WIRELESS BACKHAUL

A Primer on Microwave and

Satellite Communications

Dr Rowan Gilmore
CEO, EM Solutions
MILCIS November 2015
 TUTORIAL OVERVIEW
1. The physical layer – the radio air interface
2. Shannon’s equation
3. The air interface– digitising the analog world
using modulation
4. Signals in noise
5. The link budget and its components
6. System imperfections
7. Some example link budgets of commercial
radios
1. THE PHYSICAL LAYER

Characterise the channel by

its bandwidth B and noise
power N added to the
received signal power S

Diagram courtesy of Agilent Technologies A/N 1298

 2. CHANNEL CAPACITY
(WITH AVERAGE POWER CONSTRAINT)
• Shannon’s equation predicts the capacity of a communications
channel at zero error rate:
• Capacity = B * log 2 (1 +SNR) where
o C = channel capacity = rate of information transmission in bits per second,
at zero error rate
o B = channel’s bandwidth
o SNR assumes additive, white, gaussian noise

• Example
o What is the theoretical maximum transmission capacity down a telephone
line (B=3.4kHz) for which SNR = 30dB ?
• In practice, sophisticated error detection and coding are required to
approach the theoretical Shannon limit of zero errors.
 RECEIVER PERFORMANCE
BANDWIDTH AND SNR
• SNR and bandwidth can be traded off
(B1/B2)
• For two equal capacity channels SNR2 = SNR1
• If we increase the channel bandwidth, SNR can be
lower for the same information transfer rate
o Example: A signal has SNR of 20dB. How much can the
SNR decrease if the bandwidth is doubled?
• A relatively small increase in channel bandwidth
buys a large advantage in terms of reduced SNR
and minimum transmission power
o In spite of a corresponding increase in the noise floor
3. SIGNAL MODULATION

Amplitude and frequency/phase modulation may be expressed

as polar coordinates (magnitude and phase) of the signal
phasor, relative to a constant carrier
Diagram courtesy of Agilent Technologies A/N 1298
QUADRATURE, BI-PHASE, AND 8-PHASE
SHIFT KEYED (PSK) MODULATION
Q
QPSK has four allowed
I states corresponding to the four
combinations of a pair of bits. All
possible transitions between the
states are permitted.

• What are the differences

between BPSK and 8PSK?
• What are the advantages of
each?

Typical signal constellations for

different modulation schemes
Diagram courtesy of Agilent Technologies A/N 1298
 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION (QAM)

m-QAM is spectrally efficient as it achieves a lower baud rate for the same bit
rate. It may require more power to achieve greater differentiation between
adjacent states. 256-QAM uses eight bits per symbol, but the symbols are very
close together so distortion and noise must be minimised to avoid bit errors.
QPSK accepts lower SNR than 256-QAM to achieve the same bit error rate. Diagram courtesy of Agilent Technologies A/N 1298
 16-QAM CONSTELLATION AT
TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
Transmitter Constellation Receiver Constellation
40 1.5
IQ[TP.3,50,1,0] IQ[TP.2,500,1,0]

20
0.5

-0.5
-20

-40 -1.5
-40 -20 0 20 40 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5
 4. ES/N0 AND S/N (SNR) RATIOS
• Symbol Energy Es (Joules) : the notional average energy in each symbol.
• Average signal power P =S : the average power in dBm or dBW. Power is the symbol energy
expended per unit time i.e. dE
P or E   P dt
dt
• For a single tone, symbol energy and average power have the following relationships:
- Energy per symbol ES = (Power * Symbol period TS) = S/RS where RS = symbol rate
• Now N0=noise spectral density (dBm/Hz)
so ES /N0= S /RS N0
• But the total noise power is just the power density within the noise (channel) bandwidth B i.e.
N = noise spectral density * channel bandwidth = N0*B so N0 = N /B
• Therefore (ES /N0)= (S /N) *B /RS = (S /N) * (1+a) where a is the filter roll-off factor
• S /N and thus ES /N0 are both unit-less (measured in dB).
• ES /N0 is a measure of relative signal strength and its lower bound determines the modulation
that can be supported. It does not directly depend on the bandwidth.
• A similar expression exists for bit energy, Eb /N0= S /N * BTb (but then you also need to adjust
for coding and/or multiplexing of other users)
SYMBOL ERROR RATE VS SNR
SER CURVES
1

.1
SER

.01

Simulation Result
16QAM SER
.001
64QAM SER
256QAM SER

.0001
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Es_N0

Es/No (dB)
 THE NEED FOR GOOD ES/N0
• ES = S/RS , proportional to S/B = signal power spectral density (PSD)
• Thus lower carrier power S with lower symbol rate maintains the same ES .
Two corollaries:
o More complex modulation in same bandwidth, keeping constant power
spectral density maintains Es and thus keeps Es/N0 the same
o More complex modulation with same data rate, requires less BW for the same
data rate, thus requires less power to maintain Es and keep Es/N0 the same
• BUT! More bits/symbol requires increasingly higher Es/N0 or SNR for
error-free detection of a symbol (see previous slide)
• Coding can be used to improve error correction at the expense of data
rate
o Code Rate is the ratio of data bits to data + check bits (Rate=k/n) e.g. rate ¾ code has
75% data and 25% check bits in each code block
 TRADE-OFF BETWEEN
MODULATION DENSITY AND SNR
Example of QPSK 3/4
Table 13: ES/No performance at Quasi Error Free PER = 10-7 (AWGN channel)
Symbol Rate (Rs) 83.3 Msps
Filter rolloff factor (α) 1.2
Spectral efficiency Ideal ES/No (dB) for FECFRAME Bandwidth = (1 + α)Rs 100 MHz
Mode Modulation format QPSK 3/4
(bits/symbol) length = 64 800
QPSK 1/4 0,490243 -2,35 Required Es/No 4.03 dB
QPSK 1/2 0,988358 1,00 Required SNR 3.24dB
QPSK 2/3 1,322253 3,10 Es/No=SNR(1+α)
QPSK 3/4 1,487473 4,03 Spectral efficiency 1.487 bits/symbol
QPSK 9/10 1,788612 6,42 Data rate 124 Mbps
8PSK 2/3 1,980636 6,62
8PSK 3/4 2,228124 7,91 Shannon's limit 164 Mbps
8PSK 9/10 2,679207 10,98
16APSK 2/3 2,637201 8,97 OR for same data rate use 16APSK
16APSK 3/4 2,966728 10,21 ¾ in a 50MHz bandwidth
16APSK 9/10 3,567342 13,13 Use 16APSK ¾ in a 50MHz
32APSK 3/4 3,703295 12,73 bandwidth for same data
32APSK 4/5 3,951571 13,64 rate Es/No = 10.21 dB
32APSK 5/6 4,119540 14,28 New Bandwidth 50 MHz
32APSK 9/10 4,453027 16,05 10.21 dB
New Required Es/No (approx 6 dB higher)
From DVB-S2 ETSI standard EN 302 307 v1.2.1 New noise floor 3 dB lower
New min signal power Approx 3 dB higher
 5. LINK BUDGET CALCULATION
Effective transmitted power
Notes
1. Required SNR (e.g. 9.5 dB) for
target BER (1x10-11) and given data
Tx antenna gain
rate More powerful digital
coding= lower required SNR, but
START: transmitter more excess latency
output power
2. Implementation loss (e.g.6 dB)
Dry-air path loss
includes estimated losses due to
phase noise, clock jitter, imperfect
equalization, synchronization
Effective received
signal power
inaccuracy, nonlinear effects,
Maximum allowable
rain fade & water
multipath delay spread, residual
Rx antenna gain
vapor loss (3) diffraction loss
Implementation
Theoretical loss (2) Measurement point
3. Loss due to water vapor and rain
dry-air (Rx threshold) fade : calculations use ITU-R
receiver
SNR
models. If rain fade exceeds
Required received SNR
for target BER (1)
allowable maximum, required
received SNR is not achieved and
Receiver noise power
hop is unavailable
ELEMENTS IN THE LINK BUDGET
• If an isotropic antenna radiates a power PT, the beam power
will spread as a sphere in which the antenna is the center. The
power flux at a distance “D” from the transmission point is
given by the equation.
Flux = PT/4πD2. . . . . (W/m2)

• As the transmit antenna focuses the energy (i.e. has a gain),

within the beamwidth of the antenna the equation changes to:
Flux = GTPT/4πD2. . . . . (W/m2)

where GT is known as the transmit antenna gain and GTPT is the

Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP)
 ELEMENTS IN THE LINK BUDGET
• As a receiver antenna 'collects' the signal, the amount of 'collected' signal will
depend on the receiver antenna size Ae. The received power PR will be:
PR = Flux * Ae = [GTPT/4πD2 ]*Ae
• But:
Ae = effective aperture of the receive antenna
= (λ2/4π)*GR
• λ2/4π is the area of a lossless isotropic antenna (which has unity gain).
(Note GR is therefore inversely proportional to λ2 or 1/f2 for a constant antenna size)
• Substituting,
PR = [GTPT/4πD2 ]* (λ2/4π)*GR or
PR = EIRP * GR * (λ/4πD) 2
• In dB
PR (dBW) = EIRP + GR – Lo ** This is the link equation **
 ELEMENTS IN THE LINK BUDGET
• The expression [4πD/λ]2 is known as the basic free space loss
or spreading loss Lo. The basic free space loss is expressed in
decibels as:
Lo = 20log(D) + 20log(f) + 92.5 dB
o Where:
D = distance in km between transmitter and receiver
f = frequency in GHz
92.5 dB = 20 log {(4π*109*103)/c}
• For a geostationary satellite, one way loss Lo = 201.5 dB in
X-band, 206.5 dB in Ku-band and 213 dB in Ka-band.
• Even though the spreading loss Lo decreases as the square of frequency,
GR also decreases by the same amount for a constant antenna size, so GR –
Lo is independent of frequency in the link equation, and only GT varies.
 THE CHOICE OF ANTENNA SIZE
• Antenna gain and beamwidth are inversely related
o GR is proportional to effective antenna area Ae (in fact, [D/l]2)
o Area illuminated by the transmit antenna is proportional to (r * q) 2
where q = beamwidth and r =radius of the “isotropic sphere”, so the
transmit antenna gain is proportional to 4pr2/ (r * q) 2
o So the beamwidth is inversely proportional to sqrt (gain) i.e. diameter
• At E-band (73-86GHz) , a 600mm antenna has about 50dBi
gain and 0.5 o beamwidth. A 1200 mm antenna has 56 dBi gain
and 0.25 o beamwidth
• At Ka-band (20/30GHz), a 600 mm antenna has 40 dB gain
and 1.8o beamwidth on receive, and 42.5dBi gain and 1.2o
beamwidth on transmit.
ANTENNA PATTERNS AND ESD

Shadow boundary
 THE SYSTEM NOISE FLOOR
• System noise floor at input = FkTB= kTeqB
• PR = {EIRP + GR – Lo} must be sufficiently far above
the system noise floor to achieve the desired bit
error rate
• So (in dB) SNRmargin = PR - kTeqB
= EIRP + [GR –Teq]- Lo - kB
• Therefore, a receiver can be characterised by its G/T
ratio
• For satcoms, use S /No = EIRP + [GR –Teq]- Lo –k
where k is Boltzmann’s constant (-228.6 dBw/K/Hz) and S/No is in dB-Hz
PATH LOSS AND FADE MARGIN
• Rain attenuation varies with path length
and frequency e.g.
o Ka-band 30GHz (uplink) 5.5dB/km in 30mm/hr
(“heavy”) rain – BNE, SYD
o E-band attenuation is around 12dB/km
• Availability of a link is a complex function of
how often rain and multipath cause the Rx
signal to drop below the threshold SNR
o Determined by all the terms in the link budget!
 6. SYSTEM IMPERFECTIONS
• The antenna receives all signals but must
transmit only the desired signal
• Poor linearity (gain compression) and system
noise can degrade the BER performance
o Often requires operating at output power
backoff from maximum EIRP to prevent
distortion
TRANSMITTER IMPAIRMENTS
RX Constellation 64QAM Constellation DB(IQ(TP.21,1000,1,0))
64QAM
1 1.5

0.5
0.5

-0.5
-0.5

IQ[TP.RX Constellation,400,1,0]
64QAM System

-1 -1.5
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5

Constellation showing transmitter PA

compression and thermal noise (L), and
Spectral re-growth is caused phase noise (R). Gain compression causes
by third-order (+ higher) intermodulation distortion and spectral re-
intermodulation distortion growth.
in the transmitter

• All impairments degrade the bit error rate

 RECEIVER IMPAIRMENTS
• Linear impairments include thermal noise and intersymbol-interference
• Nonlinear impairments include spurious responses (such as to the image
frequency) and reciprocal mixing

Ideal Oscillator
Downconverted Actual Oscillator
Signal
Downconverted Downconverted
Interferer Interferer Signal
Interferer
Signal Downconverted
Interferer Signal

f f
f0 f0
(b)
7. COMMERCIAL RADIO - THE E10G
MICROWAVE LINK BUDGET

55.9 dB

162.3 dB
 E10G LINK BUDGET EXAMPLE
73.9 dBm Effective transmitted power

55.9 dB Tx antenna gain

18 dBm START: transmitter

output power
(Linear)
Overall path loss 162.3 dB

Effective received
-32.5 dBm signal power

Maximum allowable
rain fade & water
23.4 dB
Actual vapor loss
receiver
55.9 dB Rx antenna gain SNR
Receiver noise Rx THRESHOLD -55.9 dBm
32.9 dB Min required receiver
floor = FkTB = 9.5 dB
SNR for target BER
11.6 dB -174
dBm/Hz + 97 -65.4 dBm Receiver noise power

dBHz (5GHz BW)

= -65.4dBm -88.4 dBm
 LINK RESULTS : E10G

Assumes a rain rate of 56 mm/hr for the path

COMMERCIAL SATCOM - COTM
 Ka-Band Ka-Band
SPECIFICATION
Commercial Military
Antenna Size 1m
Rx 19.2 to 20.2 GHz Rx 20.2 to 21.2GHz
Tx 29.0 to 30.0 GHz Tx 30.0 to 31.0GHz
RF Frequency
Switchable between Commercial and Military operating bands via
Ethernet User Interface
G/T mid band >20dBK
Rx 42dB min
Antenna Gain
Tx 48dB min

60dBW (min)
EIRP (linear)
(with EM Solution 01-360A 25W Ka Multiband Diamond Series BUC)

Polarisation Circular
Sidelobes Mil-Std-188-164
Pointing Error <0.2deg
Height (radome) 1500mm
Base Footprint 850mm diameter
Environmental Tested in accordance to MIL-STD-810G CN1 and IEC 60945:2002

3 axis
Az 360o continuous
Pedestal Type
EL -20o to +110o
XEL ±35o
Monopulse on Ka-band Beacon or
Tracking Type
User Defined Carrier
INU & Gyros Embedded
Compatible with Viasat EBEM MD-
Modem Support (three modem ports Integrated Inmarsat GX modem or 1366 modem or equivalent
available) switchable to Customer modem

Satellite Operator Certifications Inmarsat GX (pending Q1 2016) WGS (pending mid 2016)

Regulatory IEC 60945, IEC 60950 , C tick

 SATELLITE LINK BUDGET
Uplink
Uplink Transponder Budget: NOTE: Version: 1.3 Frequency: 30,000.00 MHz

Parameter: Value: Units: Comments:

Ground Station:
User Uplink Transmitter Power Output: 20.0 wattsThis is the power associated with ONE uplinking user station and ONE channel.
In dBW: 13.0 dBW
Transmission Line Losses: -1.5 dB
Connector, Filter or In-Line Switch Losses: -1.0 dB
Antenna Gain: 48.0 dBiC1m antenna
Ground Station EIRP: 58.5 dBWGround Station Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) [EIRP=Pt x Ltl x Ga]
Ground Station Antenna Pointing Loss: -0.2 dB
Uplink Path:
Antenna Polarization Losses: -0.75 dB
Path Loss: -213.5 dB

Atmospheric (Gaseous) Losses: -3.1 dBUse Value Appropriate for Elevation Angle Selected in Orbit Performance W/S. See Ippolito.
Ionospheric Losses: -0.2 dB
Rain (Ice Fog) Losses: 0.0 dB
Isotropic Signal Level at the Spacecraft: -159.2 dBW
Spacecraft:
Spacecraft Rcvr Antenna Pointing Loss: -0.4 dB
Spacecraft Rcvr Antenna Gain: 38.3 dBiC
Spacecraft Transmission Line Losses: -2.0 dB
Spacecraft LNA Noise Temperature: 250 K
Spacecraft Sky Temperature: 250 K
Spacecraft Effective Noise Temperature: 520 K
Spacecraft Figure of Merrit (G/T): 8.1 dB/K
S/C Signal-to-Noise Power Density (S/No): 77.1 dBHz Boltzman's Constant: k= -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Transponder IF Bandwidth: 36000.0 kHz
Transponder Uplink Input Noise Power -125.9 dBWPn = kTB; Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN); The satellite receiver's White Noise.

Single User Uplink S/N in Transponder Bandwidth: 1.6 dBThis is the S/N for ONE user seen at the S/C Rcvr IF, measured after the BPF, in the bandwidth determined by that filter.

Single User S(N+I) in Transponder Bandwidth: 1.5 dBThis is the uplink performance measured in the ENTIRE transponder bandwidth (NOTE: This could be a negative number)
Single User Signal Bandwidth: 10000.0 kHz

Single User Uplink S(N+I) in User Terminal Bandwidth: 7.04 dBTHE BOTTOM LINE FOR THE UPLINK (NOTE: This is the average S/(N+I), not the peak value).
 SATCOM SYSTEM LINK SUMMARY
0
LINK BUDGET NOTE:

SYSTEM LINK SUMMARY

Developed by: Jan A. King, W3GEY/VK4GEY Version: 1.3

User Terminal Spacecraft User Terminal

EMS On the Move Terminal 2.70 =Loss(dB) Southern Hemisphere Gateway Station
I/F Filter B.W.= 36.00 MHz
2.0 =Loss(dB) End-to-End Gain = 136.3 dB 1.0 =Loss(dB)
1.5 =Loss (dB) DIGITAL LINK SUMMARY
UPLINK DOWNLINK
15.00 =Supported Data Rate (Mbps)
User Transponder User
15.0 Mbps Xmit Converters & Rcvr 1 =Supported Users @ 15.00 Mbps each
HPA LNA HPA LNA
Data Terminal IF Amplifiers Terminal 4.3 = Each User Eb/No (dB) at Full Supported Data Rate

Spacecraft Current Altitude: 36,000.00 km

Uplink User Slant Range: 37,627.45 km
HPA Sig. Pow er = 11.57 Watts Downlink User Slant Range: 37,557.85 km
48.0 = Gain (dBi) 38.3 = Gain (dBi) 44.5 =Gain(dBi)
Uplink Frequency: 30,000.00 MHz
HPA Pow er = 20.0 Watts 520.0 K=System Noise Temp. 46.1 =Gain (dBi) 326.7 K=System Noise Temp. Downlink Frequency: 20,000.00 MHz

58.5 = EIRP (dBW) 8.1 dB/K=G/T 56.4 = Signal EIRP (dBW) 17.8 dB/K=G/T

UPLINK DOWNLINK
S/(No+Io)= 77.0 dB-Hz S/(N+I) = 1.55 dB S/(No+Io)= 86.0 dB-Hz S/(N+I) = 15.98 dB
In Xpdr B.W.= 36.00 MHz In Xpdr B.W.= 10.00 MHz
S/(N+I) = 7.04 dB
In Chan B.W. = 10.00 MHz

Transponder Power Characteristics:

RF Power Output = 20.0 Watts
DC Power Input = 200.0 Watts UPLINK + DOWNLINK
Therm. Dissipation = 180.0 Watts S/(N+I) = 6.52 dB
GENERAL COMPARISON OF TERRESTRIAL
AND SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
MICROWAVE SATELLITE
Elevation is horizontal Elevation low up to Vertical
1-50 km per link ~ 36,000 km per link
To/fro frequencies typically close (Up/Down) frequencies typically well separated
Typical band plans (6GHz, 11GHz, 18GHz, 80GHz) 4/6GHz, 7/8GHz, 12/14GHz, 20/30GHz
Low power, path limited High power, power limited
Fade margins 20-50dB Margins (3-5dB typical)
Single hop paths Two hop path
Symmetrical data rates typical Asymmetrical data rates typical
Point to point Point - point or point to multi - point
Fixed terminals Fixed or mobile terminals
Small to medium antennas (0.5 to 2m) Small to very large antennas (0.5 to 20m)
Low noise not critical Low noise is critical
High power not important High power is critical
Short propagation delay (10-200us) Long delay (~250ms round trip)
Regulated bands: low interference Regulated bands: moderate interference
Unregulated bands – possible interference No unregulated bands
Low terminal costs, low to high spectrum costs Medium terminal costs, high spectrum costs
 QUESTIONS?
• [email protected]