement has to be
controlled. And the player-figure must be controlled by the
player. That means you must have some way of getting the
player's instructions and making the figure on the screen respond
to them.
Normal BASIC INPUT and GET statements won't work too
well — they're too slow, for one thing. You'll want to get the play
er's instructions directly from the hardware — either the keyboard
or a joystick. Right now let's use the keyboard.
Every time a key is pressed on the VIC, the operating system
stores a number in location 197. This is the key code, and it has no
relation to ASCII or screen code. Location 653 is similar, except it
holds the code for the SHIFT, Commodore, and CTRL keys. Table
5-1 shows the key code for every key on the VIC that can be read
from these locations.
Stop and go. The simplest player instruction of all is move or
don't move. Using the movement program already in the com
puter, let's add a simple keyboard read line. If any key is pressed,
movement will occur. If no key is pressed, movement will stop.
25 IF PEEK(653)=0 AND PEEK(197)=64 THEN 25

If no key is pressed, line 25 will loop forever; if any key is pressed,

the program will go on from this line. (Pressing RUN/STOP will
stop the program, as usual, even though it also generates a key
code.)
You'll notice that pressing SHIFT and Commodore still shifts
the character set, and turns the diamond shape into a Z. To keep
the computer from switching character sets, POKE 657,128. You
might add this command to the end of line 10. After your program
is through, you'll probably want to POKE 657,0 to allow switching
again.
Control matrix. When your program uses the keyboard for
movement control, you usually want more than a simple stop-
and-go instruction. You want separate keys for left, right, up, and
down, and perhaps keys to perform other functions, the way the

81
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Getting Your
Figures Moving

joystick button is used in games to cause a figure to jump or shoot

or disappear.
But you can't use just any keys. You want players to be able to
put their fingers on the right keys and then forget about having to
find them again, just like pressing buttons in the arcade. So you
wouldn't want to use 1 for left, * for right, X for up, and fl for
down. There's no sense to that arrangement.
You might want to use the L, R, U, and D keys — but they're
widely spaced, and only touch typists can remember which is
which by reflex. You might want to use the cursor keys and have
them perform their normal functions — but this means that keys
change value depending on whether SHIFT is pressed or not,
which can ruin the player's concentration in the middle of playing.
The most common solution is to set up a control matrix, an
arrangement of keys in which the key that moves up is on top,
down is on the bottom, left is to the left, and right is to the right:

Here is a single program line that will read the keyboard

using the matrix on the right (@ is up,: is left, = is right, and / is
down). After this line is executed, the variable LR will equal 1 for
right and -1 for left, and the variable UD will equal 1 for down
and -1 for up.

A =PEEK(197):LR =(A =45) -(A =46):UD =(A =53) -(A =30)

Whenever an expression like A = 45 is evaluated, it returns a

value of either 0 or -1. False equals 0, and true equals -1. So if
A = 45, then LR will equal -1, or true (-1) minus false (0). If
A =46, however, LR will equal 1, or false (0) minus true (-1). Re
member that subtracting a negative number is the same as add
ing. If that sounds too much like math to you, just remember it
this way:

Horizontal = (left?) - (right?) Vertical = (up?) - (down?)

Inside the parentheses you put the expression:

Keypress =Directionvalue

82
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Getting Your
Figures Moving

So the whole formula works like this:

Keypress =PEEK(197)
Horizontal = (Keypress =Leftvalue) -(Keypress = Rightvalue)
Vertical = (Keypress =Upvalue) -(Keypress =Downvalue)

Notice that if none of the four movement keys is pressed, the

value of both LR and UD will be 0.
Allowing diagonals. However, there is a drawback to the
control matrix. Your computer will store only one key code at a
time at location 197. If two keys are pressed at the same time, the
key with the higher code value is the one that will show up. So
you can't press the key that means up and the key that means
right at the same time and get a diagonal movement upward to
the right. You only get either right or up.
In most games that's good enough. Diagonal movements
don't matter much. Or if you assume most players will use joy
sticks, you can let the keyboard users have a slightly inferior
game.

But there is a solution. Use SHIFT, Commodore, and/or

CTRL for horizontal movement, and any two other keys for verti
cal movement (or vice versa). Since SHIFT, Commodore, and
CTRL are read from location 653 and the rest of the keys are read
from 197, your program can read vertical and horizontal move
ment separately, and get diagonals when two keys are pressed at
once.

There is one drawback to this method. SHIFT, Commodore,

and CTRL can be pressed in combination (see Table 5-1), and then
a different value is stored at 653. But this is easy to cope with.
Here's a line that reads location 653 and makes the variable LR
equal 1 if SHIFT is pressed, -1 if Commodore is pressed, and 0 if
both are pressed or if neither is pressed.
LR =PEEK(653):LR=(LR =1) -(LR =2)
Or if you want the movement to be left if Commodore is
pressed, regardless of whether SHIFT is pressed at the same
time or not, use this line:
LR =PEEK(653)AND 3:LR =(LR> 1) -(LR =1)

Notice that this time we ANDed the value at 653 with 3; this was
just to make sure that if the CTRL key was accidentally pressed,
it wouldn't force a leftward movement, too, since the value at 653
will always be 4 or greater if CTRL is pressed.
Ifs just as easy to read the values at location 197. Let's read f5

83
Getting Your
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Table 5-1. Key Codes

Values Stored at Location 197

Code Key pressed Code Key pressed

0 1 7

3 34 c
2 5 35 B
3 7 36 M
4 9 37
5 39 fl
6 £ 41 S
7 DEL 42 F
8 {left arrow} 43 H
9 W 44 K
10 R 45 :

11 Y 46 =

12 I 47 f3
13 P 48 Q
14 49 E
15 RETURN 50 T
17 A 51 U
18 D 52 O
19 G 53 @
20 J 54 {up arrow}
21 L 55. f5
22 56 2
23 {cursor left-right} 57 4
24 RUN-STOP 58 6
26 X 59 8
27 V 60 0
28 N 61 -

29 62 CLR/HOME
30 63 f7
31 {cursor up-down} 64 {No key pressed}
32 {space bar }
The following key codes cannot occur: 16,25,38,40.

Values Stored at Location 653

Code Key(s) pressed
0 (No key pressed)
1 SHIFT
2 Commodore
3 SHIFT and Commodore
4 CTRL
5 SHIFT and CTRL
6 Commodore and CTRL
7 SHIFT, Commodore, and CTRL

84
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Getting Your
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and f7 as up-and-down controls.

UD =PEEK(197):UD =(UD =55) -(UD =63)

Couldn't be easier. After this program line is executed, UD will

equal 1 if the f7 key is pressed and -1 if the f5 key is pressed.
And since UD and LR are read from separate locations, a
player can be moved diagonally — two directions at once —
instead of horizontally alone or vertically alone.

Horizontal and vertical Movement

Except for erasing the figure in its old location, youVe already
done everything that is involved in horizontal and vertical move
ments, back when we were setting up the screen. To move hori
zontally, you change the screen location by adding or subtracting
1. To move vertically, you add or subtract 22. Subtract to move up
or left; add to move down or right.
The two key-reading routines we used give us values of 1 or
-1. We can use this number directly for left-right movement. For
vertical movement, however, we want to add or subtract a value of
22 or - 22. So the vertical movement lines should be changed.
Here's what it should look like in the diagonal-movement routine:
UD =PEEK(197):UD =22*( (UD =55) -(UD =63))
If the value is negative, it will be - 22 (22* -1); if positive, it will
be 22 (22*1); and if an invalid key was pressed, the value will be 0
(22*0).
Staying on the screen. There's one other concern. We don't
want the figure to move off the screen. There are two possible op
tions: we can make the figure stop at the edge of the screen or
keep moving and simply reappear at the opposite edge.
Both methods begin the same way. First, check to see if the
player wants to move the figure. Then calculate the new address
where the figure will be POKEd. If the address is beyond the edge
of the screen, either don't move at all or change the new address
so the figure will appear on the opposite side. Only then do you
erase the figure at the old address and POKE it in at the new
address.
A player-controlled movement routine. This simple pro
gram allows you to move a character around the screen using the
@: = / matrix we already discussed. When the figure reaches the
edge of the screen, it will stop:

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Program 5-2. Movement with poke

10 POKE 36879,47:PRINT "{CLR}":POKE 657,128
15 SC=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SC AND, 2 ) :SC=SC*256 :
OL=1:FG=90:POKE SC+OL,FG
20 A=PEEK(197):LR=(A=45)-(A=46):UD=22*((A=53)-(A=3
0))
25 IF LR=0 AND UD=0 THEN 20
30 NL=OL+LR+UD:ON-(LRO0)-2*(UD<>0)GOSUB 100,200
35 IF NL=OL THEN 20
40 POKE SC+OL,32:POKE SC+NL,FG:OL=NL:GOTO 20
100 EH=INT(NL/22):EH=NL-22*EH
110 IF (EH=0 AND LR=l) OR (EH=21 AND LR=-l)THEN NL
=OL
120 RETURN
200 IF NL>505 OR NL<0 THEN NL=OL
210 RETURN

Here's how this program works:

Line Function
10 Set the screen and border colors, clear the screen, and
disable the character set shift.
15 Establish variable values: SC = starting address of screen
memory; OL = old location (initialized at 1); FG = figure
value — the screen code for the character to be moved.
Then POKE FG into SC plus OL, to make the figure ap
pear on the screen in the starting position.
20 Start the main movement loop. Set A to the key code
currently in location 197. Set LR for the horizontal in
struction, UD for the vertical instruction.
25 If both movement instructions (UD and LR) are 0, go
back and look for a new key value.
30 Set NL to the new location for the figure
(OL + LR + UD). Then GOSUB to one of the two edge-
test subroutines, at 100 for the left/right edge test and 200
for the top/bottom edge test.
35 If NL has come back from the subroutines with the same
value as OL, go back to the start of the movement loop
without moving the figure.
40 Erase the figure at the old location (OL) and POKE it into
the new location (NL). Then set OL to equal NL and go
back to the start of the movement loop.
100 Left/right edge-test subroutine. EH is set to a number
from 0 to 21, representing which horizontal position on
the line the figure will be at if the movement is actually
executed.
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110 If the figure will be in the leftmost position (EH = 0) and

got there by moving right (LR = 1), that means the figure
crossed the right-hand edge of the screen, and the move
won't be allowed. Likewise, if the figure will be in the
rightmost position (EH = 21) and got there by moving left
(LR = -1) that means the figure crossed the left-hand edge
of the screen. The movement is cancelled in either case
by setting NL to equal OL.
120 RETURN to line 35.
200-220 Top/bottom edge test subroutine. This test is easier. If the
new location will be off the top of the screen (NL< 0) or
off the bottom of the screen (NL > 505), then the move
ment is not allowed.

Wrapping around. With this next program, well change

several things. First, instead of POKEing the figure on the screen,
well PRINT it there. Second, instead of reading the control
matrix, well read SHIFT and Commodore for left/right move
ment, and f5 and £7 for up/down movement.

Program 5-3. print Movement Routine

5 DIM V$(22):V$(0)=n{HOME}":FOR 1=1 TO 22:V$(l)=V$
(I-1)+"{DOWN}":NEXT
10 POKE 36879,42 :PRINT"{CLR}{BLK}":POKE 657,128
15 FG$=II^":NV=11:NH=11:GOTO 40
20 A=PEEK(197):B=PEEK(653)AND3
25 H=(B>1)-(B=1):V=(A=55)-(A=63):IF V=0 AND H=0 TH
EN 20
30 NV=OV+V+22*((OV=21 AND V=1)-(OV=0 AND V=-l))
35 NH=OH+H+21*((OH=20 AND H=1)-(OH=0 AND H=-l))
40 PRINT V$(OV);TAB(OH);" ";V$(NV);TAB(NH);FG$
45 OH=NH:OV=NV:GOTO 20

Here's how this program works:

Line Function
5 Set up the string array V$( n), in which each value of V$
PRINTs HOME and the same number of CURSOR-
DOWN characters as the subscript. In other words,
V$(10) PRINTS HOME and ten CURSOR-DOWN char
acters; V$(0) PRINTs HOME and no CURSOR-DOWN
characters.
10 The same as line 10 in Program 5-2, POKE Movement.
15 Set the string FG$ to the character that will be the figure
PRINTed on the screen. Set NV to the row and NH to

87
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the column where the figure should first appear. Then

skip the next few lines and execute the PRINT instruc
tions at line 40.
20 The beginning of the movement loop. Set A to the value
of the key pressed; set B to the value from SHIFT, Com
modore, and CONTROL.
25 Set H to -1 (left) if Commodore (or SHIFT and Commo
dore) was pressed (B > 1), or 1 (right) if SHIFT was
pressed (B = 1). Set V to -1 (up) if /5 was pressed, or to
1 (down) if p was pressed. If SHIFT and Commodore
are not pressed, then set H to 0; if /5 and /7 are not
pressed, then set V to 0.
30 Set NV (New Vertical position) to OV (Old Vertical posi
tion) plus V (Vertical movement). If OV is set at the last
valid row, 21, and V calls for a movement down (+1),
then subtract 22; if OV is at 0 and V calls for a movement
up (-1), then add 22.
35 Set NH (New Horizontal position) to OH (Old Horizon
tal position) plus H (Horizontal movement). If OH is set
at the last valid column, 20, and H calls for a movement
right (+1), then subtract 21; if OH is set at 0 and H calls
for a movement left (-1), then add 21.
40 Skip down the number of rows from HOME to the row
where the figure is currently located (PRINT V$(OV)),
move right the number of columns to the current figure
location (TAB(OH)), and erase the figure by printing a
blank (" "). Then repeat the process, only using the new
location values (NV and NH) so you can PRINT the
figure (FG$) at the new position.
45 Set OH and OV to the current figure position (NH and
NV), and go back to 20 to get new instructions from the
player.
Dangers of using PRINT. Using PRINT in games is very ef
fective, since it works much faster than POKE, especially when
you're moving large, multicharacter figures. However, the PRINT
statement can have strange effects on the screen. As far as the
computer knows, you want it to format text just the way it usually
does. That text formatting can really get in your way.
If a character is PRINTed in the last column of the line, the
lines below it on the screen are all moved down by one row to
make room for the next character. That can completely destroy
your screen display, unless you're working on a blank screen.
 5
Getting Your
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And if a character is PRINTed in the last column of the last

row, or if a CURSOR-DOWN is PRINTed while the cursor is on
the last row, the whole screen will scroll — and there goes the top
row (or rows) of your screen display.
That's why this program treats the screen as if it were only 21
characters wide (column 0 to column 20) and 22 lines high (row 0
to row 21). If you keep the playfield and the border the same
color, the player probably won't notice that the playfield is one
column narrower and one row shorter than normal.
In-line logic. If you aren't an experienced programmer, the
logic in lines 30 and 35 may look complicated to you. Since this
kind of statement saves you from having a lot of IF statements and
extra lines, it might be worthwhile to look more closely at what is
going on. Let's examine line 35:
35 NH =OH +H +21*( (OH =20 AND H =1) -(OH =0 AND
H=-l))

The first part is pretty clear-cut. We are setting NH to equal OH,

the old horizontal position, plus H, the player's horizontal move
ment instruction. H might be zero, of course, in which case this
whole line will do nothing but add zero to OH, so that NH and
OH are the same.
The rest of the line causes the wraparound. Look at the last 17
characters of the line: - (OH = 0 AND H = -1)). If the figure was
already in column 0 (OH = 0) and the movement called for is left
(H = -1), then both conditions are true and the value within the
parentheses is -1. But we are subtracting that value, so that, in ef
fect, if the result is true we will add 1. Now look back at the rest of
that expression.
If the second half is true, then the first half (OH = 20 AND
H = 1) must be false. It will then equal 0. So the whole expression
within parentheses evaluates as 0 - (-1), or 0 +1.
That number is multiplied by 21, with a result of 21, which is
added to OH + H. Since we know that OH is zero and H is -1,
that means that NH is set to 0 -1 + 21, or 20. Now the PRINT in
struction in line 40 will TAB to column 20, the last legal column.
What the player sees is that he or she instructed the figure to
move left, and the figure jumped from the leftmost column to the
rightmost position on the screen. That's wraparound.
Now you can see that if the first condition is true, the second
will be false, and we'll be setting NH to the value 20 +1 - 21, or 0,
and the figure will jump from the rightmost position to the left
most position.

89
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And if neither condition is true, then 21*(0 - 0) gives us 0, and

NH will simply equal OH+H — the normal movement will take
place.
PRINT for speed. PRINT is the fastest way to get characters
on and off the screen in BASIC, provided you link all the PRINT
instructions so they follow a single PRINT statement. The speed
difference between Program 5-2 and Program 5-3 isn't so obvious,
because we're putting only a single character on the screen. But
what happens when you have a multicharacter figure, one that
consists of two or more characters next to each other?
Here's a program that moves a four-character figure around
the screen. If you have already entered and saved Program 5-3, all
you need to do is change lines 15,30,35, and 40 so they are the
same as in this program.

Program 5-4. Multicharacter print Movement

5 DIM V$(22):V?(0)="{HOME}":FOR 1=1 TO 22:V$(l)=V$
(1-1)+"{DOWN}":NEXT
10 POKE 36879,42:PRINT"{CLR}{BLK}II:POKE 657,128
15 PG$="g+i§-3{2 LEFT}{DOWN}|£3E-3
{2 left}{down}B£3B-3{2 left}{down}i-3
i+3":NV=ll:NH=ll:GOTO 40
20 A=PEEK(197):B=PEEK(653)AND3
25 H=(B>1)-(B=1):V=(A=55)-(A=63):IF V=0 AND H=0 TH
EN 20
30 NV=OV+V+19*((OV=18 AND V=1)-(OV=0 AND V=-l))
35 NH=OH+H+20*((OH=19 AND H=1)-(OH=0 AND H=-l))
40 PRINT V$(OV);TAB(OH);"{2 SPACES}{2 LEFT}{DOWN}
{2 SPACES}{2 LEFT}{DOWN}{2 SPACES}{2 LEFT}
{DOWN}{2 SPACES}";V$(NV);TAB(NH);FG$
45 OH=NH:OV=NV:GOTO 20

Now, instead of FG$ being a single character, it is eight visible

characters plus nine cursor-movement instructions. Yet all 17
characters are PRINTed so quickly that they seem to appear on
the screen all at once. POKE statements in a FOR-NEXT loop ap
pear on the screen much more slowly, so that you would see each
piece of the eight-character figure appear separately, and it would
move like an inchworm, a part at a time.
For a direct, head-to-head comparison of POKE and PRINT
in screen movement, here's a program that creates a very large fig
ure and gives you the option of moving it either with POKEs or
PRINTs. For simplicity, Program 5-5 allows the ship to move only
left to right.

90
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Program 5-5. Laser x Jet

10 PRINT"{CLR}{4 DOWN]{5 RIGHT}{RVS}LASER X JET
{OFF}"
20 PRINT"{5 DOWN}GIVE US A FEW SECONDS.
30 CLR:S=32
40 FOR I=7168TO7679:POKEI,PEEK(1+25600):NEXT
50 FOR 1=7176 TO 7311:READ X:POKE I,X:NEXT
230 DATA0,0,0,0,0,0,63,2
240 DATA0,0,0,0,0,0,255,0
250 DATA0,0,0,0,0,0,252,32
260 DATA4,9,10,19,20,36,64,127
270 DATA0,17,153,149,83,81,0,0
280 DATA16,72,68,66,65,64,0,0
290 DATA0,0,0,0,0,128,64,32
300 DATA195,192,192,223,216,216,216,255
310 DATA255,0,0,255,160,64,160,255
320 DATA240,255,0,255,160,64,191,240
330 DATA0,254,1,252,198,195,255,0
340 DATA0,0,255,15,1,3,252,0
350 DATA0,0,192,248,255,255,0,0
360 DATA0,0,0,0,0,252,0,0
370 DATA224,24,198,192,192,198,24,224
380 DATA3,28,224,7,7,224,28,3
390 DATA0,0,3,60,252,3,0,0
400 DATA 7900,7901,7902,7903,7881,7859,7860,7882,7
904,7905,7883,7861,7862,7884,7906
410 DATA 7885,7907,7908,7909,7910,7911,32,17,16,15
,32,32,1,4,8,9,5,2,3,6,9,7,10,11,12
420 DATA 13,14
430 L$=" ABC{DOWN}{4 LEFT} DEFG{DOWN}{4 LEFTJhIIJK
LMN":FL$=" QPO" :D$=" {HOME} {8 DOWN}11
500 DIML(20):DIMY(20):DIMP(29)
510 FORX=0TO20:READL(X):NEXT?:FORX=0TO20:READY(X):N
EXT
520 PRINT "{CLR}PRESS {RVSJf7{OFF} TO MOVE WITH PO
KES11
530 PRINT "PRESS {RVS}F5{OFF} TO MOVE WITH PRINT"
540 POKE 36879,8
550 A=PEEK(197):ON-(A=63)-2*(A=55) GOTO 700,800:GO
TO 550
560 A=PEEK(197):ON-(A=63)-2*(A=55) GOTO 700,800:GO
TO 560
700 POKE 36869, 255 .-PRINT " {CLR} " :X=L(0)-7900 :FOR I
=0 TO 20:L(I)=L(I)-X:NEXT
710 FORX=4TO20:POKEL(X),Y(X):NEXT
720 A=PEEK(197):IF A=63 THEN GOSUB 750:GOTO 710
730 IF A=55 THEN 800
740 FOR 1=1 TO 3:POKE L(I),32:NEXT:GOTO 710
750 IF L(20)=8184 THEN RETURN

91
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760 FOR X=0 TO 20:L(X)=L(X)+1:NEXT:FOR X=0 TO 3:PO

KE L(X),Y(X):NEXT:RETURN
800 POKE 36869,255:PRINT "{CLR}":X=3
810 PRINT D$TAB(X)L$:A=PEEK(197):IF A=63 THEN 700
820 IF A<>55 THEN PRINT D$TAB(X+41) " {4 SPACES}11:GO
TO 810
830 X=X+1:IF X=80 THEN X=3:PRINT "{CLR}"
840 PRINT D$TAB(X+41)FL$:GOTO 810

This program uses another technique — the flame from the

engines is displayed only when the jet is moving. This is done by
treating the flame as a separate figure, which is moved along in
tandem with the jet, but is erased when the jet stops.

Reading the Joystick

The joystick is read by PEEKing two locations. At location 37137,
you read the up, down, and left positions of the joystick and the
joystick button. At location 37152, you read the right position.
If the joystick is pushed in a particular direction, a certain bit
will be set to 0; if the joystick is not being pushed in that direction,
that bit will be set to 1. Here are the tests for each direction:
1. If the joystick is pushed left, PEEK(37137)AND16 = 0.
2. If the joystick is pushed down, PEEK(37137)AND8=0.
3. If the joystick is pushed up, PEEK(37137)AND4=0.
4. If the joystick button is pressed, PEEK(3713?)AND32 = 0.
5. If the joystick is pushed right, PEEK(37152)AND128 = 0.
(Remember that the first four tests use location 37137, while the
last uses location 37152.)
If any of these expressions is true, then the joystick is being
pushed in that direction. Remember, too, that the joystick can be
pushed to a diagonal position — it is possible for both 1 and 2 to
be true, or 1 and 3, and so on. And the joystick button can be
pressed at the same time.
Before you can read the joystick at these locations, however,
you have to first prepare the VIC to read it. To prepare to read
37137 (up, down, left, button), you must POKE a 0 into location
37139. To prepare to read 37152 (right), you must POKE 127 into
location 37154.
Unfortunately, location 37154 also has an effect on the way the
keyboard is read, and if you have POKEd that location to allow

the problem, but it also stops your program. The best solution is

92
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to POKE 37154,127 right before you PEEK(37152), and immedi

ately afterward set things back to normal with POKE 37154,255.
Program 5-6 is an adaptation of Program 5-3, which reads the
joystick instead of the keyboard.

Program 5-6. Joystick Movement

5 DIM V$(22):V$(0) = ll{HOME}il:FOR 1=1 TO 22:V$(l)=V$
(1-1)+"{DOWN}":NEXT
10 POKE 36879,42 :PRINT"{CLR}{BLK}":POKE 657,128:F
G$="QM
15 f©KE 3f119,0:DD=37154: Sl»3 71-37 : S2=37152 rGOTO 4f
20 POKE DD,127:B=(PEEK(S2)AND128)=0:POKE DDf255:A=
PEEK(SI)
25 H=((A AND16)=0)-B:V=((A AND4)=0)-((A AND8)=0)
30 IF H=0 AND V=0 THEN 20
35 NV=OV+V+22*((OV=21 AND V=1)-(OV=0 AND V=-l))
40 NH=OH+H+21*((OH=20 AND H=1)-(OH=0 AND H=-l))
45 PRINT V$(OV);TAB(OH);" ";V$(NV);TAB(NH);FG$
50 OH=NH:OV=NV:GOTO 20

In line 15, the program POKEs 37139 with 0 to allow us to read

up, left, down, and the button. But instead of setting 37154 to 127
right here, the variable DD is set to 37154.
Then when the program actually reads the joystick in line 20,
POKE DD,127 Siables us to read 37154 (joystick right); and im
mediately after we read it, POKE DD,255 sets it back to normal
again.
Line 25 sets H and V to -1, or 0, depending on which way
the joystick is being pushed. The rest of the program is identical
to Program 5-3.
The joystick button. As long as we're reading the joystick,
let's find a use for the button. By changing lines 10 and 45 in Pro
gram 5-6 and adding line 12, we can make the figure invisible
when the joystick button is pressed, and then make it reappear
when the button is released.
10 POKE 36879, 42: PRINT "{CLR} ".-POKE 657,128
12 DIM FG$(1):FG$(0)=" ":FG$(1)="Q"
45 PRINT V$(OV);TAB(OH);M ";V$(NV);TAB(NH);FG$(-((
A AND 32)=32))

The subscript of FG$( n) at the end of line 45 is equal to 1 if the

joystick is not pressed and 0 if the joystick is pressed. You can
make the figure appear only when the joystick is pressed by
changing line 12 so that FG$(0) = " Q" and FG$(l) = " ".

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I Animation
Animation — making figures move smoothly and naturally — is
tedious to program and hard to do in BASIC. However, it can
make a great difference in the way your game affects players. The
more real the game world seems, the more intriguing it is to
watch, and the more fun the game is to play.
The movement routines we've used so far have given fairly
good movement, but to make the motion smooth, and especially
to give a lifelike quality to figures, you'll need redefined char
acters. Remember Mario in Donkey Kong? Each different position
he gets into is another character.

Animation in Place
The easiest sort of animation is movement within a single char
acter. This is done by POKEing or PRINTing different characters
in the same location on the screen. If the characters differ only
slightly from each other, the resulting figure will seem to be mov
ing in place. You might try this:

10 SC=256*PEEK(648):POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{CLR}11

20 N=86-5*(N=86):FOR 1=0 TO 50:NEXT
30 POKE SC+76,N:GOTO 20

Other interesting effects are possible with the built-in char

acter set. This program lets you cycle through a series of ten dif
ferent animation sequences. Just press any key to get from one
animation sequence to the next.

10 SC=256*PEEK(648):POKE 36879, 8.-PRINT " {CLR} " : Z=l

:X=Z
20 DIM N(40):FOR 1=1 TO 40:READ N(l):NEXT
30 X=X+1:IF X>Z+3 THEN X=Z
40 POKE SC+76,N(X):IF PEEK(197)<>64 THEN Z=Z+4:X=Z
:IF Z>40 THEN Z=l
50 FOR 1=0 TO 100:NEXT:GOTO 30
100 DATA 123,126,124,108
110 DATA 76,79,80,122
120 DATA 73,75,74,85
130 DATA 115,114,107,113
140 DATA 71 ,66,72;103
150 DATA 103,77,100,100
160 DATA 100,111,121,98
170 DATA 73,93,85,93
180 DATA 126,97,127,226
190 DATA 95,160,223,32

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If you'd like to see all these at once, change lines 30,40, and 50:
10 SC=256*PEEK(648):POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{CLR}":X=1
20 DIM N(40):FOR 1=1 TO 40:READ N(l):NEXT
30 X=X+1:IF X>4 THEN X=l
40 FOR T=0 TO 36 STEP 4:POKE SC+10+T*11,N(X+T):NEX
T
50 FOR 1=0 TO 20:NEXT:GOTO 30
100 DATA 123,126,124,108
110 DATA 76,79,80,122
120 DATA 73,75,74,85
130 DATA 115,114,107,113
140 DATA 71 ,66,72,103
150 DATA 103,77,100,100
160 DATA 100,111,121,98
170 DATA 73,93,85,93
180 DATA 126,97,127,226
190 DATA 95,160,223,32

Animation and Movement Together

Now lefs take animation within one location and combine it with
a simple movement routine to make an inchworm-like animation
sequence across the screen:

Program 5-7. inchworm

10 SC=256*PEEK(648):POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{CLR}":Z=1
:X=21
20 DIM N(16):FOR 1=1 TO 16:READ N(l):NEXT
30 Z=Z+1:IF Z>16 THEN Z=1:X=X-1:IF X<0 THEN X=21
40 POKE SC+X,N(Z)
50 FOR 1=0 TO 50:NEXT:GOTO 30
100 DATA 103,106,118,225,245,244,229,160,231,234,2
46,97,117,116,101,32

Notice that the entire animation sequence is completed in

one position before moving to the next. Here is a slight modifica
tion of the same program that makes smooth, continuous anima
tion across the screen. This time, however, two characters are
changed every time. At first the left-hand character is fully dark,
and the right-hand character is completely white. Each time
through the loop a bit more of the left-hand character is light and
a bit more of the right-hand character is dark, until the loop is
complete. Then the character address is changed and the cycle be
gins again.

95
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Program 5-a smooth Animation

10 SC=256*PEEK(648):POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{CLR}":Z=l
:X=21:Y=20
20 DIM N(16):FOR 1=1 TO 16:READ N(l):NEXT
30 X=X-1-21*(X<0):Y=Y-1-21*(Y<0)
40 FOR Z=l TO 8:POKE SC+X,N(Z+8):POKE SC+Y,N(Z):NE
XT
50 GOTO 30
100 DATA 103,106,118,225,245,244,229,160,231,234,2
46,97,117,116,101,32

If this isn't slow enough, try it with player control added. In

this program, the Commodore and SHIFT keys control left-right
movement:

Program 5-9. Player-Controlled Animation

10 SC=256*PEEK(648):POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{CLR}":Z=l
:X=20:T=-.125:POKE 657,128
20 DIM N(16):FOR 1=1 TO 16:READ N(l):NEXT
25 DIM Y(22),R(22):FOR 1=1 TO 22:Y(I)=I-1:R(I)=I-2
:NEXT:Y(0)=21:R(0)=20:R(1)=21
30 X=X+T+22*((INT(X+T)=22)-(INT(X+T)=-1))
40 POKE SC+X,N(Z+8):POKE SC+Y(X),N(Z):POKE SC+R(X)
,32
45 A=PEEK(653):ON -(A=l)-2*(A=2) GOSUB 60,70
50 Z=Z-SGN(T):Z=Z+8*((Z=9)-(Z=0)):GOTO 30
60 IF SGN(T)=-1 THEN T=-T
61 RETURN
70 IF SGN(T)=1 THEN T=-T
71 RETURN
100 DATA 103,106,118,225,245,244,229,160,231,234,2
46,97,117,116,101,32

If we checked for player input only once in each cycle, this pro
gram would run faster and be easier to write, but the response to
the player's input would be much slower. Machine language
could do the same thing so fast you could hardly see what was
going on. This is one area where, even though the programming
can be done in BASIC, it just isn't worth the effort to get such
detailed animation.
All these demonstrations have used the abstract built-in
graphics characters. Here's a program that shows how to make
your VIC produce more humanlike motion. We'll use the char
acters we designed in Chapter 4 to create a running and jumping
athlete. To make the athlete run, press the CURSOR LEFT/RIGHT

96
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key; to make the athlete jump, press the CURSOR UP/DOWN

key.

Program 5-10. Athlete in Action

10 POKE 36869,255:POKE 52,28:POKE 56,29:CLR
20 GOSUB 900 : PRINT"{CLR}11
30 DIM CH$(6)
35 CH$(1)=CHR$(3 3):CH$(0)=CHR$(34)+CHR$(35):CH$(2)
=CHR$(3 6):CH$(3)=CHR$(37)
40 CH?(4)=CHR?(3*9) + 1I{UP}{LEFT}"+CHR$(38):CH$(5)=CH
R$(37)+"{LEFT}{UP} m:CH$(6)=CHR$(36)
50 S$="{HOME} {DOWN}11: FOR 1=1 TO 16 :S$=S$+H {DOWN} " :
NEXT:T=130
60 GOSUB230
100 A=PEEK(197):ON -(A=23)-2*(A=31) GOSUB 200,250:
GOTO 100
200 PRINT S$TAB(P)CH$(0):FOR X=0 TO T:NEXT
210 Q=P:P=P+1:IF P>20THEN P=0:PRINT S$TAB(Q)"
{2 SPACES}":GOTO 230
220 IF PEEK(197)=64 THEN 220
230 PRINT S$TAB(Q)" "S$TAB(P)CH$(1):FOR X=0 TO T:N
EXT:RETURN
250 FOR 1=2 TO 6:PRINT S?TAB(P)CH$(I):FOR X=0 TO T
/4:NEXT
260 IF PEEK(197)=64 THEN 260
270 NEXT:RETURN
900 FOR C=7424 TO 7487:READ D:POKE C,D:NEXT:RETURN
905 DATA 0,0,0,0,0,0,0/0
910 DATA 24,24,18,124,88,20,100,0
915 DATA 1,1,1,3,6,1,3,0
920 DATA 128,128,32,224,128,64,32,0
925 DATA 0,56,56,16,124,16,124,68
930 DATA 56,56,16,124,16,124,68,68
935 DATA 0,0,0,56,56,84,124,16
940 DATA 56,40,40,0,0,0,0,0

In the initialization routine (lines 10-60) the string array

CH$(n) is set up to hold the characters or groups of characters
that will produce each stage in the figure's movement. Sometimes
a single character will show the full figure, but in midrun and
midjump, two characters must be printed, along with needed
cursor-movement characters and spaces required to erase other
characters. S$ is set up to home the cursor and then drop down
the correct number of lines.
The main loop at line 100 is one line long, doing nothing but
getting keyboard input and deciding whether to make the figure
run or jump.

97
5
Getting Your
Figures Moving

The run subroutine at line 200 is the most complex part of the
program, since the figure must not only be PRINTed, but must
also wrap around when it reaches the end of the line. The delay
loops (FOR X=0 TO T:NEXT) are present to show how you can
change the smoothness and speed for different effects. By chang
ing the value assigned to T in line 50, you can make the runner's
movement slower but make the individual steps clearer, or you
can speed up the figure to a virtual blur. The value shown here,
130, emphasizes the individual steps. A value of zero will of
course be much faster.
The jump subroutine at line 250 is much simpler; even
though jumping requires five steps (FOR I=2 TO 6), jumping
never has to wrap around the end of a line.
The character set routine at line 900 is the one we used in
Chapter 4 to set up the athlete characters.
If you want to devote the programming time and have the
computer memory to do it, you could add many other intermedi
ate characters to get far more fluid, lifelike motion. Ifs a trade-off.
Especially when you're programming in BASIC, every feature
you decide to add will cost you something somewhere else. To get
speed, you must keep your figures small and your motions fairly
jerky. To get large, detailed figures, you must sacrifice speed,
memory, and smoothness. To get natural-looking animation, you
must give up speed and memory. It should always be decided on
the basis of what is more important for the game. Some games
need animation; with many others it would add nothing.
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
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G
 6
CoHsions
When Pac-Man eats dots, points get added to the score and the
dot disappears; when he eats a power dot, the ghosts change
color for a while. When Pac-Man touches a ghost, he dies —
unless he recently ate a power dot. Most of the things that hap
pen in a videogame happen because something on the screen
bumped into something else.
There are other things that can cause changes. In Donkey
Kong, for instance, if it takes you too long to get to the top of the
screen, you run out of time and Mario wipes out. In most games,
if your score reaches a certain level, you get a bonus player-figure,
an extra turn. But these are exceptions: the overwhelming
majority of events are caused by collisions.

Checking for Collisions

Checking for collisions is really very simple. All you have to do to
see if your figure is touching something is PEEK at the address in
screen memory where the figure is about to be PRINTed or
POKEd and see what's there.
Remember back in Chapter 3 when we created a screen dis
play made of stars? Let's put that display on the screen and move
a spaceship around on it using the wraparound movement rou
tine from Chapter 5. But before we move the spaceship, we'll
check to see if there's a star in the place where the spaceship is
trying to go. If there is, the spaceship can't make the movement.
Use the Commodore and SHIFT keys for left/right movement and
f5 and f7 for up/down movement.
This program isn't quite a game yet, but as you move around
the screen, you'll see that we're getting very, very close.

Program 6-1. spaceship collisions

10 SC=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SC AND2):SC=SC*256:G
OSUB 500
20 FG=90:OC=PEEK(CM)AND15:NC=5
30 POKE 657,128
90 GOTO 280
100 A=PEEK(653)AND3:B=PEEK(197)
190 H=(A>1)-(A=1):V=(B=55)-(B=?63):IF H=0 AND V=0 T
HEN 100
200 NH=OH+H+22*((OH=21 AND H=1)-(OH=0 AND H=-l))

101
6
Collisions

210 NV=OV+V+23*((OV=22 AND V=l)-(OV=0 AND V=-l))

220 A=PEEK(SC+NH+NV*22):IF A<>32 THEN NV=OV:NH=OH:
GOTO 100
280 POKE CM+OH+22*OV,OC:POKE CM+NH+22*NV,NC
290 POKE SC+OH+22*OV,32:POKE SC+NH+22*NV,FG:OH=NH:
OV=NV:GOTO 100
500 POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{BLK}{CLR}":Q=100*RND(9):Q
1=6*RND(9)
510 Q=80*RND(9)+20:Ql=6*RND(9)+2
520 FOR 1=0 TO Q:X=505*RND(9):N=46:GOSUB 540:NEXT
530 FOR 1=0 TO Q1:X=505*RND(9):N=81:GOSUB 540:NEXT
:RETURN
540 POKE SC+X,N:RETURN

Line Function
10-90 This is the program initialization handler. Since pro
grams always start running at the lowest-numbered line,
you always have to have at least one initialization line at
the beginning of the program, even if all it does is say
GOTO 1000, where the real initialization takes place. You
might notice that this section ends with line 90, but there
are no line numbers from 30 to 90. This is so more initial
ization routines can be added later, either with a few
commands or a GOSUB to a more complex routine.
10 Set SC at the start of screen memory and CM at the start
of color memory. GOSUB 500 to draw the screen.
20 Set FG to the screen code of the character that will serve
as our spaceship figure — in this case, the diamond
shape. Set OC to the current color memory value (white)
and NC (new color) to the color of the spaceship, green.
30 Disable character set switching.
90 Go to the end of the movement loop to draw the space
ship on the screen and then wait for the player's
instructions.
100-190 This is the main loop of the program. Any command in
this section of the program will be executed every time
the program passes through the loop, whether the
player has called for movement or not. Opponents'
movements, timing, display changes, and so forth are all
controlled through this loop. As before, there is plenty of
space left for more lines.
100 Set A to show whether SHIFT or Commodore is
pressed. Set B to show if any other key has been pressed.

102
 6
Collisions

190 Set H and V to their appropriate values if the right keys

have been pressed. If no movement is called for, return
to the beginning of the loop at line 100.
200-290 This is the player-figure movement handler. The pro
gram won't execute these lines unless the player has
commanded a movement. As always, there is plenty of
room left to add other routines. But any routine that is
accessed from this section will be executed only when
the player commands a movement.
200-210 Set NH and NV to the new values if this movement is
executed, including wraparound if necessary.
220 Set A to the value of whatever character is already at the
new player location. If it is not a blank (screen code 32),
cancel the movement by setting NH and NV to equal
OH and OV; then return to the main loop at line 100.
280 Erase the spaceship color at the old location and POKE it
into color memory at the new location.
290 Erase the spaceship at the old location and POKE it into
screen memory at the new location. Return to the main
loop at line 100.
500-540 The screen setup subroutine. This is almost identical to
the random starfield program in Chapter 3.

Making Things Happen

Now we have a spaceship moving through the starfield, and our
program notices when it collides with stars. All we need now to
make it a game is to have more things happen, some of them
depending on the player's choices, and some of them happening
automatically.
Let's say that our spaceship is on a fuel-gathering mission. It
needs to visit large nova stars, to gather rare gases from the clouds
surrounding them. Unfortunately, if the spaceship passes too
close to regular, smaller stars, it suffers damage — too many such
incidents before the spaceship reaches a space station will cause
the spaceship to malfunction, and the crew will have to abandon
it.
How does this story translate into programming?
Collision handling. Well allow the player-figure to move
onto the squares occupied by stars and novas. This time, how
ever, we will be keeping score. Every time the ship collides with a
small star, the player loses points. Also, it will come one step
closer to destruction, which is signified by changing the space-

103
6
Collisions

ship's color from red to cyan, purple, green, blue, and yellow.
Every time the ship collides with a nova (large star), the
player wins points, and the nova, all its important gases stripped
away, appears on the screen as a small star.
A new element will be introduced — a space station, which
will be a red checkerboard square (screen code 102). The space
ship changes back to red when it collides with the space station,
but gets no additional points. After a while, the spaceship gets
out into deep space and the space stations stop appearing.
When the spaceship moves onto a small star or the space sta
tion, the program must "pick up" the star and then put it back
when the spaceship leaves. With the novas, however, since the
spaceship has picked up all the gases surrounding them, the pro
gram will put a small star in their place when the spaceship
moves away.

The moving starfield. Obviously, the spaceship will soon get

all the available novas. For the game to continue, the screen has to
be refreshed. One way to do this might be to create a new random
starfield whenever the last nova has been taken. This is what Vac-
Man does, when all the dots have been eaten. But it stops the
game each time, and forces us to make the program keep track of
the number of novas on each screen. A better solution for this
game is to have a scrolling display — every now and then, the
whole starfield moves upward one or more lines, and a new line
of randomly generated stars is added at the bottom of the screen.
As the game goes on, the screen scrolls more often and adds
more lines at a time. Naturally, this means the player will have to
move faster and faster to get the novas before they scroll off the
top of the screen. Also, since the display is moving, it will be pos
sible for the small stars to collide with the spaceship.
How will we do the scrolling? Scrolling is always handled on
the VIC by doing a block move — taking the bytes stored at loca
tions Al through Zl and moving them to locations A2 through
Z2. In BASIC, this would be unbearably slow — the loop to move
all 506 bytes of screen memory and all 506 bytes of color memory
would take several seconds to execute and would slow down the
game far too much.
Fortunately, there is a machine language block-move routine
built right into VIC BASIC. When you PRINT a line at the bottom
of the screen, it makes the whole screen scroll upward to make
room for the cursor to move down to the next line. All we need to
do to make the screen scroll is to PRINT the new line of stars at

104
 6
Collisions

the bottom of the screen, and the VIC automatically makes our
scrolling display.
Creating new lines of random stars. One of the problems
now is to create those new lines of stars to PRINT at the bottom of
the screen. They have to be random, and yet they have to appear
almost instantly in order not to slow down the game.
The solution is to create one long string, 255 characters long,
which contains a random assortment of blanks, small stars, and
novas. Then, using the MID$ function, we can choose a segment
of that string to PRINT each time we need a new line of stars. By
generating a random number for the starting position of the
string segment, we can still keep up the randomness — but we
have to generate only one random number each time we scroll,
and then the built-in machine language MID$ function and
PRINT command will take care of the rest. There we have it —
machine language speed in a BASIC program.

Program 6-2. Mission: Nova!

10 SC=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SC AND2):SC=SC*256:G
OSUB 500
20 FG=90:OC=PEEK(CM)AND15:NC=2:PRINT "{WHT}":Q=3:Q
Q=Q+1:GOSUB 800
30 POKE 657,128:GOSUB
400
40 NH=7:NV=7:C=NH+NV*22:W=32:SS=102:CS=2:TS=0
90 GOTO 290
100 A=PEEK(653)AND3:B=PEEK(197)
110 IF VAL(TI$)>Q THEN GOSUB 600
190 H=(A>l)-(A=l):V=(B=55)-(B=63):IF H=0 AND V=0 T
HEN 100
200 NH=OH+H+22*((OH=21 AND H=1)-(OH=0 AND H=-l))
210 NV=OV+V+(OV=22 AND V=1)-(OV=1 AND V=-l)
220 POKE CM+C,OC:POKE SC+C,W:C=NH+NV*22:W=PEEK(SC+
C)
230 IF W<>32 THEN GOSUB 700
280 POKE CM+C,NC:POKE SC+C,FG:IF NC>7 THEN 900
290 OH=NH:OV=NV:GOTO 100
400 FOR 1=0 TO 254:T=32
410 IF INT(RND(9)*5)<1 THEN T=46:IF INT(RND(9)*5)<
1 THEN T=113
420 T$=T$+CHR$(T):NEXT
430 M$=CHR$(19):F0R 1=0 TO 22:M$=M$+CHR$(17):NEXT:
RETURN
500 POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{BLK}{CLR}":Q=100*RND(9):Q
1=6*RND(9)
510 Q=80*RND(9)+20:Ql=6*RND(9)+2
520 FOR 1=0 TO Q:X=505*RND(9):N=46:GOSUB 540:NEXT

105
6
Collisions

530 FOR 1=0 TO Q1:X=505*RND(9):N=81:GOSUB 540:NEXT

:RETURN
540 POKE SC+X,N:RETURN
600 POKE SC+C,W:POKE CM+C,OC:T=1+INT(RND(9)*167)
605 PRINT M$;MID$(T$/T/22*INT(QQ-Q)-1);:P=P-INT(7*
Q):GOSUB 800
610 OC=PEEK(CM+C):W=PEEK(SC+C):IF W<>32 THEN GOSUB
700
615 POKE SC+C,FG:POKE CM+C,NC
620 PRINT "{HOME}"TAB(8)STR$(P)n POINTS{3 SPACES}"
630 TS=TS+1:IF TS>10*(QQ-Q)THEN GOSUB 850
640 IF NO 7 THEN 900
690 RETURN
700 IF W=46 THEN P=P-100:NC=NC+1:RETURN
710 IF W=102 THEN NC=CS:W=104:RETURN
720 IF W=104 THEN RETURN
730 P=P+(8*NH)*INT(QQ-Q):W=46:RETURN
800 TI$="000000n:Q=99*(Q/l00):RETURN
850 TS=0:T2=506-INT(RND(9)*22):POKE SC+T2,SSxPOKE
{SPACE}CM+T2,CS:RETURN
900 FOR 1=0 TO 20:FOR X=0 TO 7:POKE CM+C,X:NEXT:NE
XT
910 PRINT "{CLR}"P" POINTS":PRINT:PRINT:PRINT "THE
END":END

Line Function
10-90 Initialization. Most variables are assigned their starting
value here.
Variables Used
SC = starting address of screen memory
CM = starting address of color memory
FG = screen code of the character used for the player-figure
OC = the original color of every square in color memory
NC = the current color of the player-figure
Q = the difficulty level. This starts at 3, then decreases steadily
throughout the game.
QQ = the original difficulty level +1; Q is subtracted from QQ
several times during the game to set certain values that
must get larger rather than smaller as the game gets
harder.
NH = the new horizontal position (column number) of the
player-figure
NV = the new vertical position (row number) of the player-
figure
OH = the old horizontal position of the player-figure
OV=the old vertical position of the player-figure
C = the number of bytes to add to SC and CM to find the
player-figure's current location in memory

106
 6
collisions

W = the character that was stored at the new player position

before the player-figure moved there; it is usually put back
after the player-figure moves on.
SS = the screen code of the character that represents the space
station
CS = the color of the space station
TS = the variable used to time the appearance of the space
station

Subroutines Called
GOSUB 400 sets up the long random string that will create the
new lines added to the bottom of the screen.
GOSUB 500 sets up the screen display.
GOSUB 800 initializes the timer function that controls how
often the screen will scroll.
100-190 Main loop. Everything that happens constantly, whether
the player moves the player-figure or not, is controlled in
this section.
100 Set A and B to show what keys, if any, are pressed.
110 Check the timer to see if it's time to scroll the screen.
(The variable H$ is automatically changed by the operat
ing system to show how much time has passed since it
was last set to equal 0. If you don't know how to use H$
and can't figure it out from this line and the subroutine
at 800, see Programmer's Reference Guide to the VIC.) If it
is, jump to the scroll routine at 600.
111-189 Open lines, where other routines can be added.
190 Set H and V to equal the horizontal and vertical move
ment called for by the player. If no movement is called
for, go back to line 100.
200-290 Movement loop. This is where player movement is carried
out, along with any other routines that happen only
when the player moves.
200-210 Set NH and NV to the new player-figure location.
220 Set the old player-figure location back to its previous
values. POKE color memory with the nonplayer-figure
color, OC, and POKE screen memory with W, the char
acter that should be left behind when the player leaves
that spot. Then set C to equal the new player-figure off
set, and set Wto equal the character currently stored at
the new location.
230 If the character stored at the new location is something
other than a blank (32), go to the collision routine at line
700.

107
6
Collisions

231-279 Lines available for other routines.

280 POKE the player-figure and its color into screen memory
and color memory. If the color is greater than 7, then the
player-figure has collided with too many small stars —
jump to the end routine at line 900.
290 Set OH and OV to equal NH and NV; then jump to the
main loop at line 100.
400-430 Random line generator. This routine creates the
255-character string 1$, assigning each character in the
string the value T; T has a randomized chance of being
32 (a blaijk), 46 (a small star), or, the least likely chance,
113 (a nova). Then the string M$ is set up to equal the
right number of CURSOR-DOWN characters to PRINT
the random segment of 1$ at the bottom of the screen.
500-540 Screen setup. The same routine we've used before to gen
erate a random starfield.
600-690 Scroll routine. This section controls everything that hap
pens whenever the screen scrolls.
600 Erase the player-figure by POKEing OC and W into color
and screen memory. Since we don't want the player-
figure to move upward when the rest of the screen
scrolls, we will erase the player-figure, execute the scroll,
and then POKE the player-figure back into the same
location in memory. The starfield will seem to move,
while the spaceship will seem to hold still.
Then set T to a random number between 0 and 166.
605 Scroll the screen by PRINTing M$ and the segment of 1$
starting at position T. At the easiest level, PRINT a seg
ment only one screen line in length. At harder levels,
PRINT up to four screen lines at a time.
Then subtract from the player's score a number of
points equal to seven times the difficulty level, so that at
harder levels of play, fewer points will be subtracted each
time the screen scrolls. This subtraction is included so
that players will have a greater incentive not to simply sit
there avoiding the moving stars.
Then jump to the timer subroutine at line 800.
610 Set OC and W to the values that are now, after the scroll,
in the player's location in color memory and screen
memory. If W is not a blank, jump to the collision rou
tine at line 700.
615 POKE the spaceship and spaceship color into memory.

108
 6
Collisions

620 PRINT the updated score at the top of the screen. Notice
that the program PRINTs STR$(P) instead of simply
PRINTing P. This is because the VIC automatically skips
a space after PRINTing numeric variables. If a number
was already in that space, it will be left there, which
makes the score inaccurate if the number of digits in the
score changes. Perhaps the best way to see how this
works is to change the statement to PRINT
" {HOME }"1AB(8)F' POINTS " and see what
happens.
630 Add one to the Space Station Timer (TS); depending on
the difficulty level, if TS is beyond the limit, jump to the
space station routine at line 850.
700-730 Collision routine. There are four possible collisions.
If the spaceship has collided with a small star (46),
the score (P) is decreased by 100, and NC, the space
ship's color, is increased by one.
If the spaceship has collided with a new space sta
tion (102), NC, the spaceship's color, is set back to 2.
Then W is set to 104, a "used" space station, so that it
can't be used again.
If the spaceship has collided with a used space sta
tion (104), nothing happens.
If the spaceship has collided with a nova (the only
other possibility), the score is increased, with greater in
creases at the higher difficulty levels and at lower posi
tions on the screen. W is then set to 46, a small star, so
that it becomes another obstacle to the spaceship.
800 Timer reset routine. The variable 11$ is set back to 000000,
which starts it over again. Also, the difficulty level Q is
set to a slightly lower number. To make the game get
harder faster, change the 99 to a lower number; to make
it stay easy longer, change the 99 to 99.5 or 99.8 — any
number greater than 99 but less than 100.
850 Space station routine. This one-line subroutine puts a
space station in a random location on the bottom line of
the screen and sets its color to red.
900 End routine. This routine makes the spaceship flash
through the colors, prints the final score, and exits the
game.

109
6
Collisions

I star-Eater
I Here's a simple gobble game. You are a hungry dot, out to eat
stars (asterisks). You get points for eating them. The trouble is,
each one you eat turns into a plus — and if you accidentally eat a
plus, you lose points. Also, every plus you eat turns into a block of
stone, which you can't get past. Your task is to eat as many stars as
you can before time runs out. You can wrap around the screen
both horizontally and vertically; left-right movement is done with
the SHIFT and Commodore keys, and up-down movement is
done with f5 and f7.
With what you already know about game programming, you
should have little trouble figuring out exactly what's going on.
lines 0-99 are initialization; lines 100-199 are the main loop; lines
200-299 are the movement loop; lines 300-399 are the end routine;
lines 600-699 are the set level subroutine; and lines 700-799 are the
collision routine. It is all familiar ground.
Let me just call your attention to a few details.
Notice the variable M. During initialization, it is set to the
total number of stars on the screen by adding 1 to M each time a
star is POKEd to the screen (that is, each time the random num
ber X is a 3). Then, during the collision routine, M is decreased
by 1 each time the player eats a star. This means that when the last
star is eaten, M will equal zero — and that is one of the conditions
that will end the game. Upon entering the end routine at line 300,
you get different messages, depending on whether or not you ate
all the stars.
Another new feature is the choice of levels. At the beginning
of the game, you are asked what level you want. This is accom
plished in the subroutine starting at line 600. If you choose "easy,"
the variable N is set to 300; 200 if you choose "hard"; and 100 if
you choose "superhuman."
Notice how this variable is used throughout the program. In
the Collision Routine, the score is added toby an amount equal to
N minus the current value of the timer (11$), but when the player
eats a plus, the score is subtracted from by an amount equal to TI$.
That means that the later you get in the game, the fewer points
you get for each star you eat, and the more points you lose for
each plus you eat.
Also, the TIME message at the top of the screen (see line 100)
tells you how much time you have left. The countdown is created
by subtracting TI$ from N. And if you don't eat all the stars before

no
 6
Collisions

the timer reaches the value of N, the game ends — with a dif
ferent message at line 300.

Program 6-3. Star-Eater

5 DIM CH(3):CH(0)=102:CH(1)=32:CH(2)=43:CH(3)=42
10 DIM CL(3):CL(0)=2:CL(1)=1:CL(2)=5:CL(3)=7
15 SC=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SC AND2):SC=SC*256
20 PRINT H{CLR}":FG=81:CF=0:M=0:GOSUB 600
25 FOR 1=22 TO 505:X=INT(RND(1)*4):M=M-(X=3)
30 POKE SC+I,CH(X):POKE CM+I,CL(X):NEXT
35 TI$="000000U:OH=10:OV=10:FL=OH+OV*22:OC=CL(1):W
=CH(1)
40 POKE SC+FL,FG:POKE CM+FL,CF
100 PRINT "{HOME}SCORE "STR$(P)n TIME "STR$(N-VAL(
TI$))M "
110 A=PEEK(653)AND3:B=PEEK(197)
120 IF VAL(TI$)>N OR M=0 THEN 300
190 H=(A>1)-(A=1):V=(B=55)-(B=63):IF H=0 AND V=0 T
HEN 100
200 NH=OH+H+22*((OH=21 AND H=1)-(OH=0 AND H=-l))
210 NV=OV+V+22*((OV=22 AND V=1)-(OV=1 AND V=-l))
220 POKE SC+FL,W:POKE CM+FL,OC:FL=NH+NV*22:E=W
230 W=PEEK(SC+FL):OC=PEEK(CM+FL):IF W<>32 THEN GOS
UB 700
280 POKE CM+FL,CF:POKE SC+FL,FG
290 OH=NH:OV=NV:GOTO 100
300 PRINT M{CLR}":IF M=0 THEN 320
305 IF M=0 THEN PRINT "{2 DOWN}YOU GOT ALL THE STA
RSI"
310 PRINT "TIME'S UPi":PRINT "STARS LEFT: "M:GOTO
{SPACE}325
320 PRINT "YOU GOT ALL THE STARS!":PRINT "TIME LEF
T: "N-VAL(TI$)
325 PRINT "SCORE: "P
330 PRINT"{3 DOWNjPLAY AGAIN? (Y OR N)"
340 B=PEEK(197):IF B=28 THEN END
345 IF B=ll THEN RUN
350 GOTO 340
600 PRINT "{6 SPACES}STAR-EATER":PRINT "{2 DOWNjCH
OOSE YOUR LEVEL:"
605 PRINT "1 - EASY":PRINT "2 - HARD":PRINT "3 - S
UPERHUMAN"
610 N=PEEK(197):IF N=64 THEN 610
620 N=300+100*(N=56)+200*(N=1):PRINT "{CLR}":RETUR
N
700 IF W=CH(0) THEN 730
710 IF W=CH(2) THEN P=P-VAL(TI$):W=CH(0):OC=CL(0):
RETURN

111
6
Collisions

720 P=P+INT(N-VAL(TI$))zW=CH(2):OC=CL(2):M=M-l:RET
URN
730 NH=OH:NV=OV:FL=OH+OV* 2 2:W=E:OC=PEEK(FL+CM):RET
URN
3345 IF B=ll THEN RUN

Collision Tracking
So far we have only used PEEKs to see whether a collision is tak
ing place. There is a good reason for this. Most of the time, you
will be creating games where there are random elements, things
on the screen that your program won't be keeping track of.
There'll be no way for the computer to know there's been a colli
sion without PEEKing.
In some games, however, the only things on the playfield be
sides the player-figure will be computer-controlled figures, and
your program will therefore be keeping track of the location of
every single item on the screen. Then you can find out about colli
sions by comparing the locations of the various items. The game
//Moonraker," Program 10-3, uses this method. But it only works
when there are few figures on the screen and no possibility of
random items to run into.

I Spark: combining PRINT with POKES and peeks

One last game before we move on to sound and music. One
thing we haven't done yet is make the computer control a figure
moving around the screen. In the game "Spark," we'll use a
screen display we created in Chapter 3, except that it is in reverse
video. You have a spark on a wire, racing around and around. It's
your job to get the spark off the end of the wire. But you don't
control the spark — instead, you control an interruption in the
wire. The spark will keep moving at a steady pace, controlled by
the computer.
Using f5 (up) and f7 (down), you control the vertical position
of the break in the circuit. The SHIFT and Commodore keys con
trol its horizontal position. Press SHIFT and it has one horizontal
position; press Commodore and it has the other; press SHIFT
and Commodore together and the break completely disappears.
But this is one case where a picture is worth more than words —
you have to practice the game to really understand what your
controls will do.
The top and bottom of the wire also shift randomly, con
stantly undoing your work. You have a time limit — your score is

112
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Collisions

how much time you had left when you got the spark off the wire.
As you examine the program, youll see that the spark never
exists in screen memory at all — it is only POKEd into color mem
ory. But the spark's movement routine in the main loop from lines
100 to 190 PEEKs into screen memory in order to see in what
direction it is supposed to go next. Using PRINT for screen
changes gives this game machine language speed in its response
to the player's keyboard input. This method won't work for all
programs, of course, but for this one, the computer is running a
fairly fast-moving figure through a fairly complex movement pat
tern, all in BASIC. If you program carefully enough, you can get
real speed in BASIC games.

Program 6-4. spark

10 DIM A$(6),S$(8):POKE 36879,1:PRINT "{CLR}{WHT}"
:GOSUB 500
20 FOR 1=0 TO 7:PRINT S$(I)A$(0);NEXT I
30 SM=PEEK(648):CM=37888+256*(SM AND 2):SM=SM*256
40 OC=PEEK(CM):NC=2:OL=3 2:NL=54
50 DIM MV(4,4)xGOSUB 700:FR=0:CH=4:P=300:POKE 657,
128
60 Y=1:GOSUB
310:A=2:PL=6:GOSUB 200
100 IF VAL(TI$)>1 THEN GOSUB 300
110 POKE CM+NL-MV(CH,FR),OC:POKE CM+NL,NC
120 A=PEEK(653)AND3:B=PEEK(197):IF A>0 THEN GOSUB
{SPACE}200
130 IF B<64 THEN GOSUB 250
140 E=PEEK(SM+NL):GOSUB 400:CH=E
145 IF CH=4 AND YY<>0 THEN GOSUB 450
150 E=PEEK(SM+OL):GOSUB 400:FR=E:IF CH=FR THEN FR=
4+(FR=4)+D
160 IF CH<4 THEN OL=NL
170 IF CH<0 THEN 600
180 NL=NL+MV(CH,FR):D=SGN(MV(CH,FR))=-1
190 YY=0:GOTO 100
200 PH=A:IF A=3 THEN PH=0:GOTO 290
250 PRINT S$(PL)A$(0):YY=SGN(MV(CH,FR))
260 PL=PL+(B=55)-(B=63):PL=PL+8*(PL>7)-8*(PL<0)
290 PRINT S$(PL)A$(PH):RETURN
300 Y=INT(RND(9)*2)?P=P-10
310 PRINT "{HOME}{2 SPACES}TIME LEFT{3 SPACES}"STR
$(P)" "
320 PRINT "{HOME}{DOWN}"A$(3+Y)S$(8)A$(6-Y)
330 IF P=0 THEN 600
340 TI$=n000000M:RETURN
400 E=E-128-73:IF E>2 THEN E=E-9:IF E>3 THEN E=E-7
410 RETURN

113
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450 IF YY=-1 THEN OL=CH-22*INT(CH/22)+396:RETURN

460 OL=CH-22*INT(CH/22)+22:RETURN
500 FOR 1=0 TO 6:A$(I)=CHR$(18):NEXT I
520 FOR X=l TO 20:A$(0)=A$(0)+CHR$(221):NEXT
530 FOR 1=1 TO 5 STEP 4:FOR X=l TO 10:A$(I)=A$
CHR$(106)+CHR$(107):NEXT:NEXT
540 FOR 1=2 TO 6 STEP 4:A$(I)=CHR$(221):FOR X=l TO
9
545 A$(I)=A$(I)+CHR$(106)+CHR$(107):NEXT:A$(I)=A$(
I)+CHR$(221):NEXT
550 FOR 1=0 TO 2:A$(l)=A$(l)+CHR$(13)+CHR$(18):NEX
T
560 FOR X=l TO 20:A$(0)=A$(0)+CHR$(221):NEXT
570 FOR 1=1 TO 3 STEP 2:FOR X=l TO 10:A$(I)=A$(I)+
CHR$(117)+CHR$(105):NEXT:NEXT
580 FOR 1=2 TO 4 STEP 2:A$(I)=A$(I)+CHR$(221):FOR
{SPACE}X=1 TO 9
585 A$(I)=A$(I) +CHR$ (117 )+CHR$ (105 ) .-NEXT: A$ (I )=A$ (
l)+CHR$(221):NEXT
590 S$(0)=CHR$(18)+"{HOME}{2 DOWN}":FOR 1=1 TO 8:S
$(l)=S$(l-l)+"{2 DOWN}":NEXT:RETURN
600 PRINT "THE END":END
700 FOR 1=0 TO 4:FOR X=0 TO 4:READ MV(I,X):NEXT:NE
XT:RETURN
710 DATA 0,-1,-1,22,-1,1,0,-22,1,1,-1,-22,0,-1,-1
720 DATA 22,1,1,0,1,22,-22,-22,22,0

114
Sounds
and Music
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
 7
Sounds and
Music
Just how important is sound in a videogame? Try playing a fa
vorite game with the sound turned off. You'll be amazed at
how much you'll miss the various tones, noises, and melodies
that you are accustomed to hearing while you play the game. Your
timing will probably be off, your score will be lower, and most
important, you won't enjoy the game as much. Why?

I uses of Sound
Sounds help you while you play a videogame by providing feed
back of your game actions. As you play Joust, for example, there
are sounds which give you information on almost every event
that occurs. A collision in which you defeat the other knight is dif
ferent from one in which you are defeated. Colliding with dif
ferent surfaces results in different sounds. When you receive a
bonus knight, there is yet another sound. These sounds aid you
as you play, for as you concentrate on keeping your own knight
alive, the sounds tell you what's going on elsewhere on the
screen. Vac-Man also provides sounds as information, although
to a lesser degree. Each dot that is eaten, and thus each point that
is awarded, produces a sound. You know you are gaining points
without having to actually look to check. When a power dot is
eaten, another sound is made which signals that ghosts can now
be chased. Sound as information is a valuable aid in a game.
Sounds also affect your mood as you play, drawing you into
the game's unique world. Imagine the loss you feel when your
Pac-Man is caught by one of the ghosts and the short "Sorry"
sound routine plays. The fierce stamping sounds at the opening
of Donkey Kong only urge you on to the top. Never mind the anger
of the ape, you tell yourself. Part of this mood is generated by the
pace of the sounds and music.
One of the most successful arcade games, Space Invaders, uses
a repetitive sound as the aliens move across the screen. As their
numbers decrease, the sounds become louder and faster. The
effect is one of increasing excitement and anxiety.

117
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Sounds
and Music

t levels of difficulty; Perhaps your

game will, too. Often the screen alters slightly when a new level
of difficulty is reached. A faster background sound or a higher-
pitched noise can increase the pace of the action. The high-
pitched, modulating drone that seems to yell "Danger! Danger!"
as the ghosts in Pac-Man chase you is a good example.
Pay close attention to the sounds you hear the next time you
play a video arcade game. What sounds are used for what effects?
What do those sounds do to and for the player? How would the
game be less enjoyable or harder to play if the sounds were elimi
nated? Seeing how other game creators use sound will help you
decide how and when to use sound in your own games.

I Creating sounds
The VIC creates sounds by addressing five memory locations,
called sound registers. The sound output is created and con
trolled by POKEing values to these memory locations. The
memory locations and corresponding sound registers are:

Memory Location Sound Register

36874 Low tone register
36875 Middle tone register
36876 High tone register
36877 Noise register
36878 Volume control register

Each tone register can produce 128 tones or notes, simply by

using a POKE command in this way:
POKEy,x

where y is one of the five sound register memory locations and x

equals a number between 128 and 255. For example, using the
command POKE 36874,128 produces the lowest possible tone,
approximately a low B.
The noise register can be addressed in the same way, but in
stead of producing a tone, it will create "white noise." Varying the
value will change the noise generated from a bass roar (128) to a
piercing hiss (255).
The fifth sound register controls the volume of the sound
produced on the VIC. There are 16 volume settings, ranging from
0 to 15. Zero, however, turns the sound off, so you must enter a
value between 1 and 15. Setting the volume register alone will not

118
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sounds
and Music

produce a sound. You also must set one or more of the tone regis
ters for sound to be created.
There are numerous sources for small routines that duplicate
various sounds or sound effects. One such source is Personal Com
puting on the VLC-20, the manual that came with your computer.
Appendix G in the back of the manual has a number of sound
effects already worked out. In COMPUTED Second Book of VIC,
John Heilborn's article, "Making Sound with Blips/7 shows you
how to do really convincing sound effects and includes some
excellent examples. Such prewritten routines are useful if you
experiment with them, changing values or adding time delays to
slow the sounds down.
The two following routines can be used in just this way. Type
each in and save, so you can later load them for alteration.

Program 7-1. zap

10 L=36874
20 M=36875
30 Hl=36876
40 N=36877
50 Vl=36878
100 POKE N,175
110 FOR Bl=l TO 15
120 POKE VI,Bl
130 FOR T=l TO 5
140 NEXT T
150 NEXT Bl
160 POKE N,0
170 POKE VI,0

This program produces a short "zap" sound, something you

may find useful in a game that has objects moving quickly, or per
haps for firing projectiles. Notice that the values for the memory
locations have been placed at the start of the routine and given a
variable name. This just makes it simpler to type in a program,
which may use a memory location several times. See what hap
pens when you change the numbers in line 100, where the noise
register is being used; in line 110, which changes the volume from
1 to 15; and in line 130, which is a short delay. Try it for yourself.
Replace lines 100-170 in the first program with these lines.
Remember to keep lines 10-50, or there will be no memory loca
tions available for the routine.

119
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Sounds
and Music

PTOgran17-2. Blip
100 POKE VI, 15
110 FOR Bl=l TO 5
120 FOR B2=250 TO 240
130 POKE H1,B2
140 NEXT B2
150 POKE H1,0
160 NEXT Bl
170 POKE VI, 0

This routine creates a short "blip," another sound effect you

may find useful in your own game. Again, by altering the num
bers in lines 100,110, and 120, you can change the sound
produced.
Notice in these sample routines that values of zero are
POKEd in for both the sound (or noise) and volume registers.
This is the easiest way to turn off the sound. If you do not place a
POKE statement such as these in your sound routines, the sound
will continue until you press RUN/STOP-RESTORE.
Another thing that may help when you are trying sounds on
your VIC is to place this line at the beginning of your program:
POKE 36879,8:PRINT " {CLR}"
This both darkens the screen and clears it before any sounds are
produced. Sometimes the VIC makes static noise when the
screen is filled with printing in a bright display.

I Writing a Sound Program

Although you may have experimented with the sample rou
tines, or others you found, it would be useful to work on a pro
gram in more detail:

Program 7-3. Keysound

10 POKE 36879,8: PRINT "{CLR}11
20 POKE 36878,15:HI=36876
30 GET A?: IF A$=1IU THEN 30
40 FOR Y=128 TO 255
50 POKE HI,Y:NEXT
60 POKE HI,0
70 GOTO 20

Program Explanation
Line Function
10 Create a dark, cleared screen

120
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sounds
and Music

20 Memory location 36878 sets the volume. Maximum

volume is 15. HI is established as equalling 36876 (high
tone register) so it won't have to be typed in each time it
is used.
30 Wait until the user presses a key.
40-50 Play each tone of the high sound register, from 128 to
255.
60 Turn off sound register HI.

With this one simple program, you can quickly see several
different applications and create varying effects, just by altering a
line or two. For example, by changing line 50 to:
50 POKE HI,Y:FOR T=0 TO 1:NEXT:NEXT Y

you will create a slight delay after each of the sound increments.
Changing it to read T = 0 TO 1000 will separate the notes even
more. Can you think of an application in a game (preferably your
own)?
Change line 50 back to its original state and then alter line 40
to read:
40 FOR Y=128 TO 255 STEP 2

This would use the original sound, but it would be shorter by •

half.
Making the pitch drop from highest to lowest is also quite
simple. To do this, change line 40 to:
40 FOR Y=255 TO 128 STEP -1

An even more elaborate sound can be created with this pro

gram by changing and adding these lines:

Program 7-4. Keysound UFO

40 FOR Y=128 TO 255 STEP 5
50 POKE HI,Y:NEXT
60 FOR Y=255 TO 128 STEP -5
70 POKE HI,Y:NEXT
80 GOTO 40

This new program will keep running until you hit the RUN/
STOP key. At that point you'll hear another tone which you can
stop only by pressing the RUN/STOP key along with the RESTORE
key. This resets the volume value to zero.
The sound made by this program is a type of noise often
made by games using spacecraft, such as a UFO. To get even

121
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Sounds
and Music

closer to such a sound, change both 128 values to 240. A good Pac-
Man imitation can be obtained by changing the value in line 40
from 128 to 210.
You'll notice that most of the changes made were in the lines
containing the FOR-NEXT loops. These loops are essential in
most sound effects, and you should be familiar with this com
mand's operation before you attempt to write any detailed sound
effects routines. Once you are comfortable with the format of a
sound routine, you should be able to create almost any sound you
want.
You now have the background needed to create sound effects.
What do you do with them? Place them in a game program, your
game program.

I Background Sound
One possible use for sound or music in a game program is as
background, which can be useful as a mood producer. Remember
the importance of sound in affecting the mood of a player during
a game. It is important, and your game will certainly be better for
its inclusion. Although the music you choose for your game will
probably be different from the following example, once youVe
looked through this section, you should be able to apply its
techniques.
If you want this sound to be continuous throughout your
game, the routine will have to be included as part of the main
loop of the game program. If you want a high-pitched drone that
alternates between two pitches during the game, for example,
you might set up something like this:

Program 7-5. Background Sound

10 POKE 36879,8:PRINT "{CLR}":POKE 36878,15
20 HI=36876:A=248:B=250
30 POKE HI,A:GOSUB 100
40 POKE HI,B:GOSUB 100
50 GOTO 30
100 FOR T=0 TO 300:NEXT:RETURN

The A and B values in line 20 represent the two alternating

pitches, while line 100 slows the routine. Adding a delay to the
main loop of the program simply to slow the sound would be
wasteful, since it would also slow down the game. Inserting a
necessary delay, then, is better done in the sound routine.

122
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sounds
and Music

This routine has yet to be added to a main loop of a program,

however. If this background sound of alternating pitches is to be
used, there must also be a way for the pitches to change. A simple
way to accomplish this is to alter the pitch each time the main
loop of the program executes. By adding this sound routine to the
main loop of the "Mission: Nova!" game program from Chapter 6,
you can hear a constant background sound as you play.

program 7-6. Main Loop Background sound

101 POKE 36878,10
102 S1=S1=0
103 IF S1<>0 THEN POKE 36874,170:GOTO 110
104 POKE 36874,190

The main loop of the Mission: Nova! program begins on line

100. Line 101 POKEs in the volume setting for your background
sound. Line 102 determines if SI is either -1 or 0. The first time
through the main loop, SI is 0, so the POKE command in line 104
is executed. The second time through the main loop, SI is -1, so
the POKE in line 103 executes. Each time it alternates, creating the
two sounds. Notice that there is no delay loop to slow the sound
down. Add a delay, such as FOR Tl = 0 TO 300:NEXT as new line
105. The game slows down, doesn't it? In fact, it slows down far
too much, so the line should be removed.
Using a format such as this in another game, perhaps your
own, you could make the sound correspond to the movements of
the characters. Because game characters can make location
changes each time through the main loop, the pitch would
change with every character movement. This is difficult to see in
the Mission: Nova! program, but this background sound tech
nique can be quite useful, especially in a short game which has a
small number of characters moving on the screen.

I Sound Subroutines
I Many sounds in a game will not occur throughout the entire
game program, but will instead be heard only at the time of a cer
tain event. The music which plays when a game character is lost,
for example, would fit in this category. Perhaps you want sound
when the fire button on the joystick is pressed, or a loud tone
from the noise register when a target is hit. In these situations,
the sounds are called upon as subroutines.
Unfortunately, when a program goes to a subroutine, it leaves

123
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Sounds
and Music

the main loop and everything comes to a stop until the program
returns. Sometimes this is very noticeable, for you can see the
characters on the screen stop as a noise or sound is executed by
the subroutine. Although this is a drawback, it is often used be
cause of the complexity of incorporating a sound routine into the
main program loop. Many programmers use the subroutine tech
nique since it is relatively simple to program. Perhaps in some
games the visual delay will not be as noticeable. As the game
designer and programmer, you must make the decision. Will the
delay harm the overall game execution? Will it lessen the player's
enjoyment of the game? If you think not, try the subroutine
technique.
The following example program uses a subroutine to access
the sound only when it is called for. A character moves back and
forth on the screen, which also displays a time clock. Every five
seconds the sound subroutine is called, and you will see the char
acter stop as the routine is performed.

Program 77. Subroutine Sound

10 POKE 36878,15:POKE 36879,8
20 L=7680:H=83:TI$="000000M
30 D=1:S=32:X=36876
40 PRINT "{CLR}11
50 POKE L,H:PRINT "{HOME}{5 DOWN} "TI$ :REM
BEGIN MAIN LOOP
60 IF TI$="000005" THEN G=l
70 IF TI$="000010" THEN G=l
80 IF TI$ = "00001511 THEN G=l
90 IF TI$="000020" THEN GOSUB 150:GOTO 20
0
100 ON G GOSUB 150
110 IF D=l THEN L=L+1:POKE L-l,S
120 IF D=-l THEN L=L-1:POKEL+1,S
130 IF L=7701 THEN D=-l
140 IF L<7680 THEN D=l
145 GOTO 50:REM END OF MAIN LOOP
150 FOR F=255 TO 127 STEP -1:POKE X,F:NEX
T
160 G=0:RETURN
200 PRINT "{CLR}{5 DOWN} THE DEMO IS OVER

Program Explanation
Line Function
10 Volume control is set to maximum, and the screen is

124
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sounds
and Music

darkened. Again, this makes the character POKEd in

more visible and reduces the monitor noise interference.
20 Establish the variables. L is the location of the character;
H is the POKE number for the "heart" character. The
time clock is set at 0.
30 Set the variables for the character's direction. When
D = 1 it will move from left to right as per line 110. When
D = -1 it will move from right to left as per line 120.
40-50 First the screen is cleared, and then the main loop begins
by POKEing in the character at its first location and
printing the time clock five lines below so that it is out of
the way.
60-80 The clock is checked and compared with the values of 5,
10, and 15. If it is one of these values, then G is assigned
the value of 1.
90 The clock is checked to see if it is to the 000020 mark yet.
If it is, the sound routine is played and the program will
GOTO line 200, where it will end.
100 The ON G GOSUB command means, in effect, that if G
does not equal 0, the program will GOSUB 150, the be
ginning of the sound routine. This is actually a shortcut
in programming, for if this line was not included, lines
60-80 would each need a THEN GOSUB 150.
130-140 Change the direction of the moving character when it
reaches the end of the row. If this was deleted, the char
acter would keep moving off the screen.
145-160 Line 145 is the end of the program's main loop. It also
returns the program to line 50 for a repeat of tfie pro
gram. Lines 150 and 160 are the sound subroutine.
Notice that the value of F goes below 128, which auto
matically turns off the sound at the end of the loop. Line
160 also resets the value of G to 0 so the sound will not
keep repeating. Make sure the RETURN is included at
the end of every subroutine, so it will go back to the
main loop of the program.

You could easily insert other conditional statements to make

sounds at any number of events. One example would be creating
a sound each time the character reached the end of a line and
changed direction. All you have to do is eliminate lines 60-80 and
line 100 and add :GOSUB 150 to the end of both lines 130 and 140.
It should look like this:

125
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Sounds
and Music

Program 7-a Subroutine Sound #2

10 POKE 36878,15:POKE 36879,8
20 L=7680:H=83:TI$=II000000"
30 D=1:S=32:X=36876
40 PRINT "{CLR}"
50 POKE L,H:PRINT "{HOME}{5 DOWN}"TI$:REM
BEGIN MAIN LOOP
90 IF TI§="000020" THEN GOSUB 150:GOTO 20
0
110 IF D=l THEN L=L+1:POKEL-1,S
120 IF D=-l THEN L=L-1:POKEL+1,S
130 IF L=7701 THEN D=-l:GOSUB 150
140 IF L<7680 THEN D=1:GOSUB 150
145 GOTO 50:REM END OF MAIN LQOP
150 FOR F=255 TO 127 STEP -1:POKE X,F:NEX
T
160 G=0:RETURN
200 PRINT "{CLR}{5 DOWN} THE DEMO IS OVER
ii
• • •

Eliminating lines 60-80 stops the sound subroutine from exe

cuting every five seconds, and instead executes it only with the
GOSUB commands in lines 130 and 140. The soxmd still occurs at
the end of the program, when the clock reads 000020.
Experiment with the program to see what kind of changes
you can make to add more sounds. Spend some time with your
own game design, and decide if this kind of sound subroutine
will work in your game program.

INo-stop Subroutines
Although adding sound to your game by using subroutines does
stop the action for a short moment, it is a simple way to program.
Some games, however, would benefit from having sound which
does not cause the game action to stop. It is more difficult to add
sound using this technique, but it is often preferable to using sub
routines which halt a character every time they are executed.
Remember that each time a routine is added into a program's
main loop, the game action will slow down. Sometimes this will
have little or no effect on the game's appearance and play. Other
times it will be noticeable. Again, as game designer and program
mer, you must make the decision.
The example program which follows uses this subroutine
technique. The sound executes without stopping the game
action, and in fact is heard only when the two characters on the

126
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sounds
and Music

screen come in contact. One character moves randomly about the

screen, while the other is user-controlled through the keyboard.
The @ key moves the character up, the: key moves it to the left,
the = to the right, and the space bar moves it down.

Program 7-9. Sound Game

10 POKE 36878t15:POKE 36879,8
20 L=7680:M=7900:H=83:S=32:P=42:X=36876:N
=125
30 PRINT "{CLR}11
40 POKE L,H:POKE M,P:N=N-5:POKE X,N:REM B
EGIN MAIN LOOP
50 IF PEEK(197)=53 THEN M=M-22:POKE M+22,
S
60 IF PEEK(197)=46 THEN M=M+1:POKE M-l,S
70 IF PEEK(197)=45 THEN M=M-1:POKE M+1,S
80 IF PEEK(197)=32 THEN M=M+22:POKE M-22#
S
90 IF M>8185 THEN M=8185
100 IF M<7680 THEN M=7680
110 R=INT(RND(1)*4)
120 POKE L,S
130 IF R=0 THEN L=L-22
140 IF R=l THEN L=L+22
150 IF R=2 THEN L=L-1
160 IF R=3 THEN L=L+1
170 IF L>8185 THEN L=8185
180 IF L<7680 THEN L=7680
190 IF L=M THEN N=255
200 IF N<1 THEN N=125
300 GOTO 40:REM END MAIN LOOP

Program Explanation
Line Function
10 This program starts out much like the other examples in
this chapter. The screen is changed, and the volume is
set to the maximum level of 15.
20 Variables are set as follows:
L = starting location of randomly moving character
M = starting location of user-controlled character
H = POKE value for the random character
S =POKE value for a character space to erase any
previous images of moving characters
P=POKE value for user-controlled character
X = sound register value
N = tone value of the sound register. Note that this starts

127
7
Sounds
and Music

as less than 128 so that it cannot be heard. When you

want the sound to execute, you need only assign a
value higher than 128, which is done in line 190.
30-40 Clear the screen and POKE in the two characters at their
starting locations. The value of Nis also reduced by five.
This is necessary in the main loop when the sound is
called for. Although the value of N decreases by five
each time through the main loop, note that line 200
reestablishes N as 125 when its value falls below 1. This
prevents the VIC from trying to POKE a negative
number into location 36876. The sound register is then
set to tone N. Again, you won't hear this until the value
is greater than 128, so it will be silent at the beginning of
the program.
50-80 The keyboard is checked and the character moved
accordingly. The last portion of each line erases the
previous image.
90-100 Keep the user-controlled character on the screen.
110-170 Establish a value between 0 and 3 for R. The random
character moves according to which number was
chosen. This is a simple way to create random
movement. Line 120 erases the random character just
before it moves. The timing for POKEing in characters
and erasing them has an impact on how smoothly the
characters move. Lines 170 and 180 keep the random
character from leaving the screen.
190 The sound executes when the two characters meet; in
other words, when L = M. The value for N is then set to
255, the highest possible value. You will hear a descend
ing sound; each time the main loop is executed/ line 40
reduces N by five.
300 End the main loop and send the program back to line 40.

As with the other sound routines, it would be just as easy to

set up a modulating tone, or to insert a clock so that the sound
plays for a specified number of seconds before stopping. There
are a variety of sounds you can create and applications to use
them in.

I Mission: Nova! sounds

Using these techniques for sound subroutines, you can add
additional effects to the game program Mission: Nova! You

128
 7
Sounds
and Music

already have a background sound in the program's main loop,

and now you want to hear something when objects meet on the
screen. Not only will this add to the enjoyment of the game, but it
will also provide feedback as you play. You'll know certain things
are happening without having to visually check them every
moment.
To add sound subroutines to Mission: Nova!, you first have to
locate the lines which test for contact between objects on the
screen. This is done in the section of lines 700-730.
Line 700 tests to see if the starship is in contact with a small
star. If it is, your score decreases and the ship changes color.
Line 710 tests to see if the ship is on the large space station.
Remember that your ship is then renewed and brought back up to
full power.
Line 720 tests to find out if the spacecraft is on the small space
station. Nothing is awarded for this in the game.
Line 730 tests for the only remaining possibility, that the
spacecraft is in contact with a large, nova star. Points are given for
this.
You'll want four separate sound effects, then, for these four
possibilities. Each sound should somehow indicate a positive or
negative result during the game, providing player feedback.
Obviously, then, four sound subroutines are necessary.
All four lines must include a GOSUB command so that the
VIC refers to the proper sound subroutine. They could look like
this:
700 IF W=46 THEN P=P-100:NC=NC+1:GOSUB 11
00:RETURN
710 IF W=102 THEN NC=CS:W=104:GOSUB 1200:
RETURN
720 IF W=104 THEN GOSUB 1250:RETURN
730 P=P+(8*NH)*INT(QQ-Q):W=46:GOSUB 1150:
RETURN

■ Note that each GOSUB is placed before the RETURN

command.
Now the separate sound subroutines can be written and
placed at the end of the program.

Program 710. Small Star Collision

1100 POKE 36878,10
1110 POKE 36877,200
1120 FOR ET=1 TO 100:NEXT
1130 POKE 36878,0:POKE 36877,0:RETURN

129
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Sounds
and Music

Program 7-10 creates a short buzz or zap sound to indicate that

points have been lost and your starship has been damaged. The
noise register is used and a short delay is added so that the sound
can be heard. After that, both the volume and noise registers are
turned off, so they won't interfere with other sound effects later.
Notice the RETURN command at the end of line 1130. It must be
included to send the program back to line 700.

Program 7-11. Meeting the Large Space Station

1200 POKE 36878,10
1210 Sl=36876
1220 FOR SY=128 TO 255
1230 POKE S1,SY:NEXT
1240 POKE 35878,0:POKE SI,0:RETURN

As the spaceship meets a large space station, this subroutine

plays a quick scale, using the high tone register. Because it rises
from the lowest to the highest tone, it sounds like something fill
ing up, which is what the station does for the starship, returning it
to its original power level.
Again, the volume level is set, values for the high tone regis
ter and its tones established, and then POKEd in. Finally, the vol
ume and high tone registers are turned off, and the subroutine
RETURNS to line 710.

program 712. Landing on the small space Station

1250 POKE 36878,10
1260 FOR SMT=1 TO 5:NEXT
1270 FOR SMY=250 TO 240
1280 POKE 36876,SMY:NEXT
1290 POKE 36876,0
1295 POKE 36878,0:RETURN

Since there is no effect when the spacecraft touches the small

space station, this blip sound will work well. However, a sound is
useful, if only to tell the player that the small station does not give
the spacecraft an increase in power, as the large station does.
Program 7-12 is very similar to the Blip routine used earlier in
the chapter. The volume is set, as are variables for the short delay
and the sliding tones. Then the high tone and volume registers
are turned off, and the subroutine RETURNS to line 720.

Program 7-13. Meeting a Nova Star

1150 POKE 36878,10
1160 LS=36876

130
 7
sounds
and Music

1170 FOR LY=128 TO 255 STEP 2

1180 POKE LS,LY:NEXT
1190 POKE 36878,0:POKE LS,0:RETURN

Program 7-13 creates a sound almost identical to the one used

when the spaceship lands on the large space station. The major
difference is that in line 1170, the STEP 2 command is included.
This simply shortens the sound to half of what it was in the large
space station subroutine. Again, the sound is one of filling up, be
cause points are awarded. Making it only half as long fits in well
with the game, for it is less beneficial to the player. Points are
awarded, true, but the ship remains at the same power level.
Adding these subroutines to the game program does increase
the player's enjoyment. Note the difference in the game after
you've added these routines. It should be more exciting, more
entertaining, and easier to play with sound.

I Make use of sound

As you've seen, sound can make a program more complex. It
also complicates your decision-making process as you determine
what kind of game you want to create and what sound effects you
want to use. Yet it is worth the time and the effort to include
sound, simply for the impact it has on a game. A game without
sound is simply not a game to most players. Something vital is
missing.
You have several techniques available to you as you plan the
sound for your game. Background sound or music can be used,
or a subroutine can be inserted into the main program. Action can
stop for a moment when sound is played, or it can continue,
depending on the complexity of the program.

131
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o
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G
G
introductions,
instructions,
and Farewells
Q
O
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o
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o
o
o
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G
G
G
 8
introductions,
instructions,
and Farewells
Introductions, instructions, and farewells add an element that
every player appreciates, another dimension to the game world
youVe created. Just like sound effects or custom characters,
they are not absolutely necessary, but without them your game
will seem pale and one-dimensional. Introductions and farew<ells
make the game more interesting, entertaining a player while a
screen display is set up, or providing incentive to play again for a
higher score at game's end. Without instructions, a player could
be confused or frustrated at the outset while trying to discover
cursor directions, scoring procedures, or the goals of the game.
Even though introductions and instructions appear at the
opening of a game, this part of game design is best approached
after your program has been written. It is only then that you know
the amount of remaining memory available for these extras.
Through the constant changing and revising of your program, it
is probably not until this point that you know exactly how your
game will appear. Of course, there are exceptions, for you may
have your design well-outlined before you begin to program.

I Memory
After your program is completed, and before the introductions
and instructions are written, you have to find out how much
memory is still available. This is important with the unexpanded
VIC, for its 3583 available bytes can be quickly used in a program
with a custom character set, sound effects, and animation. It is
little use to create a complex introduction, with involved music
and graphics, if it will not run because of memory limitations. At
times you'll be forced to use every available byte, for you may
have only several hundred bytes left after the program. You need
an accurate idea of what you have to work with.
After you have your program written and loaded, use the

135
8
introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

command PRINT FRE(O) to find out how much memory is avail

able. If you have a small amount to work with, use the command
frequently, checking as you get closer and closer to the end of
memory. It could save you considerable anguish.

I introductions
Introductions can take many forms and shapes. Perhaps you
want another sound effect, or a short piece of music, to entertain
the players while they wait for the game screen to set up. If the
memory is available, a brief description of the game situation can
be inserted. This can heighten the player's involvement in the
world youVe created. At the very least, you'll want to display the
title before the game begins.
Since you've already written your program, you probably
won't be able to place the introduction at the beginning without
renumbering the entire program. A simple way to solve this prob
lem is to place the introduction in a subroutine that is called by
the first line of the program. In the sample game from Chapter 6,
Mission: Nova!, it would look like this:
5GOSUB1300
The program would then move to the subroutine and execute the
introduction, returning to the opening of the program. The fol
lowing example subroutine can be inserted into the Mission:
Nova! program to serve as an introduction.

Program 8-1. introduction

1300 PRINT "{CLR}":POKE 36879,122
1305 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{4 RIGHT}{BLK}MISSION
: NOVA I"
1310 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}{BLU}MANEUVER
{SPACE}YOUR STAR"
1315 PRINT "{RIGHT}SHIP ACROSS THE"
1320 PRINT "{RIGHT}GALAXY."
1325 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}AVOID THE STAR
S AND"
1330 PRINT "{RIGHT}REFUEL AT NOVAS."
1335 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}LAND AT THE SP
ACE"
1340 PRINT "{RIGHT}STATION FOR FULL"
1345 PRINT "{RIGHT}POWER."
1350 PRINT "{4 DOWN}{RIGHT}HIT ANY KEY"
1355 GET A$:IF A$="" THEN 1355

136
 8
introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

As the program runs, notice that the screen changes color.

This is a nice effect achieved simply by POKEing a different value
into location 36879. The only thing to be careful of, however, is
that the screen will still display your words. If the screen back
ground color is the same as the character color, the words will
seem invisible.
It is also simple to change the character color of the title, as is
done in the above sample subroutine in line 1305. Again, it may
be difficult to see the different color unless youVe chosen one
considerably different from the background. Experimenting with
several variations takes only a little time and cannot harm your
program. To turn the character color back to the original, simply
insert the proper keystrokes within the next PRINT statement. In
line 1310 this is done by hitting the [control] and [blue] keys at the
same time.
Since the VICs screen is relatively small, only 23 lines by 22
columns, it's a good idea to double-space between each line, or
between short paragraphs, as is done in the sample subroutine.
This makes it easier to read. Notice, too, that the lines are justified
on the left. This can be done several ways. First of all, you can just
print the lines from the leftmost column. Sometimes, if you have
short lines, you will want to indent. You can use the cursor com
mands within the quotation marks, or you can use the TAB com
mand to indent every line the same distance. The statement
PRINT TAB(1)"MANEUVER YOUR STAR"

would print the line one column from the left, in the second col
umn. You could replace line 1310 in the sample subroutine with
this line, for instance.
Although you have only one screen so far, often you'll use a
lengthy introduction, with several screens of print. Instead of
scrolling the introduction or printing it one line at a time at a slow
speed, it may be easier to display each screen full of print
separately. At the end of each screen, as in Program 8-1, you could
add the line:

PRINT "HIT ANY KEY"

followed by:

GET A$:IF A$ ="" THEN XXX

where XXX is the line number of the GET A$ command.

This will hold the screen until the player presses a key, then

137
8
introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

will display the next screen. At the end of the PRINT statements
for the last screen, be sure to include a RETURN command.
Our sample subroutine takes up only one screen so far. If that
is all you're using, to return to the game program you need only
add a line such as this:
1346 FOR 11 =0 TO 5000:NEXT:RETURN

and eliminate lines 1350 and 1355.

The delay is to give the player enough time to read the intro
duction. If your introduction is longer or shorter, you can alter the
delay loop accordingly.
Adding sound is quite easy. Before the program RETURNS,
insert the POKE statements for whatever effect you want. The
sound will then play before the game begins and while the intro
duction is still on the screen. You can include several effects if
memory is still available.

I instructions
Depending on the memory still left, you may be restricted to
using a short introduction in order to include instructions. Of the
two, the instructions are more important to the player's under
standing of the game. At the very least, you'll want to tell the
player how to move user-controlled characters. If it's a joystick-
controlled game, a note that a joystick is needed would be suffi
cient. If the keyboard is used to control the character, more expla
nation is necessary.

Program 8-2. instructions

1360 PRINT n{CLR}{3 DOWN}{RIGHT}HIT F5 KE
Y FOR 'UP'"
1370 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}HIT F7 KEY FOR
1 DOWN'"
1380 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}HIT COMMODORE
{SPACE}KEY"
1390 PRINT "{RIGHT}FOR 'LEFT111
1400 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}HIT SHIFT KEY
{SPACE}FOR"
1410 PRINT "{RIGHT}'RIGHT'"
1415 PRINT "{3 DOWN}{RIGHT}HIT ANY KEY"
1420 GET A$:IF A$="" THEN 1420

If the keys are not next to each other, this may be the best way
to tell the player which keys move the character each direction.
Note that the GET A$ statement is used again to hold the screen

138
 8
introductions, instn ctlons,
and Farewells

until the player is ready to continue.

Your game may use keys that are placed next to each other on
the keyboard. For example, your game may use a diamond-
shaped pattern for character control. If thafs the case, then you
may want to display something like Figure 8-1 on the screen,
showing the corresponding directions and making it easier for
the player to understand.

Figure 8-1. Keyboard Display

H or

V /

The TAB command makes it easy to set up a screen like this

by positioning the lines of explanation in the right place.
Scoring is another item you may want to include in the in
structions. Every player wants to know how points are scored, by
what criteria, and toward what goal. These instructions do not
have to be lengthy, as the following routine for Mission: Nova!
shows:

Program 8-3. More instructions

1430 PRINT "{CLR}{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}SCORE POI
NTS BY"
1440 PRINT "{RIGHT}REFUELING AT NOVAS"
1445 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}POINTS DEDUCTE
D FOR"
1450 PRINT "{RIGHT}CRASHING INTO STARS"
1455 PRINT "{RIGHTjAND TAKING YOUR TIME"
1460 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}YOU CAN CRASH
{SPACE}INTO"
1465 PRINT "{RIGHT}ONLY SIX STARS"
1470 PRINT "{RIGHT}BEFORE LANDING ON"
1475 PRINT "{RIGHTjTHE SPACE STATION."
1480 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}THE GAME ENDS"
1485 PRINT "{RIGHTjWHEN YOUR SHIP'S"

139
8
introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

1490 PRINT "{RIGHT}POWER IS GONE."

1495 PRINT "{3 DOWN}{RIGHT}HIT KEY TO STA
RT."
1496 GET A?:IF A$="" THEN GOTO 1496
1497 RETURN

If your game is quite complex, more than one screenful of

print may have to be seen by the player. Again, the GET A$ state
ment lets the player read at his or her own pace, then move on.
Note that at the end of this routine, in line 1497, the RETURN
statement finally appears, sending the program to begin the
game's screen setup.

Setting Difficulty
At times, you'll want to allow the player to set the level of diffi
culty in the game. If your game lends itself to this, a player can be
gin at the easiest level and progress to the more difficult. A game
such as Tempest, which lets the player choose the starting level, is
a good example. It will seem that there are actually several games
in one if the levels are considerably different. An ideal place to do
this is in the instructions, before the game begins. The INPUT or
INPUT #1 commands can be used to do this.
Again, a subroutine called at the program's outset is one way
to do this. The game "Spark" from Chapter 6 is one in which
levels could be set using the statement:
5CLR:GOSUB800
and the following subroutine:

Program 8-4. spark Levels

800 PRINT "{CLR}":POKE 36879,122
810 PRINT "{3 DOWN}{RIGHT}{BLU}CHOOSE LEV
EL OF PLAY"
820 PRINT "{RIGHT}BY HITTING KEY:"
830 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}1"TAB(8)"EASIES
m '•

840 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}2"TAB(8)"HARDER

it

850 PRINT "{2 DOWN}{RIGHT}3"TAB(8)"DIFFIC

ULT":PRINT:PRINT:PRINT
860 OPEN 1,0
870 INPUT#1,A$:CLOSE 1,0
880 IF A$="l" THEN P=300:RETURN
890 IF A$="2" THEN P=200:RETURN
900 IF A$="3" THEN P=100:RETURN

140
 8
introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

Line Function
800 Clear the screen and POKE in a screen color change.
810-850 Print the instructions for setting the different levels of
play. Note the [control] [blue] keystroke in line 810. This
sets the character color back to blue. The program will
alter the character color after it has run once if this is
omitted.
860 Used to create the INPUT #1 command in the next line so
that a ? prompt will not appear on the screen.
870 The INPUT #1 command delays the program until the
player provides a response. This command is very useful
when asking for information from the player. The
CLOSE #1,0 statement completes the instruction begun
in line 860.
880-900 Test for the number pressed by the player, and then set
the value of P accordingly. P is the time remaining before
the game ends. In other words, the most difficult level
begins with less time for the player to complete the
game. Notice that each line has a RETURN statement at
its end. The program then moves back to line 5, and the
game program begins setting up its screen.

As you program more involved games, you'll find uses for

this method of setting levels of difficulty. Even if you are now
designing a game that does not lend itself to this, keep it in mind
for later.

I Farewells
Assuming that memory is available, the final addition to your
game should be a farewell, or end routine. As with the introduc
tions and instructions, this can be as elaborate or simple as you
want. Some farewells are strictly entertaining, nudging the player
back into the game, persuading the player to try it again, perhaps
just to see the end routine. Other farewells are more informative,
giving the final score, showing a high score, ranking the player, or
asking if another game is wanted. Just as with the introductions
and instructions, you can insert this as a subroutine.
A simple farewell, which records the final score, prints a
short message, and allows the player to begin a new game, would
take only a few lines in a program. In the example game Spark,
the score was assigned the variable P in the program. If the player

141
8
introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

won, the user-controlled character exited the maze, and the game
was over. Running out of time caused P to equal 0, and so ended
the game. There were only two possible ways to end. Placing a
GOTO command at both program lines could be done this way:
170 IF CHG < 4 THEN GOTO 610

and

330 IF P =0 THEN GOTO 600

When the character exits the maze, then, the program shifts
to line 610. If the player loses the game by running out of time, the
program goes to line 600. At that point, the following routine
could be used:

Program 8-5. Spark End

600 PRINT:PRINT "TOO LATEl{2 SPACESjSCORE
IS 0":GOTO 620
610 PRINT:IF P>0 THEN PRINT "YOU MADE IT1
[2 SPACES}SCORE IS":PRINT P
620 PRINT "{2 DOWN}TO PLAY AGAIN, HIT ANY
KEY."
625 POKE 198,0
630 GET A$:IF A$="" THEN 630
640 GOTO 5

Line Function
600 Print the message that the player ran out of time and
scored 0 points. The first PRINT command is used to
force the message to print below the maze. Program
then shifts to line 620.
610 If P > 0, then the player has won and this message is
printed on the screen, along with the final score.
620 Drop two lines to display the message allowing the
player to try again.
625 This POKE is necessary to clear the keyboard buffer of
any characters typed in during the preceding game. If
this is omitted, the next line will execute immediately, for
the VIC will read the buffer and assume a key was
pressed for line 630.
630 GET A$ simply waits for a key to be pressed by the
player before continuing.
640 Return the program to the beginning. Notice that the
player is returned to the level-setting routine, so that the
level of difficulty can be changed.

142
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introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

A more complex end routine could include sound, as well as

display a final score and ask the player whether another game is
wanted. Inserting sound into an end routine can be difficult at
times, depending on how your game program is organized and
where you want the sound to play. One way to create sound in an
end routine is by using READ and DAIA statements. The game
Mission: Nova! could use this technique, and the routine could
appear as:

8-6. Nova! Bid

900 POKE 36878,15:RESTORE
910 READ N1,D1:X=7+7*(X=7):POKE CM+C,X:IF
N1=0 THEN 930
920 POKE 36874,N1:FOR EI=1 TO 150*D1:NEXT
:POKE 36874,0:FOR EI=1 TO 20:GOTO 910
930 PRINT "{CLRr'P11 POINTS" :PRINT:PRINT"P
RESS ANY KEY TO{2 SPACES}PLAYAGAIN"
940 FOR 1=0 TO 3000:A=PEEK(197):IF A<>64
{SPACE}THEN:GOSUB 450:GOTO 280
945 NEXT I:END
950 DATA 191,4,191,3,191,1,191,4,201,3,19
9,1,199,3,191,1,191,3,188,1,191,4,0,0

Line Function
900 Set the volume register to maximum.
910 The values in the READ statement are set and the space
ship is flashed by the POKE CM + C,X. IF Nl = 0 (the
sound register is then turned off), the music ends and
the program shifts to line 930.
920 POKEs the high tone register with the values in the
DAIA statement in line 950, and holds the tones at vary
ing lengths (El = 1 TO 150*Dl). The program then moves
back to line 910 to READ the next values in the DAIA
statement.
930 Print final score and ask the player whether another
game is to be played.
940 The delay allows the player time to decide if he or she
wants to play another game. If so, the PEEK command
reads the keyboard and sends the program to the appro
priate lines. If another game is not wanted, the program
will end in line 945 after the delay.
950 The DAIA statement creates the dirge music which plays
at the end of a game.

143
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introductions, instructions,
and Farewells

I Design Notes
Programming introductions, instructions, and farewells can be
challenging and exciting, for each addition to your game will
make it that much more professional in appearance, as well as
more playable and entertaining. As long as the memory is avail
able, use it to your advantage to enhance your game. Although
we've considered a number of different concepts to include in
your game introductions, instructions and farewells, there are a
few more suggestions for your use.
Be personal. If the player is asked to INPUT his or her name
and then sees it printed in the instructions, or even beside the
user-controlled character, the player will be drawn deeper into the
game's world. Within the farewell, the player's name could also
be printed alongside the final score. These human touches add to
any game, as you've probably noticed when you've played video
arcade games.
Make use of the color abilities of the VIC. Changing screen
colors certainly adds to the game, but reversed or colored char
acters will add even more, especially in the introduction and in
structions. With memory available, you can alter the screen and
character colors with every new screen display.
Urge the player to play another game by including a friendly
ending. It doesn't have to be something cute, just enough to make
another game worth the time. Proclaim the player's victory, hand
out promotions or rankings. Your imagination as the game de
signer can come into play here. Creativity is what makes one
game stand above all others.
Your game program is almost completed. You've gone from
the idea to writing the end routine. There are a few more things to
consider, however, in the next chapters.

144
The Shape
of the Came
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 9
The Shape of
the Game
We've gone through most of the techniques you'll need to
create your own games. Now all you really need to do is hack
through the actual programming. The word "hack" is pretty
accurate for most of our programming. No matter how logical you
are, chances are pretty good that the computer is even more logi
cal, and you'll write many a routine that should work — but
doesn't. At least I certainly program that way sometimes, like a
clumsy woodcutter taking one hack after another until finally he
splits the log.
And it works. Eventually, even the most stubborn program
ming problem will yield to your constant work.
There are ways you can make things easier for yourself, and
in the meantime make your programs run as smoothly and
quickly as possible. However, the programming techniques in
this chapter are not "rules" — the/re just advice. Good advice, I
think, that has helped me in my programming, but remember:
any game that plays well is a good game, even if the programming
isn't pretty. So don't be concerned if you fudge a bit here and
there. If it works, it's correct.

I Program structure
In most of the programs in this book, I've tried to structure my
code with three purposes in mind:
1. Make it easy to understand.
2. Make it run fast.
3. Use up the least possible memory.

Ease of understanding
Why should you make your programs easy to follow? After all,
you're writing a game for yourself, not example programs in a
book. Nobody's ever going to see your programming, just the
results.
There's one exception. You.
You will look at your program again and again. Sometimes

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there'll be days, weeks, or months between programming ses

sions. You'll look at your own program then and wonder what in
the world is going on. You'll forget where the value of obscure
variables was set. YouTl forget why line 55 had to come before
GOSUB 590. You'll forget that there are three different ways to get
into the routine at 400.
That's inevitable. It happens to everybody. And you can't pre
vent it entirely. What you can do, though, is follow several simple
programming rules.
Establish patterns and habits. Start routines on even hun
dred lines —100,200,300,400, and so on. That way you'll be able
to look at an entire routine just by typing LIST 300-399. Some
times I bend this rule by starting a very short routine at an even
fifty — 450 or 550. And in this book I have sometimes put at line
990 a single-line loop that is used many, many times throughout a
program. For instance, a loop that reads the keyboard and waits
for the player to press a key.
The important thing is to have habits. For instance, in this
book you always know that if I have a GOSUB or GOTO 100,200,
300,400, and so on, the program is going to a main routine. You
can quickly scan through each routine, see what each one does,
and then know instantly which routine is being called at each
GOSUB and GOTO. You know that if a GOSUB or GOTO ends in
50, it's a small routine. A GOSUB or GOTO a line ending in 90 is a
one-line routine called many, many times.
Of course, you may prefer to develop different programming
customs. But whatever habit you follow, the more consistent you
are, the more easily you'll be able to follow your own programs.
Put similar things together. If all your collision handling rou
tines are located together, you won't have to spend half an hour
poring over your program to find out where a particular collision
is taken care of. You'll know that it's between 700 and 799. If all
your DIM statements are in the first line of the program, then
you'll never have to hunt around to find out why you're getting a
BAD SUBSCRIPT error.
This principle extends even to tiny matters. If you're creating
variables to control ten different onscreen figures, why not give
their location in screen memory and in color memory and their
color value and character code the same variable name? In "Moon-
raker" I used L for my player-figure's location and LI, L2, L3, L4,
and so on for the computer-controlled figures. An even better
practice might be to use arrays: L(n) is the address of the screen

148
 The Shape
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location of each of the ten figures; CL(n) is their address in color

memory; FG(n) is the character to be POKEd to the screen; and
C(n) is the color to be POKEd into color memory.
You can even use M(n) to hold the number that should be
added to L(n) for each computer-controlled character's move
ment. The variable S(n) can hold each figure's new starting
address. And E(n) can hold the ending address.
Think how easily and economically you can program all the
movements then. Line 300 starts the loop and erases each figure
at the old location in screen and color memory:
300 FOR I =0 TO 9:POKE L(I),32:POKE CL(I),OC

Line 310 changes the locations:

310 L(I) =L(I) +M(I):CL(I) =CL(I) +M(I)

Line 320 checks for collisions with the player-figure and checks to
see if the figure has reached the end of its journey:
320 ON -(PEEK(L(I)) =FG) -2*(L(D =E(I) )GOSUB 400,490
Line 330 actually carries out the movement by POKEing the
figures onto the screen in the new locations:
330 POKE L(I),FG(I):POKE CL(I),C(I):NEXT

Vital parts of this are the subroutines at 400 and 490. Since we
haven't created an entire program here, I won't try to create the
collision subroutine, but the routine at 400 would need to change
the score, decide whether the player-figure should win or lose the
encounter, and assign new addresses, if necessary, to both the
player-figure and the computer-controlled figure.
We can be more specific with the miniroutine at 490. Remem
ber that the program only reaches this line if the figure's screen
location matches its ending location. Therefore, all we need is:
490CL(I) =CL(I) -(L(I) -S(I) ):L(I) =S(I):RETURN

And that's it. By giving all your onscreen figures the same
name, with subscripts, you can assign all their values in loops
using DAIA statements, and you can handle their movements
and their collisions in a single routine. You have saved memory,
you have probably saved running time, but above all you have
kept the routine simple and easy to follow.
Label your work. Just because you're using a computer
doesn't mean you can't write things down on paper. It's a good
idea to keep a list of what each variable is used for in each pro
gram you work on. That way you won't accidentally use a variable

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youVe already got doing something else somewhere else in the

program.

You can write down where each major subroutine is. You can
write down key line numbers or areas where you plan to put
subroutines.
Most important of all, however, is simply to label your tapes
and disks, both externally and internally. There's nothing more
frustrating than working for hours on a program only to realize
that the version you're working on is not the most recent one, that
all of the improvements from your last programming session are
saved somewhere else. I've made it a habit to put the date at the
beginning of my program. Some people put the date in REM
statements, so you'll see it when you LIST the program. I put it
right in a PRINT statement, so the date of this version will be
flashed on the screen. That way I can keep track of which version
of my game I am working on.

Programming for Speed

With game playing, it is not real speed that is important, but the
illusion of speed. The game has to feel fast. A game with figures
that only inch along the screen can feel fast to the player as long as
his own player-figure responds quickly and moves fairly fast.
This means that your program, to feel fast, should check for
player input as often as possible, and should have as few things
as possible happen between player-figure movements.
The main loop. The key is to keep the main loop as tight as
possible. The fewer things the program has to do every time it
goes through the loop, the better. The main loop is really there
just to perform tests, to see what should happen next.
You keep the main loop tight by testing for minimal condi
tions and then jumping to subroutines to check the details. Many
things can be kept out of the main loop entirely. For instance, col
lisions should almost never be checked in the main loop. Why?
Because collisions can only happen when something moves into
the same space as something else. Therefore, why check for colli
sions unless something has moved? Collision checking always
belongs in movement loops.
Main loops generally need to do the following:
• Check the timer for all timed events (a timer countdown,
regular screen changes, etc.).
• Check the keyboard or joystick for the player's instructions.
• Control the computer-controlled figures' actions.
• Control any continuing background sound.

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Be selective. That's a short list, but it can still be far too long.
To keep up the illusion of speed, you need to be selective — not all
those things need to happen every time through the loop.
For instance, suppose you wanted to control the ten
computer-figures whose movement we just programmed. In
stead of putting them in a FOR-NEXT loop and moving all ten of
them every time, why not access 300 as a subroutine with a ran
dom value? If the main loop contained this line, you'd get a very
interesting effect:
1201 =INT(RND(9)*10):GOSUB 300

With this line as the only access to the computer-controlled fig

ures, only one computer-figure will move each time the player-
figure has a chance to move. There won't be such a long delay be
tween the player-figure's movements. Even though each
computer-controlled figure moves in the same pattern every time,
you never know which one will move next. The computer-figures
will actually move much more slowly, but because the player-
figure will move faster and the computer-figures will be more ran
dom, the game will feel much faster and more exciting.
Use a single timer. If you try to control lots of events using a
separate timer, you'll fill up your main loop with statements like
A = A + l:IFA>10 THEN A =0:GOSUB 500. Every arithmetic
operation slows down your program, and so does every IF state
ment. Why not share a single timer?
Let's say you have three events to control. Subroutines 500
and 700 should happen only rarely; subroutine 800 must happen
often; and subroutine 900 has to happen every other time
through the main loop. That timer variable A can do triple duty:
120 A = A +1:ON A GOSUB 900,700,900,800,900,500,900,800:1?
A =8 THEN A =0

There it is — one mathematical operation and one GOSUB each

time through the loop. Subroutines 700 and 500 will be executed
only once in every eight passes through the main loop. Subrou
tine 800 will be executed twice as often, and subroutine 900 will
be executed every second pass. Yet a single handler accesses them
all.
This kind of timer routine, however, is not regular. Anything
that stops the main loop from executing will also delay those sub
routines. A missile firing or a collision that stops the action will
also keep line 120 from executing, so it will be longer before the
next action occurs. Regular movements (like the scrolling of the

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screen in our Mission: Nova! game) and countdowns that should

reflect realtime must be controlled using the TI$ function.
Remember, though, not to use equal signs with 11$. For instance,
this line could be a disaster:
IF VAL(TI$) =7 THEN TI$ ="000000":GOSUB 500
What's wrong with it? Well, TI$ will have a value of 7 for only
a second. What if this line executes once when TI$ = 6, but then
the program happens to carry out a time-consuming collision
routine before the next pass through the main loop? TI$ will have
a value of 9 or 10 by then, so this line will never execute again. In
stead, you'll want to use this statement:
IF VAL(TI$)> 6THENTI$ ="000000":GOSUB 500

Now, whether TI$ is 7 or 70, this line will snag the program and
send it out to 500 at nearly the right time.
Stop the action. Sometimes you can stop the action com
pletely to carry out some task, and the player won't feel that the
game has been slowed down at all. For instance, when the player-
figure collides with something, you can stop for an elaborate colli
sion routine, with animation and sounds, and the player won't
feel like it slows down the game — it will actually make it more ex
citing, and it will feel faster. Likewise, when the player fires a
missile, or when an opposing figure first comes on the screen,
you can take some time with it.
Stopping the action is fine; what you must avoid is a long
time-lag between the player giving an instruction and the player-
figure carrying it out. If the player is getting a quick response dur
ing the action phases of the game, you can take as long as you like
in the other sections.

Memory: The upper Limit

Ifs going to happen to you: you'll be working at your game, you'll
type in a line, and all of a sudden the OUT OF MEMORY error
will flash on the screen. What can you do?
There are three primary solutions:
1. Buy more memory.
2. Chain your program.
3. Crunch your program.

Buying memory. This is a financial decision, of course. I can

promise you that your life will be easier with more memory in
your VIC, but you can still program some excellent games with no

152
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The Shape
of the Game

additional memory. Remember, though, that when you get any

thing more than the 3K expander, certain key memory locations
change. In this book I've almost always used relocatable code: the
program does not assume that screen and color memory are in a
certain place, but rather finds out where they are. Even if you
don't plan to get more memory anytime soon, it's a good idea to
write programs that will adapt themselves to whatever memory
setup they might find. After all, you may change your mind six
months from now and buy more memory, and then you'd have to
go back and change all your programs to fit.
Chaining programs. Chaining means that you LOAD and
RUN only part of your program, and that part of the program
contains instructions to automatically LOAD and RUN the next
part.
When a program is being LOADed, any old program is com
pletely erased. However, any values POKEd by the old program
will stay in place until the power is turned off or the new program
changes them. That means that you could write your game in two
parts. Part 1 would contain the instructions and all the character
set DATA. Once the instructions were through and the character
set was in place, you would end Part 1 with this command:
PRINT " {CLEAR }LOADING PART 2":POKE 631,131:POKE
198,1

Be sure, though, that you don't put anything in Part 1 that

you will want to RUN again in Part 2 — a screen-drawing subrou
tine in Part 1 just won't be there where you can get to it during
Part 2.
Crunching. Without chaining or buying more memory, you
can still pack a lot more program into the unexpanded VIC than
you might suppose. All you need to dp is crunch your program —
remove excess bytes.
Which bytes are excess?
• Spaces between words. Almost the only places where you
need to leave spaces are at the ends of numeric variable names
and within messages that will be PRINTed on the screen. To the
VIC, these two lines are exactly the same:
FOR I =9 TO 16 STEP 5: GET A$: IF A$ <> 45 THEN GOSUB 500:
NEXT
FORI =9TO16STEP5:GETA$:IFA$ <> 45THENGOSUB500:NEXT

Each space you leave out is one byte saved. The trouble is, it
makes the program harder to read.

153
9
The Shape
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• REM statements. REMs are nice because they help you label
what's going on in sections of a program — they make it easier for
you or someone else to understand what your program is doing.
But when you're dealing with limited memory, REMs are all
expendable.
• Multiple statements per line. Each new line number is extra
bytes used up in memory. You can save some memory by putting
several statements per line, separated by colons (:). However,
remember that everything on a line after an IF statement will be
executed only if the condition is true. However, anything after an
ON-GOSUB statement will be executed whether the condition is
true or not. Anything on a line after an unconditional GOTO will
never be executed at all.
• Use short variable names. Since the first two characters of a
variable name are all that count, you might as well use only those
two characters and save bytes.
• Change numbers to variables. Numbers take several bytes
to store in memory, because the computer reserves enough mem
ory for each number to store large numbers in that space. Thus a 0
uses up as much memory as 33999. However, a short variable
takes up less space. Remember that you have to use up some
bytes assigning a value to the variable — A = 55. That statement
takes up some bytes, too, so you'll only save memory by assigning
variable names to numbers that are used more than once. The
most commonly used numbers are 0 and 1 — it's often a good idea
to use ZO and Zl or NO and Nl as the variable names for these
numbers.
• Use arrays, loops, and ON. The program used as an exam
ple in the discussion of speed also saves memory because of the
use of an array. You can do ten operations in a single FOR-NEXT
loop instead of using ten separate lines. You can make five tests
on a single ON statement instead of using five separate IF state
ments. By programming carefully, you can develop tighter code.
• Trim introductions and farewells. Important as they are,
introductions, instructions, and farewell comments do eat up
bytes. You may have to choose between having a really explicit in
troduction and having some important features in a game.
Remember that you can often give the same amount of informa
tion in fewer words.
• Use subroutines for any operation performed more than
oncee. If you have line after line that does almost the same thing
except that a few numbers are different, you might consider using

154
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TheShape
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a subroutine for the meat of the operation, and having each of the
other lines set variable values and access that subroutine in order
to perform the operation. This can sometimes slow down a game
by adding extra GOSUBs and implied LETs, but if you're up
against the end of memory, you sometimes have no choice.
• Don't use redefined characters. If you can make do with the
built-in character set, you will save hundreds of bytes.
• Delete features. Sometimes a feature just isn't going to fit in
an unexpanded VIC. If you can't or don't want to expand mem
ory, you may just have to accept a limitation on what your game
can include.
After all this talk of crunching memory, it's good to remember
this: there are a lot of fantastic games that run on the unexpanded
VIC. Yours can be one of them.

155
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
Missiles and
"Moonraker
Q
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
G
o
o
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
 10
Missiles and
"Moonraker
There is a kind of figure that is partly under the player's control
and partly under the computer's. When a baseball player in a
videogame throws the ball, the player might control when the
ball is released and the angle at which it is thrown, but rarely will
the player control the ball's actual trajectory, its path across the
screen. That is almost always controlled by the computer.
The same thing happens with missiles in Asteroids, bombs
and bullets in Scramble, the juggler's ball in Mr. Do, and the air
hose in Dig-Dug. They all seem to emerge from the player-figure,
but once they are launched, their path and the distance they
travel are usually controlled by the computer.
The principle of firing missiles is simple enough: when the
player presses the joystick button or a designated key on the key
board, the program jumps to a missile subroutine. A missile-
figure is put on the screen one character away from the player-
figure in the direction in which the player is shooting, then the
missile is moved across the screen as far as you want it to go.
In machine language games, the missile is moved in steps
along with the player-figure, so that the player-figure can keep
going after it shoots. In BASIC, however, it is usually better to let
the whole game freeze until the shot is completed. That way
when the other objects on the screen move at all, they move as
quickly as ever. Trying to move a missile along with everything
else will tend to slow down the program.

Add a Laser
Here are some lines to add to Program 6-2, "Mission: Nova!" If
you have added in the new lines for sound routines in Chapter 7
and for introductions and farewells in Chapter 8, this missile rou
tine won't fit in an unexpanded VIC. Just delete the introductory
display and you'll have no problem. If you have an expanded
VIC, you can add these lines directly to the full program.

159
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Missiles
and "Moonraker"

Program 10-1. Starshot

40 NH=7:NV=7:C=NH+NV*22:W=32:SS=102:CS=2:TS=0:DI=-

100 A=PEEK(653)AND7:B=PEEK(197):IF B<55 THEN GOSUB

300

285 IF NH<>OH THEN DI=H

300 IF (OH=0 AND DI=-l)0R(0H=21 AND DI=1) THEN RET

URN
305 MH=OH:MV=22*OV:BB=32:EM=0:IF DI>0 THEN EM=21
310 FOR I=MH+DI TO EM STEP DI:MM=SC+I+MV:X=PEEK(MM
):IF X<>32 THEN EM=I-DI:GOTO 330
315 POKE MM,70:NEXT
320 FOR I=MH+DI TO EM STEP DI:MM=SC+I+MV:POKE MM,B
B:NEXT I:RETURN

330 FOR 1=0 TO 7:POKE MM,77:POKE MM,93:POKE MM,78:

POKE MM,67:NEXT
340 IF X=46 THEN NN=81:BB=46:GOTO 370

350 IF X=81 THEN NN=46:P=P+(8*NV)*INT(QQ-Q)

360 IF X<>46 AND X<>81 THEN NN=104:P=P-1000
370 POKE MM,NN:GOTO 320

Line Function
40 Set the intial value of DI to -1, for a leftward shot.
100 If a key with a value less than 55 (f5) has been pressed,
jump to the subroutine at 300.
285 If a horizontal move has been made, set DI to show the
direction of the move. DI will therefore always show the
direction of the last horizontal movement — and this will
be the direction of the next laser shot.
300 If the player-figure is at the edge of the screen, shooting
off the edge, return without doing anything.
305 Set MV and MH to the current vertical and horizontal
location of the player-figure, plus one step in the direc
tion of the shot, so that the laser beam will appear be
side, not on top of, the player-figure. Then set EM to 0
for leftward shots, 21 for rightward shots.
310-315 If the next character in the direction of the shot is a blank
(32), POKE the laser character (70) into that place. If the
next character is not a blank, set EM to the last location
where a 70 was POKEd and jump to the explosion sub
routine at line 330.

160
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Missiles
and "Moonraker

320 Replace the laser with blanks (BB = 32) and return to the
main loop of the program.
330 Show an animated, twirling explosion.
340 If the laser hit a small star, turn it into a nova, but set BB
to 46, so that all the spaces between the player-figure and
the new nova are small stars. We wouldn't want the
player to rack up a million points by changing small stars
to novas and moving right over to them without any
obstacles.
350 If the laser hits a nova, add the appropriate number of
points and replace the nova with a small star.
360 If the laser hit anything else, change it to a used-up
space station (104) and subtract 1000 from the score. This
is because the only thing the laser can hit, besides a
blank, a small star, and a nova, is the space station itself.
Not the sort of thing that earns many points.
370 POKE the new character into place and go back to line
330 to erase the laser (or replace it with small stars).

A Missile version
If you don't like the continuous beam of the laser, it's a simple
matter to replace it with a missile. Basically, all you have to do is
erase the last missile character as soon as you POKE in the new
one. The tricky part with missiles is how to handle the end of their
flight. It has to be different if the flight ends with a collision or
simply with the edge of the screen. The virtue of this routine is
that it's very quick, very dartlike in its movement, in spite of being
in BASIC. This version still preserves the feature of not allowing
the player to change small stars right next to the ship into novas.
However, if you want to remove that feature, just replace line 340
with
340 IF X =46 THEN 380
Otherwise, use lines 40,100, and 285 from Program 10-1, and
replace lines 300-370 with this program:

Program 10-2. starshot with Missiles

300 IF (OH=0 AND DI=-1)OR(OH=21 AND DI=1) THEN RET
URN
305 MH=OH:MV=22*OV:BB=32:EM=0:IF DI>0 THEN EM=21

161
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Missiles
and'Moonraker

310 FOR I=MH+DI TO EM STEP DI:MM=SC+I+MV:X=PEEK(MM

):IF K>MH+DI THEN POKE MM-DI,32
315 IF X<>32 THEN EM=I:GOTO 330
320 POKE MM,70:NEXT:POKE MM, 32
325 RETURN
330 FOR 1=0 TO 7:POKE MM,77:POKE MM,93:POKE MM,78:
POKE MM,67:NEXT
340 IF X=46 THEN NN=46:IF EM<>MH+DI THEN 380
350 IF X=81 THEN NN=46:P=P+(8*NV)*INT(QQ-Q)
360 IF X<>46 AND X<>81 THEN NN=104:P=P-1000
370 POKE MM,NN:GOTO 325
380 NN=81:IF EM<>MH+DITHEN FOR I=EM TO MH+DI STEP
{SPACE}-DI:POKE SC+MV+I,46:NEXT:GOTO 390
385 POKE MM,46
390 GOTO 370

I Your First Game — and Mine

We've been through all the principles of programming arcade
games in BASIC on the VIC. Using other reference books, you'll
be able to pick up some more sophisticated programming tech
niques, and if you're serious about game design, you'll eventually
turn to machine language. But for now, you're certainly ready to
write a game. Your first attempt might be simple, but if you pro
gram it carefully, leaving plenty of line numbers for adding new
subroutines to improve the game, your first game will turn out
-pretty well. And with practice, you'll gain skill and confidence.
But no matter how good you eventually become, you'll prob
ably always feel kind of proud of your first game. I know I feel that
way about mine. //Moonraker" was the result of my first struggle
with game programming. It went through a lot of versions, but I
finally settled on this one.
There are some features of the game that reflect my situation
at the time. For one thing, I used POKE 36864,4 to move the
screen display to the right. I had to — my old TV didn't scan cor
rectly, and without that POKE I couldn't see the whole screen. In
fact, you might enjoy playing around with POKEs at 36864 to see
the effect it has. Try entering this one-line program and RUNning
it:
10 FOR X =0 TO 20:POKE 36864,X:NEXT:FOR
X =20 TO 0 STEP -1:POKE 36864,X:NEXT:GOTO 10

To get your screen back to normal, press RUN/STOP and then

POKE 36864,5.
, You'll notice that this program doesn't skip any line numbers.

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ancTMoonraker"

No, I didn't write it that way. I left plenty of extra line numbers
while I was programming. But when I was through, I used a line-
renumbering utility to tighten down my program.
Since I was using an unexpanded VIC, I used 7680 directly as
the starting address of screen memory. I also found that I was
running out of memory with all my title screens. So I used a fairly
sophisticated technique for fooling BASIC into erasing the intro
ductory part of the program after it was entered. But that's a pro
gramming technique, not a game technique — the sort of thing
you'll want to start learning as you get better at game program
ming, but certainly not essential when you're just starting out.
So here's my first full-fledged game. I hope you like it. Who
knows? Maybe 111 get to play yours someday.

program 10-3. Moonraker

1 PRINT"{CLR}{8 DOWN}{6 SPACESjMOON RAKER":PRINT
2 PRINT"{7 DOWN}{RVS}HIT ANY KEY TO CONT-{OFF} )
3 GETA$:IFA$=""THEN3
4 GOTO87
6 PRINT"{CLR}{HOME}{2 DOWN}(6 RIGHT}CONTROLS:
7 PRINT:PRINT"{CYN}{4 RIGHT}UP= {RVS}@{OFF}":PRINT
:PRINT"{4 RIGHT}DOWN= {RVS}SPACE BAR{OFF}":PRINT
:PRINT"{4 RIGHT}RIGHT= {RVS}={OFF}
8 PRINT:PRINT"{4 RIGHT}LEFT={RVS}:{OFF}":PRINT:PRI
NT"{4 RIGHT}FIRE= {RVS}a{OFF}":PRINT:PRINT"
{2 RIGHT}YOU HAVE 2 MINUTES"
9 PRINT:PRINT:PRINT"{3 RIGHT}HIT A * TO BEGIN"
10 GETA$:IFA$=""THEN10
11 POKE52,28:POKE56,28:POKE36864,7
12 CS=7168:X=0
13 FORI=CSTOCS+511:POKEI,PEEK(1+25600):NEXT
14 FORI=0TO7:READJ:POKECS+I,J:NEXT
15 FORI=16TO39:READJ:POKECS+I,J:NEXT
16 FORI=48TO87:READJ:POKECS+I,J:NEXT
17 FORI=96TO103:READJ:POKECS+I,J:NEXT
18 FORI=128TO143:READJ:POKECS+I,J:NEXT
19 FORI=152TO255:READJ:POKECS+I,J:NEXT
20 DATA102,153,153,102,102,153,153,102
21 DATA254,60,29,15,15,29,60,254,0,56,124,198,198,
124,56,0
22 DATA15,3,1,0,0,1,3,15,224,195,215,252,252,215,1
95,224
23 DATA0,128,192,96,96,192,128,0,0,0,0,0,254,60,29
,15
24 DATA0,0,0,0,0,56,124,198,15,29,60,254,0,0,0,0,1
98,124,56,0,0,0,0,0

163
 10
Missiles
and "Moonraker

25 DATA48,72,180,207,207,180,72,48,0,0,0,255,255,0
,0,0
26 DATA136,73,74,42,165,90,189,126,34,132,88,61, 60
,154,33,72
27 DATA36,36,24,24,60,60,36,24,6,136,152,124,62,25
,17,96
28 DATA0,0,0,0,36,36,24,24,8,8,28,34,62,62,85,85
29 DATA60,60,36,24,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,255,0,255,0
,0,0,0,0,0,0
30 DATA128,64,32,16,8,4,3,0,1,2,4,8,16,32,192,0,0,
128,127,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,254,0,0,0,0,0
31 PRINT"{CLR}":POKE36869,255:CLR:POKE36879,8
32 PRINT"{RED}{20 DOWNjz]T«£ZZZ]T«£][[[Ull£ Z"
33 L=7900:V=36878:S=36877::L1=7788:L2=7723:L3=7718
:L4=8112:L5=8116:TI$=II000000":U=32
34 M=22:O=23
35 PRINT" {HOME} {RVSHyEL,} {3 RIGHT}MOONRAKER{WHT}
{RIGHT}";X
36 POKEL3,21:POKEL3-M,U:POKEL1,0:POKEL2,M:POKEL4,2
4:POKEL5,24:POKEL,2:POKEL+1,3
37 POKEL2,U:N=255:IFL2=>8054THENL2=L2-M
38 IFL2<=7702THENL2=L2+M
39 P=INT(RND(1)*4):IFP=0THENL2=L2-44
40 IFP=lTHENL2=L2+44
41 IFP=2THENL2=L2+2
42 IFP=3THENL2=L2-2 ^
43 IFL3=L4ORL3=L5THENX=X-500:GOTO75
44 IFL3=>8098THEN75
45 POKEL3,O:POKEL3+M,25:L3=L3+M:F=Ll+21:POKEF,0:PO
KEL1,U:L1=F
46 IFF=>8098THENPOKEF,U:Ll=INT(RND(l)*O)+7702
47 IFL=L1ORL=L2ORL=L3THENX=X-250:GOTO77
48 IFL+l=LlORL+l=L2ORL+l=L3THENX=X-250:GOTO77
49 IFL>8076THENPOKEL,U:POKEL+1,U:L=L-M:GOTO35 ;
50 IFL<7724THENPOKEL,U:POKEL+1,U:L=L+M:GOTO35
51 IFPEEK(197)=46THEN59
52 IFPEEK(197)=45THEN60
53 IFPEEK(197)=53THEN63
54 IFPEEK(197)=UTHEN61
55 IFPEEK(197)=17THEN65
56 IFE<0THEN80
57 IFTI$>"000120"THEN79
58 GOTO35
59 POKEL,4:POKEL+1,6:POKEL+2,7:POKEL,U:POKEL+1,2:P
OKEL+2,3:L=L+1:GOTO35
60 POKEL-1,4:POKEL,6:POKEL+1,7:POKEL-1,2:POKEL,3:P
OKEL+1,U:L=L-1:GOTO 3 5
61 POKEL,8:POKEL+1,9:POKEL+M,10:POKEL+O,12
62 POKEL,U:POKEL+1,U:POKEL+M,2:POKEL+O,3:L=L+M:GOT
035

164
 10
Missiles
ancT'Moonraker

63 POKEL, 10:POKEL+1,12:POKEL-M,8:POKEL-21,9
64 POKgL,U:POKEL+1,U:POKEL-M,2:POKEL-21,3:L=L-M:GO
TO.3V ^
65 Poicl2L+2,16:POKEV,15:POKE36877,N
66 FORF=0TO18:POKEL+3+F,17:POKEC+F+3,2:POKEL+2+F,U
:POKEL+2,U:POKE3687 7,N
67 L6=L+3+F:IFL6=LlTHEN X=X+150:GOTO71
68 IFL6=L2THENX=X+250:GOTO73
69 IFL6=L3ORL6=L3-MTHENX=X+50:GOTO75
70 N=N-12:NEXT:POKEL+21,U:POKEV,0:GOTO35
71 POKEV,15:POKES,130:POKELl,20:FORT=0TO600:NEXT
72 POKEL1,U:POKEV,0:L1=INT(RND(1)*O)+7702:GOTO35
73 POKEV,15:POKES,130:POKEL6,20:FORT=0TO600:NEXT
74 POKEL6,U:POKEV,0:GOTOQS> }£
75 POKEV,15:POKES,130:POKEL3,20:FORT=0TO600:NEXT
76 POKEL3,U:POKEL3-M,U:L3=INT(RND(1)*O)+7702:POKEV
,0:GOTO35
77 POKEL,20:POKEL+1,20:POKEV,15:POKES,130:FORT=0TO
600:NEXT
78 POKEV,0:GOTO35
79 POKE198,0:POKE36869,240:PRINT"{CLR}{5 DOWNTIME
IS UP:YOUR SCORE IS:";X
81 PRINT-.PRINT "HIT THE * TO TRY AGAINOR THE RUN/ST
OP TO END
82 GETA$:IFA$=""THEN82
83 GOTO11
84 A=PEEK(61)+256*PEEK(62)+3:POKE2,INT(A/256):POKE
1,A-256*PEEK(2)
85 A=PEEK(61)+256*PEEK(62)+3:POKE2,INT(A/256):POKE
1,A-256*PEEK(2)
86 IFERTHENPOKEA-2,0:POKEA-1,0:POKE45,PEEK(1):POKE
46,PEEK(2):CLR:GOTO6
87 PRINT11 {CLR} AS COMMANDER OF MOON-{DOWN}RAKER YO
U ARE TO{2 SPACES}PRO-{DOWN}TECT THE 2 RESEARCH
88 PRINT"{DOWN}PODS ON THE MOON'S{4 SPACES}{DOWN}S
URFACE. HITS BY ALIEN{DOWN}TO YOU OR YOUR
{2 SPACES}PODS
89 PRINT"{DOWN}CAUSES LOSS OF POINTS.{DOWN}BLAST T
HE ALIENS WITH {DOWN}YOUR LASER FOR POINTS
90 PRINT"{3 DOWN}{RVS}HIT ANY KEY TO CONT.{OFF}
91 GETA$:IFA$=""THEN91
92 PRINT"{CLR}BEWARE OF THE RANDOM{2 SPACES}{DOWN}
MOVING TWIRLER WHICH{2 SPACES}{DOWN}STRIKES WIT
HOUT NOTICE
93 PRINT"AND ROBS YOU OF POINTS{DOWN}YOU WILL HAVE
120 SEC-{DOWN}ONDS TO GET AS MANY
94 PRINT"{DOWN}POINTS AS YOU CAN.{4 SPACES}
{2 DOWN} GOOD LUCK COMMANDER11
95 PRINT"{2 DOWN}{RVS}HIT ANY KEY TO CONT.{OFF}
96 GETA$:IFA$=""THEN96
97 ER=1:GOTO84
165
Q
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o
o
G
G
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Q
O
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 A
Beginner's Guide to
Typing m Programs

A Beginner's
Guide to Typing
m Programs
what is a Program?
A computer cannot perform any task by itself. Like a car without
gas, a computer has potential, but without a program, it isn't going
anywhere. Most of the programs published in COMPUTE! Books
are written in a computer language called BASIC. BASIC is easy
to learn and is built into all VIC-20s.

basic Programs
Computers can be picky. Unlike the English language, which is
full of ambiguities, BASIC usually has only one right way of
stating something. Every letter, character, or number is signifi
cant. A common mistake is substituting a letter such as O for the
numeral 0, a lowercase 1 for the numeral 1, or an uppercase B for
the numeral 8. Also, you must enter all punctuation such as co
lons and commas just as they appear in the book. Spacing can be
important. To be safe, type in the listings exactly as they appear.

Braces and Special Characters

The exception to this typing rule is when you see the braces, such
as {DOWN }. Anything within a set of braces is a special
character or characters that cannot easily be listed on a printer.
When you come across such a special statement, refer to "How to
Type In Programs/'

About data Statements

Some programs contain a section or sections of DAIA statements.
These lines provide information needed by the program. Some
DAIA statements contain actual programs (called machine
language); others contain graphics codes. These lines are
especially sensitive to errors.
If a single number in any one DAIA statement is mistyped,
your machine could lock up, or crash. The keyboard and STOP
key may seem dead, and the screen may go blank. Don't panic —

169
A
Beginner's Guide to
Typing in Programs

no damage is done. To regain control, you have to turn off your

computer, then turn it back on. This will erase whatever program
was in memory, so always S/¥E a copy ofyour program before you
RUN it. If your computer crashes, you can LOAD the program
and look for your mistake.
Sometimes a mistyped DA3A statement will cause an error
message when the program is RUN. The error message may refer
to the program line that READs the data. The error is still in the
DATA statements, though.

Get to Know Your Machine

You should familiarize yourself with your computer before at
tempting to type in a program. Learn the statements you use to
store and retrieve programs from tape or disk. You'll want to save
a copy of your program, so that you won't have to type it in every
time you want to use it. Learn to use the VICs editing functions.
How do you change a line if you made a mistake? You can always
retype the line, but you at least need to know how to backspace.
Do you know how to enter reverse characters, lowercase, and
control characters? Ifs all explained in your VlC-20's manual, Per
sonal Computing on the VIC.

A Quick Review
1) Type in the program a line at a time, in order. Press RETURN at
the end of each line. Use the INST/DEL key to erase mistakes.
2) Check the line you've typed against the line in the book. You
can check the entire program again if you get an error when you
RUN the program.
3) Make sure you've entered statements in braces as the ap
propriate control key (see "How to Type In Programs").

170
 B
How to Type
in Programs

How to Type
m Programs
Many of the programs listed in COMPUTE! Books contain special
control characters (cursor control, color keys, reverse characters,
etc.). To make it easy to know exactly what to type when entering
one of these programs into your computer, we have established
the following listing conventions.
Generally, any VIC-20 program listings will contain words in
braces which spell out any special characters: {DOWN} would
mean to press the cursor down key. {5 SPACES } would mean to
press the space bar five times.
To indicate that a key should be shifted (hold down the SHIFT
key while pressing the other key), the key would be underlined in
our listings. For example, S would mean to type the S key while
holding the shift key. This would appear on your screen as a heart
symbol. If you find an underlined key enclosed in braces (e.g.,
{10 N}), you should type the key as many times as indicated (in
our example, you would enter ten shifted N's).
If a key is enclosed in special brackets, [<>], you should hold
down the Commodore key while pressing the key inside the special
brackets. (The Commodore key is the key in the lower-left corner
of the keyboard.) Again, if the key is preceded by a number, you
should press the key as many times as necessary.
Rarely, you'll see a solitary letter of the alphabet enclosed in
braces, such as {A }. You should never have to enter such a
character on the VIC-20, but if you do, you would have to leave
the quote mode (press RETURN and cursor back up to the posi
tion where the control character should go), press CTRL-9 (RVS
ON), the letter in braces, and then CTRL-0 (RVS OFF).
About the quote mode: you know that you can move the cursor
around the screen with the CRSR keys. Sometimes a programmer
will want to move the cursor under program control. That's why
you see all the {LEFT }'s, {HOME }7s, and {BLU }7s in our pro
grams. The only way the computer can tell the difference be
tween direct and programmed cursor control is the quote mode.
Once you press the quote (the double quote> SHIFT-2), you
are in the quote mode. If you type something and then try to
change it by moving the cursor left, you'll only get a bunch of

171
How to Type
In Profjrdms

reverse-video lines. These are the symbols for cursor left. The
only editing key that isn't programmable is the DEL key; you can
still use DEL to back up and edit the line. Once you type another
quote, you are out of quote mode.
You also go into quote mode when you INSerT spaces into a
line. In any case, the easiest way to get out of quote mode is to just
press RETURN. Youll then be out of quote mode and you can
cursor up to the mistyped line and fix it.
Use the following table when entering cursor and color con
trol keys:

When You When You

Read: See: Read: Press: See:
{CLEAR} CTRL || 6
{home} [ CTRL || 7

{up} CTRL || 8

{DOWN}

I LEFT}

{RIGHT} (3

{RVS} f4

{off} f5

Iblk} f6

{whtJ CTRL
LlJ f7

{red} CTRL [ 3 f8

{cyn} CTRL 4

SHIFT
{pur}

172
 Screen Location
Table

Screen Location Table

Row
0 7680(4096)
7702(4118)
7724(4140)
7746 (4162)
7768(4184)
5 7790(4206)
7812(4228)
7834(4250)
7856(4272)
7878(4294)
10 7900(4316)
7922(4338)
7944(4360)
7966(4382)
7988(4404)
15 8010(4426)
8032(4448)
8054(4470)
8076(4492)
8098(4514)
20 8120(4536)
8142(4558)
22 8164(4580)
10 15 20

Column

Note: Numbers in parentheses are for VICs with 8K or more of memory

expansion.

173
screen Color
Memory Table

Screen color Memory

Table
Row
38400(37888)
38422(37910)
38444(37932)
38466(37954)
38488(37976)
38510(37998)
38532(38020)
38554(38042)
38576(38064)
38598(38086)
10 38620(38108)
38642 38130)
38664 38152)
38686 38174)
38708 38196)
15 38730 38218)
38752(38240)
38774(38262)
38796(38284)
38818(38306)
20 38840(38328)
38862(38350)
22 38884(38372)
10 15 20

Column

Note: Numbers in parentheses are for VICs with 8K or more of

memory expansion.

174
 sereen color
codes

screen color codes

Color: BLK WHT RED CYN PUR GRN BLU YEL

Code: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

175
 Screen and
Border colors

Screen and Border Colors

Border
Screen Black White Red Cyan Purple Green Blue Yellow
Black 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
White 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Red 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
Cyan 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
Purple 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
Green 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95
Blue 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
Yellow 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127
Orange 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143
Light Orange 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159
Pink 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175
Light Cyan 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191
Light Purple 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207
Light Green 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223
Light Blue 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239
Light Yellow 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255

176
 G
ASCII
codes

ascii codes

ASCII CHARACTER ASCII CHARACTER

5 WHITE 50 2
8 DISABLE 51 3
SHIFT COMMODORE 52 4
9 ENABLE 53 5
SHIFT COMMODORE 54 6
13 RETURN 55 7
14 LOWERCASE 56 8
17 CURSOR DOWN 57 9
18 REVERSE VIDEO ON 58 :

19 HOME 59
20 DELETE 60 <

28 RED 61
>
29 CURSOR RIGHT 62
30 GREEN 63 ?

31 BLUE 64 @

32 SPACE 65 A
33 I 66 B
34 67 C
35 # 68 D
36 $ 69 E
37 % 70 F
38 & 71 G
39 72 H
i

40 ( 73 I
41 ) 74 J
*
42 75 K
43 + 76 L
44 77 M
45 -
78 N
46 .

79 O
47 / 80 P
48 0 81 Q
49 1 82 R

177
c
ASCII
codes

ASCII CHARACTER ASCII CHARACTER

83 S 120
84 T 121
85 U 122 E
86 V 123
87 w 124
88 X 125
89 Y 126
90 Z 127
91 133 fi
92 134 f3
93 135 f5
94 136 f7
95 137 £2
96 138 f4
97 139 £6
98 m 140 f8
99 141 SHIFTED RETURN
100 142 UPPERCASE
101 144 BLACK
102 145 CURSOR UP
D
103 146 REVERSE VIDEO OFF
104 147 CLEAR SCREEN
148 INSERT
105 □
106 156 PURPLE
107 □ 157 CURSOR LEFT
108 158 YELLOW
109 S 159 CYAN
110 0 160 SPACE
111 161
112 □ 162 Q

1
IB 163 n
114 164
115 165
116 166
117 □ 167 a
118 168
119 169 E

178
 c
ASCII
codes

ASCII CHARACTER ASCII CHARACTER

170 207
171 208 □
172 n 209 m
173 H 210 B
174 211
175 U 212
176 H 213 □
177 H 214
178 H 215
179 216
180 □ 217 a
g
181 218
182 219
183 220
184 221 m
185 222
186 □ 223
187 224 SPACE
188 a 225 I
189 H 226
190 E 227 n
191 B 228
192 B 229 □
193 230
194 m 231 a
195 B 232
196 233 B
197 1 ' 234 a
198 B 235
199 D 236 ■

200 1 237
201 238
202 239
203 □ 240 H
204 D 241
205 S 242 H
206 243

179
c
ASCII
codes

ASCII CHARACTER

244 D
245 C
246 [J
247 n
248 □
249
250 a
251 Q
252 H
253 H
254 E
255

1. 0-4, 6-7,10-12,15-16,21-27,128-132,143, and 149-155 have no effect.

2.192-223 same as 96-127, 224-254 same as 160-190, 255 same as 126.

180
 H
Screen
codes

screen codes

Uppercase and Lower- and Uppercase and Lower- and

POKE Full Graphics Set Uppercase POKE Full Graphics Set Uppercase

0 @ @ 31 —

1 A a 32 -space-
i
2 B b 33
34 "
3 C c

4 D d 35 # #

5 E e 36 $ $
6 F f 37 % %
7 G g 38 & &
1 '
8 H h 39
9 I i 40 ( (

10 J j 41 ) )
* *
11 K k 42
12 L 1 43 + +

13 M m 44
14 N n 45 - -

15 O o 46 .

16 P P 47 / /
17 Q q 48 0 0
18 R r 49 1 1
19 S s 50 2 2
20 T t 51 3 3
21 U u 52 4 4
22 V V 53 5 5
23 W w 54 6 6
24 X X 55 7 7
25 Y y 56 8 8
26 Z z 57 9 9
27 [ [ 58 ;

28 £ £ 59 ) ;

29 ] ] 60 < <

30 t t 61 = =

181
 H
Screen
Codes

Uppercase and Lower- and Uppercase and Lower- and

POKE Full Graphics Set Uppercase POKE Full Graphics Set Uppercase

62 95 H
63 96 - -space- -
64 B B 97 ■ i
65 A 98 y y
66 B 99 □ □
67 B C

B n
100
68 B D 101
69 □ E 102
70 □ F 103 a a
71 D G 104
72 a H 105 B
73 I 106 a
74 □ J 107 E
75 □ K 108 Q
76 D L 109 H
77 M 110 H
78 0 N 111 U
79
□ O 112 B
80 □ P 113 H
81 Q 114 H
82 R 115
83 S 116 □
84 D T 117
85 U 118 a
86 V 119 □
87 W 120 a
88 X 121 u
89 Y 122 □
90 Z 123 D r
91 124 B H
92 125 H H
93 m m 126 B H
94 127 B
128-255 are reverse video of 0-127.

182
index
animation 4,20 colors on VIC 12
animation in place routine 94-95 combining characters 54
defined 80 Commodore 14
memory considerations 27 Commodore 64 Programmer's Reference Guide
minimum speed for smooth 79 107
player-controlled 96-97 complications, theory of 31
smooth 96 COMPUTED Second Book of VIC 119
with movement 95 control matrix 82
Apple computer 14 "Copying Characters" program 69-71
arrays, for program crunching 154 CPU 13
artificial intelligence 30-31 "Creating Characters" program 69
ASCII code 48,49 crunching programs 152,153-55
table 177-80 custom characters 27
Asteroids 25, 32,36,37,159 creating 63-75
Atari computer 14 memory considerations 27
'Athlete in Action" program 97-98 program crunching and 155
background sound 122-23 custom character sets 4,13,26-27
in main loop of game 123 DATA statements 169-70
BASIC 3 defeat, psychology of 32
relatively slow 13-14 Defender 19,25,37
Berserk 29-30 delay loop 98
"Blip" program 120 Dig-Dug 37,159
border colors 176 documentation 19-20, 38-39,150-51
Breakout 26 Donkey Kong 19,24,25,26,29,31,32,35,37,
Burger Time 24,31 80,117
cassettes, cheap ones work better 10 Donkey Kong Jr. 27,30,37
Centipede 25,29 existing games, improvement of 25-26
central processing unit see CPU experimentation 5-6
chaining programs 152-53 extras 135-44
character matrix 63-64 farewells 135,141-43
character memory 65 personalizing 144
characters 26 "Fill In" program 53
replacing 71-73 Firebird 25
sequential 73-74 FOR-NEXTloops3,5
character set 45 FRE function 75,136
copying into RAM for customization 68-75 Galaga 25,35
stored in ROM 68 Galaxians 25,36
character work grid 67 game design, different from programming
children, and game testing 7-8 6
CHR$ function 48 discussion 19-40
clock, in "Subroutine Sound" program game story 25-26
125 importance of originality 25
collisions 101-14 GOSUB3,5/28,136
detection of 101,129 GOTO 3
color key 56 graph paper 10
color memory 45,102 graphics characters 13
example program and discussion 57-59 habits, important in good programming
finding 57 148
limitation on POKE 56 homing pattern 29,30
manipulating 56-59 horizontal movement 85
table 174 ideas 6-7
colors, border, manipulating 43-45 in-line logic 89
colors, playfield, manipulating 43-45 "Inchworm" program 95

183
instructions 135,138-41 Mr. Do 159
interest-maintaining techniques 23, 32-38 Ms. Vac-Man 19
bonus turns 37 "Multicharacter PRINT Movement"
complication 34 routine 90
incentives 35 noise register 118
increasing accuracy 34 ON statement, for program crunching 154
increasing difficulty 33-34 opponents, intelligent 29-30
in Joust 20 opponents, mindless 30
new scenery 34-35 originality, in game story 25
scoring 35-36 Vac-Man 24,26, 30, 31, 32,35, 37,101,117,
story rewards 37 118
introductions 135-38 PEEK 14
invisible objects 44 explained 46-47
Joust 19,26,30,31,34,37,117 Personal Computing on the VIC-201,119
game analyzed 20-24 pixel 12,26,64
joystick 19,20,28 "Player-Controlled Animation" routine
reading 92-93 96-97
joystick button 93 player movement 20
Kangaroo 30,35,37 trade off speed and complexity 28
keyboard reading 81-85 point inflation 36
key code 81, 83 POKE 14
table 84 explained 46-47
"Keysound" program 120 - PRINT 3,48
discussion 120-21 combined with POKE 112-14
"Keysound UFO" program 121 dangers of 88-90
discussion 121-22 faster than POKE 88
"Laser X Jet" program 91-92 } moving cursor with 55-56
loops, for program crunching 154 screen displays with 54-55
machine language 13, 28 "PRINT Movement Routine" 87-88
and animation 79 programming techniques 147-55
magazines, programs in 5-6 program translation 14-15
main loop, proper function of 150 Qix 25
marketing 8-10 Rally-X 31
memory, economical use of 135 RAM 11
memory locations 14 5K basic option on VIC-2011-12
MID$ function 105 random access memory see RAM
missile routines 159-65 random screen displays 51-53
Missile Command 25, 33, 35, 37 raster 79
"Mission: Nova!" program 105-6 j READ statement 52
discussion 106-9 in character replacement 72-73
farewell code 143 REM statement 154
instructions code 139-40 RESTORE statement 52
introduction code 136 RND function 51-52
laser routine in 159-61 Robotron 25
missile routine in 161-62 Scramble 159
modified by GOSUBs 136 screen, VIC-2012
sounds, in code and discussion, 128-31 screen codes 48-49
Monopoly 32, 35 table 181-82
"Moonraker" program screen color codes 175,176
discussion 162-63 screen color memory table 174
program 163-65 screen design 4,43-58
movement 79-81 screen location table 173
defined 80 screen memory 45,102
demonstration program 80-81 finding 57
with animation 95 manipulating with PEEK and POKE 47
with POKE program 86-87 organization 49

184
screen relationships 29 Super Breakout 36
scrolling 104-5 Surround 26
6502 chip 14 TAB function 55
not all machines using it compatible Tempest 25,34,35
14-15 testing 7
sound 4 timer, common 151-52
importance of 37-38 timer reset routine 109
in Joust 23-24 TI$ variable 107,109,110
in "Mission: Nova!" 128-31 Iron 26
in subroutines 123-27 true/false test 44
turning off 120 unpredictability 33
uses of 117-18 programming 33
"Sound Game" program 127 vanity board 36-37
discussion 127-28 in Joust 23
sound registers 118 variables, take less space than numbers
Space Invaders 28,30, 33,117 154
"Spaceship Collisions" program 101-2 Venture 25, 35
discussion 102-3 vertical movement 85
"Spark" program U3-14 VIC-20
discussion 112-13 colors 12
farewell code 42 languages available 13
setting difficulty in 140-41 RAM 11-12
SPC function 56 screen 12
speed, real and apparent 150-51 sound 13
"Star-Eater" program 110-12 specifications 11-15
"Starfield" program 51-53 V7C-20 Programmer's Reference Guide 10, 68
STEP function 5 VIC-20 User's Guide 10,68
submission to publishers 9-10 Video Interface Chip (VIC) 45
subroutines, program crunching and volume control register 118
154-55 weaknesses, need for in computer
subroutines, sound 123-31 opponents 31
halt game action 124 "Wire" program 54-55
no-stop subroutines 126-28 wraparound 89-90
"Subroutine Sound" programs 124,126 "Zap" program 119
discussion 124-25,126

185
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 me
You want to create your own games, but you're not sure just how
to begin. After all, game writing can be one of the most demand
ing programming tasks. Whether you already know programming
or are just starting, it may seem almost impossible to create a
successful game. This book — a guide for anyone who has thought
of designing and writing a game program — shows you how.
Robert Camp's Creating Arcade Games on the VIC is a step-by-step
guide through the process of writing your own game on a home
computer. From developing a game design concept to writing a
complete game, you'll find every method and technique you need
for creating VIC games. Detailed and clear explanations make it
easy to follow along.

Here are just a few of the topics covered:

• Sound
• Custom characters
• Animation
• Missile graphics
• How to develop an idea
• How to market a game program
Along the way, you'll be able to follow the step-by-step creation
of four games, and see how the principles work out in real pro
gramming situations.

Using an unexpanded VIC-20, you'll see the power of a home

computer as a game-writing tool. With this book, and your imagi
nation, you'll soon be writing that game you only hoped you
could write.

ISBN 0-942386-25-6 $12.95