INTRODUCTION TO AFRICAN TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

ELO IBAGERE

[email protected]

DEPARTMENT OF THEATRE ARTS

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY,
ABRAKA

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 PART ONE
GENERAL OVERVIEW
Introduction
Communication is one great activity in the world today. It involves the
transmission and reception of information, ideas and attitudes between individuals. There
is no human endeavour worth engaging in that is devoid of communication. In fact,
failures in most of these endeavours are attributed to communication problems. Even
animals have been proved to communicate. Thus all academic disciplines have
communication as an important topic in their curricular.
This ubiquitous nature of the subject has therefore led to plethora of definitions.
These definitions relate to the experiences of those who profound them. As a result of
these different experiences, scholars tend to propound such definitions from different
perspectives, preferring to focus on different areas of the subject. Thus, while some see it
as the” transfer of information from one individual to another”, some have defined it as
the “exchange of information, ideas and attitudes”. Yet others have said that it is the
“interaction between individuals who have a common field of experience”. Thus Sybil
James, Ude and Soola (1990:1-2) have listed five definitions by different scholars, from a
list of 126 definitions compiled by Dance and Larson (1976). The five definitions are:
1. Communication is any means by which a thought is transferred from one person t
another. (R.. Chappel and W.L. Read, 1964:1).
2. Communication is the process by which one person (or a group) shares and
imparts information to another person (or group) so that both people (or groups)
clearly understand one another (Rita Udall and Sheila Udall, 1979:5).
3. Communication is not just the giving of information, it is the giving of
understandable information and receiving and understanding the message.
Communication is the transferring of a message to another party so that it can be
understood and acted upon (E.C. Eyre, 1983:1).
4. The communication process involves all acts of transmitting messages to channels
which link people to the languages and symbolic codes which are used to transmit

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 messages, the means by which messages are received and stored, and the rules,
customs and conventions which define and regulate human relationships and
events (Frank Ugboajah,1985:2).
5. At the levels of organizations among and between executives, staff, personnel,
supervisors and foremen and employees, the communication process is
continuously in action, conveying information, ideas, attitudes and feelings
among individuals (J. Chruden and W. Sherman, 1978:325).

One significant thing to note about the subject is that it is a process. Due to this, no
definition can cover the entire gamut of the subject. Hence no definition can be
invalidated by virtue of its area of focus. This is because all definitions focus on
particular areas they deem important. However, many of the definitions see it as transfer
of information. This aspect can be noticed n the popular definitions because it covers all
the relevant parts of the process. For obvious reasons then, communication can be seen as
the process of eliciting a response from an individual or group by another individual or
group, the process of which involves the sending and receiving of symbols. This
definition seems to cover the process extensively. The symbols so transmitted represent
ideas and attitudes or information about something. Symbols are not universal in terms of
global acknowledgement. They are only universal to the extent of societal specificity.
That is, their universality is specific to the particular society that has adopted such
symbols. Each society has its symbols, which may be used by its media system. It is,
thus, the symbols pervasively accepted in the particular society that its media make use of
in their information dissemination function in the society.
Each society has its own media system which is designed and operated to suit the
needs of the members of the society. It is the natives of such a society that operate the
media system. If, for any particular society, they would be compelled to operate it within
the ambit of the dictates of that society. The people determine how the society is
organized or administered. This will definitely impact on the media system, as such
would determine the kind of media that exist in the particular society.

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 Africans have their own media system with which they foster the organization of
their society. The communication system was developed many centuries ago and it has
served the African’s purpose effectively in various capacities – be it politics,
development, social integration or domestic stability. The African communication system
resulted directly from the experiences of Africans, which compelled them to fashion the
system to suit their existence. The intriguing issue however remains the idea of a
particularly different media or communication system so radically different in the face of
globalization of virtually every aspect of life including the mass media. But there remains
an African communication system with a distinct character, fashion to suit Africans
which may not be identified in any other place in the world. This explains why the
system is referred to as traditional to Africa.
The effect of Westernization which has now translated to globalization is quite
devastating to Africa in the sense of a lamentable and, sometimes, deliberate alteration or
outright destruction of values and norms of Africa people and societies. Such impact has
affected the communication system to the extent of almost obliterating it in the urban
areas, with only vestiges of the system left in the cities. However, the system continues to
remain paramount in rural areas where the population relies on the system to satisfy their
communication needs.
The question then arises as it the true or real identity of the African
communication system. What really, is the African traditional communication system?
How relevant is such a system in the face of modernization and development; more so,
when the issue of development has become encapsulated in the latest phenomenon known
as globalization? Would such a system not be reduced to mere fossilized relics of an
ancient culture? These and other notions crop up in the minds of those who do not
understand the African continent and its people.

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CHAPTER 1
The African Traditional Communication System
The African traditional communication system refers to the system of
communication evolved by Africans and is indigenous to them and is used in particular
ways to satisfy the information, entertainment and development needs of the African.
This involves such methods that make use of sign and symbols that are culturally or
traditionally based.
The system is organized to protect the established norms and values of the society,
such that the kind of information which is capable of upsetting established societal
structures is suppressed while that which edifies or promotes norms and values is given
prominence.
The system was fashioned in accordance with the way the people lived at the time
of its establishment. The way the people lived determined how this system was
established. The form, structure and content of the media of communication were
determined by the various occupations of the people who made up the various
communities, as well as the need for self preservation and smooth administration of the
society.
It is impossible to establish when the media system was evolved. What is clear is
that the traditional African society developed the system for the purpose of enhancing
continuity of the society’s ideals. The system could have equally evolved through the
natural desire of man to display his assets. This can be noticed in every man especially
the one that has not explored other parts of the world. Naturally, the desire of any man to
arrogate to himself much power and property is matched by an equal urge to show to
others the extent of his power and enormous acquisition he has achieved. This is why the
maxim that “everything acquired by might is right”, gets prominence when such
acquisition is openly displayed and it goes unchallenged. Thus the warrior announces his
success by becoming a chief and next, he wants his fame to be drummed into the ears of
those far away. The need to ensure that people became aware of the strength and wealth
of powerful men who are leaders must have contributed to the creation of the traditional

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communication system. It is these leaders who then ensured that the information was
effectively disseminated to the people.
Again, in the quest for smooth administration of the society, the people must have
organized themselves to achieve harmony both in the division of sexual labour as well as
the sexual division of labor. While division of sexual labor relates to the roles each
partner plays during the process of procreation, the sexual division of labor relates to
duties and tasks to be undertaken as defined according to gender. It would have been
impossible for order to be achieved or for any modicum of success to be noticed in a
situation like this if there was no effective form of communication which enhanced the
definition of the various tasks; as well as how they should be performed. For such a
society to exist without dislocation of the ecosystem, certain ingredients must be
available. One of such ingredients is homogeneity.
At the time the African traditional communication system was evolved, the people
were homogenous in virtually everything. This homogeneity resulted in the concatenation
of the established modes of communication with the other social processes of the various
communities. The modes of communication were therefore important aspects of the
people’s life like other aspects. The social processes of the various communities were
thus in conformity with the communication system. The system is the face-to-face pattern
in relation to social and domestic relations. This was, and still is, the pattern of life in the
traditional African patheon. And these traditional modes of communication still serve the
needs of a majority of African people.
“Those who still rely on these traditional modes for their information needs are
mostly the rural dwellers who still experience difficulty in their attempt to satisfy their
information needs via the modern mass media” (Ibagere, 1994:61). These rural dwellers
make up to eighty percent of the population of the African continent. They only
supplement these modes with other means when and if necessary.
Traditional modes of communication came into existence when the alphabet had
not been invented. Man was a creature living in an acoustic environment. At the time,
man was quite close to nature, in a world not yet explored or altered by human quest for

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technological development. It was thus incumbent on man to believe only what he could
see, hear, touch, smell, or taste, depending on the circumstance in which he found
himself. Other beliefs were based on his fertile imagination resulting from extra – sensory
perception which lay deep in the metaphysical world. Anything outside his environment
or anything he could not explain or link to these beliefs was as good as non-existent.
Man’s concern at the time was determined by natural changes in the environment or such
changes he could effect on the environment which enabled him to adapt to a harsh world.
This was to the extent to which such changes affected him directly. Man, thus interacted
with what he found in his immediate environment or vicinity.
Since there was no writing of any kind, and no reliable method of documenting
events, it becomes a wild goose chase to attempt to locate the beginning of the use of
these modes in the labyrinth of past ages of civilization. This is more so when the modes
must have evolved at different periods in relation to when their need became an
unavoidable necessity.
It must be stated that at the time, the tribe was the most important entity and every
consideration was centred around the tribe. It was believed that no other tribe existed.
This made the society to be greater than any individual and became the soul of every
person’s existence. Hence every achievement was to the glory of the tribe. Everybody
was closely knit and whatever happened to one became known to all in a very short time.
Even property was communally acquired. This accounts for why such things as songs and
dances are not the property of any single person as it is in the westernized world where
laws make an individual the exclusive owner of his music, song or dance. Apart from
personal effects and a few belongings, there was hardly anyone whose wealth was greater
than the other’s.
Thus the very nature of man’s existence at the time did not provide the compelling
need for information to be sent to distant places because the world of man was socially
very small. The social and environmental conditions therefore made the African to
develop the means of communication that best suited the very circumstances in which he
found himself. And in response to these prevailing conditions, the African invented the

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modes of communication which were contingent upon the biological senses of man. This
demanded that the sender of the message must present it in a way that would enable the
receiver to see, hear or feel it. In this way, the information needs of the traditional African
were fully served.
From the foregoing, it is obvious that the traditional modes of communication
served the needs of the African at a time devoid of any technological application with
regards to communication. Today mass media development tends to consign these modes
to the museum as fossils of our primitive past. In fact western civilization may not
consider these modes in any modern sense. But they continue to exist, serving the needs
of a great majority of Africans in a so-called modernized world.
This lead tom the question of the relevance of these modes of communication in a
modernizing (or rather, globalizing) Africa.

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CHAPTER 2
Relevance of Traditional Modes of Communication in today’s Africa
It is somewhat antithetical that there can still be any meaningful scholarly focus on
a subject like the traditional communication system of Africans in the face of an all-
embracing phenomenon known as globalization. But the fact of the relevance of this
system in today’s Africa continues to reverberate. Physical development is largely
lacking. Agunga (1992:3) has noted that despite “more than forty years of organized
development assistance, the living condition of the vast majority of Third World people is
still far from adequate”. This observation made in 1992 is still the condition today. One
of the factors responsible for developmental failure is communication and physical
development in any society. Benge (1972:134) rightly observes that “communication
difficulties represent one more symptom of underdevelopment and it emerges that the
factors which limit communication are those which prevent development”. The issue here
relates to a number of concerns such as whether the communication system currently in
use serves the needs of the people adequate by passing information to them. There is also
the question of clarity of content as to whether such content relates to the social or
political reality of the people.
It has been well noted that there is great difficulty in getting information to all
nooks and crannies of Africa via the modern mass media. The huge financial stakes
constitutes a formidable barrier. Although satellite communication has taken giant strides
towards solving the problems of information dissemination, access to information
remains the exclusive preserve of a few elites. Communication through print requires
some level of education for the intended receiver to relate to the content, besides, such is
at a high cost to the receiver. As for electronic media, it has been observed that
broadcasting is restricted to only a few urban areas. For example, in Nigeria, even areas
designated as urban do not have electricity power supply and only a few elites who can
afford electric power supply generators generate electricity for themselves. They are the
people who receive broadcast messages. Even then, those who wish to get relevant
information via satellite broadcasting have to access such information at astronomical

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cost. According to Anibeze (2006:32) reception of satellite signals in Nigeria is the
costliest in the world. According to him while it cost N1,800 per month for DSTV
reception, in Germany, people were paying N9,000 in Nigeria for the same services.
Again, when the content of the modern mass media is analysed, it would be
discovered that it does not relate to the social reality of the rural dwellers who may not
know how to profitably utilize a broadcast reception facility like satellite television. For
one, the rural dwellers are still largely homogenous. Yet the mass media relate to their
audience on the basis of a differentiated mass of individuals who receive messages in
their separate destinations with different experiences. One can best understand and relate
to the content of a message when it is passed through a familiar medium. The best
medium in this regard is the traditional communication system with which the rural
dwellers are familiar and fully understand. This will definitely confer credibility on the
message because of the face-to-face mode employed by the system.
Besides, these modes continue to perpetuate the people’s identity. Kwesi Yaukah
(1992) has emphasized that these modes constitute the emporium that records the
societies’ values, ethics, culture and history. Through such communication, the people’s
myths proverbs and stories are stored and transmitted from generation to generation,
there by perpetuating the people’s identity.
It has been noted that these modes were evolved in relation to the needs of the
society. Ipso facto, there was no need to send message to distant places. Flowing from
this very fact, it becomes not necessary for the African to get information about distant
places. Especially when the information may not be relevant to his social or political
reality. This point becomes crucial in view of a critical analysis of Osmo Wiio’s assertion
to the effect that:
The important of a news item is inversely
correlated with the square of distance ….. in
plain language, the law means that a fist fight in
my neighbor’s family is to me a more important

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 news item that 10, 000 persons killed 10,000
miles away. (Cited in Goldhaber, 1983:13)
Flowing from the above, is the fact that our technological development is still at its
embryo stage, making globalization a phenomenon restricted to the urban area that make
up less than thirty percent of the continent. It must be noted too that the African,
conscious of the need to believe only what he sees, hears or feels and touches, may not be
favourably disposed to information whose source cannot be verified. For the local
African to relate to the information from a distant place, such information must relate to
his existence and be seen to bear some consequences for him.
A corollary of the issue of relevance is the literacy level of the people. Every
medium of communication has its own codes. The modern mass media have their in-built
codes which demand a particular level of formal education to enable a consumer of their
offerings to relate to them and make effective use of the information purveyed through
them. But very few countries in Africa (if any) have gone past the fifty percent mark in
literacy of their people. So it becomes quite difficult to get people to make adequate use
of the mass media. This perhaps, accounts for why many people acquire communication
facilities for the wrong purposes such as using them as pieces of furniture used to
beautify the sitting room or as a symbol to claim a belonging to the elite class.
Again, when one considers the cost of acquiring information through the modern
mass media, it would reveal the urgent need for the perpetuation of the traditional
communication system. If print were to be considered in this regard one would discover
the futility in using it to influence the people, especially the rural populace. A cost of a
daily newspaper cost more than one hundred naira. If one were to be informed daily, it
brings the cost to more than three thousand naira monthly. In a country where the official
minimum wage remains five thousand, five hundred naira, it becomes virtually
impossible for the majority to get informed through print. For electronic media, it is quite
clear that only the urban area may likely relate to them.
Even then, it is only those who can afford the astronomical price of acquiring the
facilities that will utilize them for their information needs. In a country where power

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supply is less than three thousand megawatt of electricity, it becomes clear that even the
majority of those who get information through the electronic media do so via other
sources of power supply such as power generators or solar energy which the vast majority
of citizens cannot afford. But the traditional modes are cheap to acquire and professional
personnel or elaborate arrangement.
From the foregoing, it is clear that the use of the modern mass media to
disseminate information to the African has not had the desired effect. Perhaps, this is why
there continues to be squalor, poverty and consequent underdevelopment of the African
continent. It is therefore unthinkable for any modernization (or globalization) to supplant
the African communication system and consign it to our fossilized past. Any attempt at
affecting the continent through information must take into cognizance the prime place of
the African communication system, if such an Endeavour must succeed. Otherwise, the
result would, at best be infinitesimal.
However, it is possible for globalization to integrate the African system. This can
be done by harnessing the system positively. For instance, it could be used to get
information from the remote communities. Then the mass media should broadcast or
disseminate this information as part of its regular feature, to make the people relevant and
for them to relate to the modern mass media.

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PART TWO
Taxonomy of traditional modes of communication
There has often been conflicting opinions as to what truly constitutes traditional
media in Africa. This point has been well noted by Ibagere (1994:81) who opines that as
a result of this semantic confusion, people are led “to regard these modes as mere relies
of the ancient past of the African people”. And this is why there continues to be effort at
supplanting these modes with the modern mass media. It has been noted that absolute
dependence on the modern mass media for information dissemination and influence of
the people has not been successful. And it will continue to be so unless the traditional
modes are equally employed. Various factors (already discussed in the introductory
chapter) continue to make them relevant even in a fast modernizing Africa.
It must be noted however, that modernization is fast eroding the essence of these
modes. The effect of globalization on indigenous culture is quite overwhelming. Many
cultural practices have given way and are on the verge of being lost forever. For example
the usual masquerade dance of children in Benin during the Yuletide season, running
through the period of the Igue festival in December have fast disappeared. Yet such
dances along the streets were part of a useful channel used to communicate some
important cultural values which are then passed from generation to generation. In the
same vein, the use of certain modes in urban areas no longer have any traditional or
culture by which such an area is identified. Thus, a particular symbol could be given an
aberrant or wrong interpretation. For example, the use of smoke to attract attention in a
city like Lagos is virtually impossible because it may be wrongly interpreted. The point
being made here is that the context in which the urban dwellers relate to themselves (job
mobility and social status/class) is quite different from that of the rural dwellers, whose
existence is still largely communal. Thus, they can respond collectively to any given
signal if such a signal requires such collective response.
It must be noted then, that the continued existence of these traditional modes of
communication is contingent on the slow pace of development of the African continent.
Various factors have been enumerated as being responsible for the slow pace of

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development in communication, thereby emphasizing the need for the rural popular to
continue to depend on these modes to sustain their information needs. This leads to the
question of what truly constitutes these traditional modes of Africans in a globalizing
world? The answer to this question forms the crux of the chapter, which will eventually
reveal these modes that have been completely supplanted by the effect of modernization
and globalization. It must be noted that in the context of the modern mass media, the
structure in any medium is determined by ownership which impacts on its mode of
operation. But the traditional African communication system is communally owned with
the society’s leadership acting as chief gatekeepers. So commercial considerations which
bear on patronage have no place in the operations or structure of the system which is
operated in the quest of the society’s advancement.
It has been well noted that the system was fashioned in accordance with eh
different tasks of the sexes as well as the direct experiences of the people. Flowing from
this, the modes become determined by the biological sense of man, and employed in
accordance with social relationship which is the face – to – face kind. In view of these
facts, the modes are, therefore, classified into three major groups – the verbal mode, the
non-verbal mode and the esoteric mode. This classification was made by Ibagere (1994).
However, Wilson (1998:27) based on his study of traditional media in two Nigerian states
(Cross River and Akwa Ibom) classifies the system into six different modes. According
to Wilson these are instrumental, demonstrative, Iconographic, Extramundane, Visual
and Institutional modes. Also Eno Akpabio (2012:3) further builds on Wilson’s
classification and presents ten different modes. These according to him are instrumental,
demonstrative, iconographic, extramundane, visual, institutional, venue-oriented
communication, myths and legends, names and folktales and proverbs.
It should be observed that Ibagere’s (1994) classification best represents our
purpose in the sense that other classifications have gone ahead to include channels as
modes. But Ibagere’s classification is based on communication activity and not where the
activity process. For example, under iconographic mode of Wilson, there is charcoal,
white dove, kolanut, white clay and so on under the objectified class. While under the

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visual mode, there is white cloth and red cloth within the colour class. These two modes
can be conveniently located within symbolography under the non-verbal mode.
Therefore, for clarity and proper taxonomy, the classification by Ibagere (1994) is
acceptable with some expansion where necessary. In this regard, the channels and other
components of communication process are treated in different chapters of this book. The
idea here is that the modes consists a complete from of communication like mass
communication, with their own sources, codes and channels as well as other factors such
as noise and feedback. Each mode, therefore, possesses all the relevant components of the
communication process and should be seen as a complete whole. This is why they can
only be classified into three categories, bearing cognizance of the absence of technology.

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CHAPTER 3
Verbal mode:
The verbal mode is the most widely used mode of communication anywhere in the
world. Wilson and Unoh (1991:23) have posited that “communication is an activity that
is common to all language”. There is no community without a spoken language. This is
the vehicle of the verbal mode. The verbal mode makes use of the human mouth. This
includes all sounds made with the mount as they relate to the spoken word. The verbal
mode itself classified into several sub-groups including, spoken language, songs, poetry,
incantations, and so on.

3.1. Spoken Language: this refers to the code employed in daily conversation or
transaction. It is more appropriately called word of mouth. This is the most common of
all the modes. It is employed to facilitate the operations of the other organs of the society.
Without word of mouth it is hardly possible for the society to be organized into a
meaningful and corporate whole. It is the first mode a child learns and it is what is
employed to bring up the child to bring an acceptable member of the society. Perhaps, it
is only next body language as he mode a stranger learns in his bid to be a full member of
the society alone but other modes may be combined with it to make the message clearer,
or for more effective and appropriate response from the receiver of the message. For
example, one can combine this mode with body language (that is, signs) to ensure clarity
of the message. However, such combination must be functionally effective, for the
appropriate response to be elicited from the recipient of the message.
Proper semiotic analysis of the way a communicator sends his message through
spoken language could reveal the fact that apart from the basic message, it may contain
the latent message that the person is saying he comes from a particular place and should
be accorded such recognition. Thus, pitch of voice, stress of certain vowels and general
appearance of the speaker are all factors that enable the receiver of such a message to
decode and act appropriately.

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3.2. Song: Song as a mode of traditional communication in Africa is very important,
and is used in particular instances. This is a mode that is couched in spoken language and
expressed melodiously in musical succession articulately. Songs are used to express
different feelings or experiences. This is why different songs pertaining to different
occasions. It is the words constituting the song and he melodious way it is traditional
communication system. There are songs to indicate moods. Thus, there are songs to
signify joy, sorrow or victory. In the same way there are songs of war which are used to
psyche up warriors and urge them into battle. There are songs to welcome dignitaries to
occasions of social significance as well as songs of praise, composed to honour respected
members of the society. Mothers have lullaby which they use to make their babies drift
into sleep as well as songs to sooth crying babies.
It is clear from the foregoing therefore, that song as a mode of communication,
performs different functions. There are even songs during labour meant to instill in the
workers the dignity of labour and make them work more diligently. It is in realization of
the importance of song as a traditional mode of communication that Mytton aptly submits
that “songs can teacher, can reinforce the norms of the society and can often provide
reassurance of order and continuity in confused and troubled times” (1983:86). For
example a miscreant in the society becomes the content of a song which is rendered
during such an occasion as the general fishing expedition of the community, thereby
deterring others contemplating engaging in a similar misdemeanor. Thus songs have the
capacity to provide information on socio-economic problems and advice on ways of
solving such problems.
Ibagere (1994:85) notes that song is mostly combined with music especially when
the entertainment function of song is observed. Here both lyrics and melody serve the
function of entertainment function of song is observed. Here both lyrics and melody serve
the function of entertainment which is also a function of communication. In this way too,
the culture of the people is passed from one generation to another, as song encompasses
culture. For example social groups may emphasize their identity and objectives through
their songs. Thus songs relate to occasions of traditional significance.

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3.3 Poetry, Chant and Incantation: Ibagere (1994:85) conceives of poetry as
language with the most connotative meaning. The language is beautiful and somewhat
elevated and is used to tell of an experience or something, the people or the society itself.
Poetry is usually rendered in verse and he words in this rendition are arranged differently
from ordinary usage. The emphasis is usually on sound. Hence tongue twisters may be
employed. The focus here is the connotative meaning as distinct from the denotative
meaning.

Poetry is an integral form under the verbal mode of communication in traditional

Africa. It is therefore rendered at different occasions. It is quite useful for entertainment.
It may be chanted or combined with music. It could be used to praise an important
member of the society and is used as storage of traditional norms and values which,
through such poetry, are passed from generation to generation. An example of this mode
of communication is the popular Ewi poetry in Ekiti state in the South West of Nigeria.

Closely related to poetry is chant and incantations, chants are like songs. But while
a song is rendered melodiously and composed with musical articulation, a chant may not.
Thus, while a song is rendered according to note timing, a chant may not. Incantations,
on the other hand, are rendered significantly in praise or worship. Incantations may be
unintelligible to the average person as it could delve into language that is somewhat alien
to the normal everyday language that is in use in the society. This is usually the case
during religious worship. Here, incantation may serve different purposes. It may either be
used to get into character for the performance of a certain task or used to commune with
extra – mundane forces. When this is the case, incantation would fall under the esoteric
mode of communication. However, chant and incantation can also be employed at
occasions designed simply to provide entertainment.

There are other ways of using the mouth to communicate effectively without
employing the spoken language. Ibagere (2003:141-142) talks about the special ululation
referred to as “unu-ubo” among the Isoko people of Delta state in the South – South

18
region of Nigeria. Once the ululation is heard, the reaction is swift as everyone drifts to
the source of the sound to render some help, depending on the source. It is a distress call
to which a beholder is expected to respond either by going there or amplifying it by
repetition to allow it go further.

Closely related to eh special ululation is whistling which could be used to

communicate a hunting expedition. This could be used by hunters during a hunting
expedition. This becomes necessary when the sender of the message does not wish
strangers to understand the message he is sending. This is therefore a special form
understood by a few concerned individuals.

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CHAPTER 4
Non-verbal mode
The forms which constitute the non-verbal mode of communication include all
such forms which make use of any device other than the spoken word, song, chant,
incantation and other related modes which the human mouth uses to pass information to
another. This is not to preclude the combination of forms, such as a form under the verbal
mode with another under the non-verbal mode. Usually such a combination is for a more
lucid and effective dissemination of information in order for the message to be better
understood. Such combination therefore does not invalidate the situating of a particular
form within a particular mode. The treatment under a particular mode results from the
fact that they could be used for communication independent of any other form or mode.
This mode makes use of different signs and symbols. It is their potential to
constitute a valid message that makes them veritable modes of communication. Although
different signals may mean different things to different communities, the focus here are
the different symbols being examined as capable of passing messages through
appropriate interpretation by beholder, not necessarily the meaning. The non-verbal mode
of communication, in a nutshell, can be appropriately classified into the following
groups:

4.1 Body Language: The body has the capacity to send signals which, appropriately
interpreted, would reveal very important information that a beholder is expected to
respond to. Body language involves all the signs and gestures made with any part of the
body for the purpose of communication. According to Amali (1990:12) “these gestures
and signs contain and emanate messages with meanings”. According to Ibagere
(1994:87), “body language involves actions such as facial contortions, walking and other
movements which are used to communicate messages”. Handshakes and other ways of
contact between persons are all ways of passing information. This is why, for example,
certain tribes allow only minimal physical contact between both sexes especially if they

20
are marred. For instance, it is traditionally wrong for a man to shake hands with a women
among the tribes of the Niger Delta in delta State of Nigeria.
Body language can be combined with any other mode for effective
communication. For instance, proper semiotic combination with, say spoken language at
a social function would definitely make for a more lucid dissemination of the message. It
should be noted that it is the circumstance as well as the geographical area and culture
that determines the gesture and the interpretation to be assigned to it. This is because, the
signs and symbols are not universal. So one has to be familiar with a particular culture for
proper interpretation and response to be elicited.

4.2 Body Adornment, hair Style and Marks

Body adornment relates to all forms of apparel wore by a person as a member of
the society. It includes other properties, such as walking stick, headgear, cap, beads,
shoes, bangles and other jewelry that help to define or identify the person.
In Nigeria, it is generally accepted that the manner of a person’s dress reveals the
area of origin of that particular person. Thus it is easy to distinguish the Northern from
the Westerner and the southerner if they are found together, by their individual attires. In
the same way, one can distinguish a chief from an ordinary person within the same ethnic
vicinity. These attires are worn with a view to communicating something. For example
royalty or chieftaincy commands respect and authority as well as responsibility. Thus
while a chief or a royal figure appears and expects response encapsulated in absolute
respect, the people equally expect him to conduct himself appropriately as the
embodiment of truth, fairness and justice (which he represents).
Traditionally, maidens are known by the they are nursing mothers. All these are meant to
send clear signals to beholders and get them to respondent to those concerned
appropriately. At any occasion of social or cultural significance, different social and
cultural groups such as women’s build or hunters accentuate their identity with their
attires, sometimes in combination with songs or dances.

21
 Niger Delta Woman Niger Delta Man
This expression of identity also has a lot of cultural values embedded in it. Such attires
show that anybody so dressed is a respectable member of the society who should be
treated with dignity. From interaction at such occasions the younger generation learns
social values such as humility and other norms that one should uphold to enable him
command respect in the society. It is clear then that adornment contributes to the
transmission of norms and values from one generation to another.
Hair style as a way of communication is equally important. Traditionally, different
age grades of women wear different hair styles. Thus, it is possible to identify the age
group of a particular woman by her hairstyle.

Benin Woman Benin Chief and Wives

In certain communities, maidens wear particular hair styles. In the same vein
young men about to be initiated into age grades may be required to shave their heads as
part of the ritual of initiation. All these are meant to send the message about their status to

22
all beholders and elicit a particular response from them. For example, shaving one’s head
is generally regarded as a sign of mourning the death of a loved one or an important
personality in the community. Today, one of the areas where hair style is an important
form of passing information is Benin Kingdom in Edo state of Nigeria. The death of the
Oba means the entire inhabits of the kingdom must shave their hair as a mark of
mourning and reverence for the departed monarch. This was the case when Oba Akenzua
II passed on in 1978. It was a spectacle seeing all the men in Benin City with skin heads
at the time. Also, the Uguakpata Chief in Benin Kingdom ahs a particular hairstyle that
easily makes him identifiable. This is a style in which the frontal part of the hair is
allowed to grow while the back is cut with a clear demarcation between the front and the
back. Thus, a beholder of such a chief need not be told before according the chief the
respect he deserves.
Just as the dressing of a person gives that person an identity, so marks on parts of
the body give identify as well as pass information. A newly installed chief displays
certain marks on his body made with white chalk. There are other marks especially
during special occasion which mark out those who have them and communicate
something about such people. While these may be of a temporary nature, there are other
kinds of marks which are more permanent. These include facial marks and body tattoo.
These communicate different messages t any beholder, about the person having them.

Masks Depicting Facial Marks

23
 Ordinarily, facial marks generally announce the identity of the person having
them. Thus an Itsekiri man may be known by the tribal marks he has on his face. So is the
Yoruba man. Even among the Yoruba people, different ethnic groups have marks distinct
from others. Thus the Oyo man may have marks that the markedly different form the
Ijebu man or the Ekiti man. By the fact of such identity a beholder is told or expected to
behave in a certain way in relation or the Ekiti man. By the fact of such identity a
beholder is told or expected to behave in a certain way in relation to the man with such
marks. However, some of these marks may be made for aesthetic purposes. That is, they
are used for enhancing the beauty of the one who has them. Some children are believed to
be reincarnates. For example, some children are believed to be reincarnates of those who
have died. The Ogbanje phenomenon (known as abiku in Yoruba) is germane here. It is
believed that an Ogbanje child would usually die before the age of puberty and re-enter
the mother’s womb to be born again and again. Such a child may have such marks which
appear to mutilate the face, all in the belief that it can stop the child form dying. Such
marks may also send the message that he beholder is an Ogbanje and should elicit some
repsoen such as pity or supplication so that he can stay alive, or score because the mother
is being unjustly punished by such a child.

A Benin Uguakpata Chief

24
 Closely associated with facial marks are tattoos. Tattoos are designs which are
made on any part of the body for any purpose the person may deem fit. Traditionally,
tattoos connote different things. According to Okome (2003:70) “the exercise of tattoo
design in Udu (Delta State of Nigeria) may be considered as part of an initiation rite. It is
mostly practiced by members of the female sex”. This has to do with initiation into
womanhood; whereby the marks are made on the lower part of the used to indicate the
age grade a person belong to. Particular age grade may have the canoe sign on the face
while another may have the smoking pipe sign. Such signs indicate the senior or junior in
such a situation would be expected to accord the senior he traditional respect that senior
deserves.
Today, tattoos are fast losing their traditional relevance. But they seem to have
acquired a new significance across the globe. Youths now have all kinds of tattoos all
over their bodies as could be notice in many sports personalities, musicians, actors and
even fans of such stars. Even cult groups identify their members with the tattoos peculiar
to them. Such tattoos would make a fellow cult member recognize his colleagues and
behave in a particular way towards body adornments an important mode of
communication in Africa. Traditionally, it is usually to pass a message or serve some
other function like other forms of art, which must be functional to be of any significance.

4.3. Symbolography: This includes all the communication devices which do not
involve the human body. They are signs and symbols which are physical in nature and
form. Symobolography does not include symbol, dance is a human construct effected
with the human body. This means the human being must be physically present for dance
to be performed. This is not the case in symbolography. Physical presence of a person
may not be necessary. This mode is also different from music in the sense of immediacy
of music. That is while music is instantaneous and should be heard immediately for nay
message to be conveyed symbolography may be expected to register and pass the
message at a liter period after the message has been conveyed. This does not detract from
the fact that both dance and music can be symbols of certain things and events.

25
Warning Against Trespass
Symbolography includes such devices as placing objects in certain ways to convey
particular meaning to beholders. A person who wants to convey the message of his
ownership of a piece of land only needs to place certain objects on the land. When a piece
of cloth is tied round a fruit tree, it may mean in injunction that body should harvest the
fruits of such a tree without the permission of the owner. In the same way certain objects
such as animal skull and bones including other objects like young palm fronds at a place
in the bush symbolize a shrine where sacrifices are made to a deity. It is important to note
that colours are very important in symbolography. The three most sued colours are red,
white and black. These colours have religious significance. Religious devotees attach a
lot of importance to these colours. Colours of such devotees’ attires are usually white and
red which signify different things to them, which them identify different things to them,
which give them their identify and equally elicit particular response from those who
would wish to associate with time. What the different colours signify slightly varies from
place to place. Hence it is quite unwise to attempt a classification in this regard.
Under symbolography, there are other devices such as smoke, fire and even ashes.
Bushes can be set on fire to draw attention to a particular danger in such a place. So can
smoke be used to attract attention. Knots can also be tied to pass a message to beholders
of such Knots Gun shots or canon could be used to signify the death or funeral of an
important person in the community. It can also be used to warn about danger in the forest.

26
Marks on tress in the forest can be used as directions. Leaves tied together in particular
ways can equally be used to pass certain messages.
It must be noted here that some of these devices have fast lost their communicative
significance by virtue of development and globalization. For instance, the use of smoke
and fire as means of sending messages may no names is to enable people to respond to
those bearing them appropriately when they encounter them.
Despite this erosion of the significance of these devices, symbolography still
constitutes a veritable mode of the traditional African communication system. And it is
employed for the purpose of eliciting particular responses from those who behold the
devices used for the communication activity. It thus depends on the ability of the
beholder to assign appropriate meaning to the object in order for the right response to be
given. For one who is not familiar with the symbols of a particular community it may be
difficult to ascertain the true meaning of a particular object used to send a message and an
indigence familiar with such a device may be employed to interpret the message. It is
however clear, that, despite the shortcomings of this mode, occasioned by the tendency
to, sometimes, give a wrong interpretation, symbolography still maintains its prime place
as a mode of communication in Africa. This is epitomized in the fact of its ability to
ensure communication between individuals who may not be involved in the face-to-face
relationship at that particular time.
4.4 Dance: Ibagere (1994:88) gives a vivid definition of dance as follows:
technically, dance could be defined as
the rhythmic movement of the body in
time and space. In the artistic sense,
dance could be considered in terms of
movement created just for its own sake,
even above its interest of meaning. But
dance as a mode of communication must
be considered against the background of
what meaning it connotes to its viewers.

27
 It is from the foregoing that dance must be seen in its functional context. In Africa,
dance is usually functional. In the traditional context, dance is hardly done for its own
sake, that is, without a social function. There is usually an clement of communication in
African dance. This is why meanings are attributed to dances whenever they are
performed. Thus a dance becomes a symbol when it is completed. In this sense, dance
accentuates the identity of the people who perform it and enhances the perpetration of
such a people’s culture, which it projects to the outside world. In all societies, dance is
used as an expression of social organizations because it differentiates and defines the
roles of individuals. Different social units or groups express their identity in the different
dances they perform during occasions of social significance. Such dances enhance the
cohesion of such groups and make them distinct from other groups. It is during occasions
of social significance that special dances are seen. During such occasions as funeral,
marriage or chieftaincy installation, dances which are special to the occasion are
performed. Usually, the different groups that would perform at such occasions
communicate information not only about themselves but also about the community as a
corporate whole. A beholder therefore learns a lot about the people at such occasions.
However, dance must first be seen as an art which, even though functional, has the
ability to equally entertain and communicate messages. The basic material of dance is the
human body, And it is “the regularity of the movement coupled with the design of the
movement (use of space) that combine to give it meaning” (Ibagere, 1994:89). At the
same time the persons performing the dance equally accentuate the meaning. For
example, y young maidens are expected to perform the dance of maidens. If older women
perform such a dance, it would make no meaning even if they perform it well because,
the dance is meant to communicate about maidens which they are not.
Different dances are, therefore performed to symbolize different things, such as
preparation for war, to celebrate the birth of a child, to celebrate victory or bury the dead.
But most important in the use of dance as a mode of communication, is for a beholder to
be familiar with the culture in which the dance is situated. This is to make for appropriate

28
understanding of the movement as well as what the dance actually symbolizes at the end
of the performance. Lack of proper understanding of the culture may lead to aberrant
interpretation of the dance. That is, a wrong meaning may be assigned to the dance and
lead to a wrong response to the people and their culture.
The foregoing shows that dance could be used for different communication
functions. A dance may symbolize a particular attribute of the people such as purity or
youth. But an ignorant observer might contemplate the dance differently and use it for his
entertainment.
It must be noted too that dance is usually combined with music or song to
emphasize the cultural identity of the people. in this regard, it is the music or song that
dictates the regularity of the dance movement and the entire design of the dance. There is
actually no dance of note that is not combined with song or music. It all goes to suggest
that most of these modes of communication are combined essentially to accentuate the
message.

4.5. Music: Ibagere (1994:90) opines as follows:

Music could be referred to as the
melodic expression of feeling in sound.
This expression is also done in harmony.
Because of its nature, music is divided
into a number of sub-groups through
which Africans communicate.
According to Ibagere, the main feature of music is immediacy. That is, even
though, it could be used to communicate with somebody who is not in the immediate
vicinity of the source, the fact remains that the receiver must hear the music as it is being
rendered in order for him to respond to it.
Music derives its significance in Africa from mostly its ability to communicate on
its own as well as complementing other modes in their communication functions. For
example music complements song to enhance the communicative potential of song. In the

29
same way, it is difficult to contemplate dance in Africa without music. It is the music that
accentuates the form or structure of the dance, thereby enhancing the communicative
essence of dance. The essence of music begins with its ability to attract attention even
without seeing the player of the music. Nobody hates music. Hence it usually attracts
attention anytime it is rendered. With regards to its potential as a mode of sending
information, the important thing is for one to be conversant with the cultural background
of the music in order to appreciate its beauty and understand the message being
disseminated and be affected by it. This, however, does not preclude the fact that music,
like dance, can be performed for its own sake. Music can be enjoyed mainly from the
perspective of entertainment too. It is just that our concern here, is the functionality of
music which is the most important reason for it in traditional Africa.
Music is used in religious worship. This has more significance under the esoteric
mode as particular gods are called to make an impact on the people through music. Even
priests get into character through music. Evil spirits arc exorcised from their victims with
music.
Music is also used to summon the people and get them prepared for war. Usually,
when it is time to gather and go into battle, it is music that is used to summon the able
bodied men. Music is always used to celebrate different occasions. In African societies,
there is hardly any occasion of social significance that is devoid of music. At different
times during such occasions music features prominently. And it is the occasion that
determines the kind of music to be played. Thus the music meant to bury the dead is quite
different from the one used to welcome a newborn child to the world.
It must be noted that music cannot be contemplated or appreciated without the
various media used to render it. Every music has its own form and what is referred to as
the various media arc the different hardware without which music is virtually impossible
to produce. The hardware of music or, rather, the media of the music mode could be
contemplated in the following classification. They may be called instruments. But they
are being classified as media in view of their communicative essence.

30
(a) Idiophone: Ibagere (1994:91) defines the idiophone as “the group of self sounding
instruments which produce sound when they are struck, scratched or shaken”. Each has
its own distinct sound. In this group are the different sizes and shapes of gongs, bell
woodblocks, wooden drum, rattle and other related instruments. Each of these
instruments is used differently mostly in accordance with the type of message and equally
relative to the cultural area in which it is used. This points to the fact that environment
determines the kind of instrument fashioned for the purpose of communication.

Gongs

Different Types of Gongs

Idiophones serve different communication functions. For example, the gong can
be used to summon people to a gathering where issues affecting the community are
31
discussed and decision taken in respect of such issues. Most idiophones, however are
used to complement song especially during occasions of social significance. During such
occasions songs and dances are presented accompanies by music featuring idiophones. It
is pertinent to note that it depends on the group presenting the dance or song as regards
which idiophone to use. Thus, little children might employ only the gong to complement
their dance, while older groups may use the
wooden block and other instruments.
Today, the idiophone seems to acquire a new significance bordering on its use to
satisfy the communication needs of the people that a modem medium should have
satisfied. The bell, for instance is used by the town crier to draw attention to his message
before he says it. But in schools today, it is the bell that is used to communicate to school
children. Several messages are passed in this way; such as commencement of lessons,
change of lesson, time for break as well as time to close for the day. It goes to further
emphasize the fact that these traditional modes of communication are still very relevant
today despite the giant strides taken to globalize the world through developments in
communication.
(b) Membranophone: According to Ibagere (1994:91) membranophones are instruments
“from which sound is produced through the vibration of membranes which have been
stretched over a hollow cavity”. As the term suggests, the instrument refers to all the
types of skin drums in use in all African societies.
The different sizes produce different sounds, while the degree of stretching of the
membrane (skin) equally accentuates the sound. Also the intensity as well as how hard
the drum is hit, all produce different sounds which connote different messages. The
particular message derives from the particular community using the particular drum.
Thus, a community beats the drum to summon its warriors to assemble for battle. The
same type of drum may be beaten differently even by the same community to send a
different message. It is therefore, the way the drum is beaten and the particular sound
produced that gives meaning to the communication activity via this particular mode.
Thus, it is the interpretation that matters in the use of the membranophone. The Yoruba

32
talking drum is quite germane here as regards the use of the membranophone to
communicate. There are different sizes, which are used for different communicative
purposes. Just as it could be used strictly to entertain, it could be employed to denigrate
another. It could be used to praise as well as tell a story. It must be emphasized that the
ability to interpret the various sounds correctly enhances one’s understanding of the
message. This is why one who is not familiar with the language of the particular area in
which the drum sounds may not derive any meaning form such sounds.

Yoruba Talking Drum

For the appropriate sound to be produced, the membranophone is beaten either

with the palms and fingers or with well carved sticks. This does not detract from the fact
that some membranophones are strictly meant to be beaten with hand while others are
strictly to be beaten with sticks.

33
Different Types of Drums

The foregoing regarding the primacy of the message and recipients of such a
message necessitate why some particular membranophones are reserved for some
particular occasions or events. There are some festivals which are celebrated every five,
seven, ten or fifteen years. And there arc drums beaten only during such festivals. The
message disseminated by such a drum would thus accentuate the character and message
inherent in such a festival. And only those familiar with the festival would interpret the
message appropriately.

It is clear from the foregoing that the membranophonc is one of the most important
modes of non-verbal communication in Africa. There is hardly any occasion of social
significance that does not involve the use of the membranophone. In some cases, the
instrument in conjunction with other paraphernalia of the user gives, or accentuates the
identity of the person. And this would compel a beholder to respond to the user of the
instrument in a particular way expected by the user.

(c) Chordophone: This refers to the group of instruments which makes use of a string
stretched from one end to another. When pressure is exerted on the string, it produces

34
sound that is used to disseminate messages. Chordophone can thus be defined as any of
the instruments that produce sound through the exertion of pressure on string. This
includes all types of string instruments whatever name they are called — guitar, harp,
lyre and other related instruments. The pressure is usually exerted with the fingers. Any
instrument could equally be employed to exert this pressure and the sound is made when
the pressure is released intermittently.

Several string instruments abound in Africa. In Northern Nigeria string

instruments are used by most musicians to entertain the people. It could be a one —
string, two-string, three-string or multi-string instrument. One of the most popular
musicians of Northern extraction is Dan Maraya Jos who uses a small one- string
chordophone to entertain. His popularity took him even to Europe and made the
instrument to have international fame.

Chordophone is more pertinent to entertainment as it comes in handy at occasions

of celebration during which a musician comes in to entertain. However, it is used to
communicate messages about the people of that particular area. In this regard then, the
chordophone emphasizes the people’s identity and helps to perpetrate their culture.

A Typical Chordopone

35
 Chordophone differs from place to place. Some have a base made of metal cups as
could be seen in the one used by Dan Maraya Jos. Others are made of different sizes of
gourd, depending on the convenience of the person using it. And it is the base that
determines the sound produced. This is in relation to the material used as well as the size
of the base.
Chordophone can be used to express different moods depending on the dexterity
of the person playing the instrument. It can be used alone to communicate or combined
with other modes. For example, it could be combined with song or other instruments such
as the membranophonc to disseminate information especially during occasions of social
significance. So its significance cannot be restricted to only entertainment.
(d) Aerophone: As the term suggests, acrophone comprises all the instruments that have
to do with air passing through a pipe and producing sound. Usually, the mouth is used to
force air through the pipe in a controlled manner, mostly with the fingers. Such control
produces the sound. This group of instruments includes the flute, horn, trumpet and reed
pipe family. It also includes whistles.
Usually, the horn is well cleaned, dried and a hole is made at the small sharp end
or close to the sharp end. It is through the hole that a blower forces air while covering the
hollow at the larger end. Systematic release of the air blown into the small hole made at
the small end creates the sound which is interpreted as meaning something. The sound,
depending on the kind of horn, could be interpreted to mean a distress call or a
celebration of a good kill during a hunting expedition. It could also be used to signify the
entry of an important dignitary at any occasion of social or cultural significance.
The flute and trumpet arc very significant at occasions of social significance. The
flute could be used to sing the praises of important personalities when they make their
entry into the arena. The flute could also be used to pass different messages even during
hunting expeditions by hunters. The trumpet could be used to announce the entry of a
royal dignitary during occasions of social or cultural importance. This can be noticed
especially in the western or northern parts of Nigeria. For example, the approach of the
Ooni of Ife or Alaafin of Oyo in Yoruba land at any occasion is usually announced by a

36
trumpeter who blows the trumpet loudly. The same applies in respect of any traditional
ruler from the Northern parts of Nigeria, such as the Emir of Kano or the Sultan of
Sokoto. The sound of the trumpet is meant to alert the people about the approach of
royalty and for them to get ready for the usual obeisance to be paid to the monarch. The
size of the trumpet determines the sound and the sound determines the kind of reaction
expected from the people concerned.
Whistles can be employed by hunters or those who are on other expeditions in the
bush. They may use the whistle to inform each other about their location or send distress
calls. The aerophone group of instruments is most visible however during occasions of
social or cultural significance.
Here, the entertainment function becomes a paramount. In this regard, the
aerophone is combined with other forms to communicate to the audience. The whistle,
for example is usually used to signify a change in dance steps during a dance. The
trumpet blown to signify the approach of the traditional ruler is usually accompanied by
drumming which accentuates the message. It is clear from the foregoing that the
aerophone group of instruments functions in different capacities in different
communities. While, then, a particular horn may be blown only to signify war, the same
horn may be used to signify something else in another community. The only connection
is that this group of instruments is an important form of communication and only those
conversant with the culture of a particular place to the extent of understanding that
culture’s codes, would understand and interpret the sound produced correctly and respond
appropriately.
(e) Xylophone: This is the last significant group of instruments under the music mode of
communication. It uses the principle of membranophone to produce sound But the
material used is not membrane It is either wood or metal. Also, it uses horns, with hollow
cavities. Thus, the group combines the form of membranophone . and aerophone.
Wooden or metal bars are constructed and placed over the hollow cavities and beaten to
produce sound. The hollow cavities are placed in a row and it is the size of the cavity that
determines the sound. Most of these instruments are made of cow horns which could be

37
as many as twenty horns of different sizes in a row. It is obvious that the bars cannot be
beaten with the hand. So well — carved sticks are used to strike the bars. The wooden or
metal bars are hard. Hence they cannot be struck with bare hands. The beating area of
some of the sticks may be wrapped with synthetic material to produce the particular
sound desired by the musician.
The xylophone is mainly used during occasions of social significance, when
entertainment is paramount. It usually accompanies other instruments and songs to
produce melodious music. Like other instruments, it is necessary for one to be familiar
with the culture or the instrument itself for proper understanding of the sound being
produced. Otherwise one may assign a wrong meaning to the sound and give a wrong
response to it. This is why one may give an aberrant interpretation to highly symbolic
music. It is thus, necessary for one to be conversant with the cultural codes of the place
the music emanates from, for proper interpretation and appropriate response to it.

(1) Others: Though virtually all notable instruments have been classified, it is necessary
to give a different class to such instruments which may pertain to particular tribes that
may not have been situated within any of the classes so far, enumerated. For example,
sticks have not been classified. So too arc pot drums. Sticks are important musical
instruments which may produce informative sound by hitting two sticks together. The
various pot drums are made from baked clay. According to Doob (1966:100), the pot
drum is “a drum which looks like a water pot and is made of baked clay”. The instrument
used to produce the sound from the pot drum (that is, the beater), is usually made of foam
or discarded cloth folded into a knot. According to Doob (1966:100) the drum is used by
“young girls who are passing through the preliminary stages of marriage, and is used to
accompany chants”. It is clear then that the pot drum is significant in a number of ways,
apart from its entertainment value. It enhances the perpetration of the identity of maidens
as well as contributing to the efficacy of chants. It is however not only maidens that use
the pot drum. It may be used by anybody who desires to disseminate his message. In

38
entertainment, the pot drum accompanies other instruments to effect the melodious
rendition of entertaining music.
It has been fully established from the foregoing that music is a veritable form
under the non-verbal mode of communication in the African traditional pantheon. It will
continue to play this role even in the face of globalization. It is one of the modes that may
be difficult to supplant despite the invasion of foreign values. The likely development in
this regard is the incorporation of African musical instruments into the global music
pantheon whereby other continents would begin to adopt and utilize African musical
forms for their own development. This submission stems from the richness of the African
musical origin and development. It is an area where Africa can colonise the world, since
the continent seems to have lost out in political and economic affairs.

39
 CHAPTER 5
Esoteric
The esoteric mode is a special mode which transcends the physical realm of
communication in which the receiver of the message sees or hears the message. It should
be notes that the two other modes (verbal and non verbal) are physical in nature or form.
But the esoteric mode goes beyond the realm of the face-to-face relationship in the
communication context. Thus while in the verbal and non verbal modes the receiver of
the message must hear, see or touch and feel to interpret the message, the esoteric mode
involve abilities that are superhuman. The mode is therefore operated In the metaphysical
realm. In other to fully understand its operated framework, one has to connect to it
through a long process of initiation and education. The mode embraces such reference to
the supreme God or gods, deities and other extra-terrestrial to this mode as the extra-
mundane form of communication.
The esoteric mode is a complex mode which may involve intra-personal process
that may be interpreted to mean something signification to the people. It could involve
some physical revelation and even momentary personality loss as well as conveying of
cultural celebration. The mode thus incorporates all the other modes which could be
found within this mode contemplated within the metaphysical context for the appropriate
meaning to be derived. The essence then borders on the interpretation of events, things or
symbols that have been experienced on the metaphysical plane as relevant to physical
existence. Ibagere (1994:93) justified the use of the word “esoteric” to describe this
mode in the following way:
The word “esoteric” has been
So chosen to describe this mode
Because of the peculiar
Nature of the mode in that its
Understanding depends, to a
Great extent, on the psychic
Development of the individual

40
 This explains the need for a period of initiation and tutelage. Most of the time,
interpretation may be associated with rituals, especially where answer are needed to
begging question bordering on the spiritual security of the community. This is why such
information that is so relevant is reserved for highly specialized channels to interpret
(such as traditional priests and diviners). The esoteric mode includes the following

5.1. Dreams: drams have beans a very important from the communication since ancient
times. In tact the holy bible aptly note Joseph as the exponent of dreams. As the exponent
of dreams. A dream is a physical happening or event which is experienced when one is
asleep. It take place as a real physical experience which usually comes to an end when
the person wake up. Ordinarily, a dream may be a psycho –me heat experience. But it
assumes a higher significance in the African traditional context. Dreams are regarded as
experiences on a higher plane. They are believed to be messages from extraterrestrial
beings who want to do something done. And act accordingly. In the alternative, he could
reveal the dream to another more spiritually endowed person to interpret, it could be a
direct message that the dreams is asked to deliver to another or ever to the entire
community.
The ability to interpret a dream demands a particularly high level of psychic
development. It demands even a high level of psychic development to interpret another
person’s dream. A dream assumes higher significance with more crucial implications
depending on the status of the dreamers. For example dreamer traditional rule about is
kingdom would taking much more seriously by the people than when such a dreamer
emanates from one citizens with a low status in the society. And whatever the biological
or medical explanation that may be adduced to trivialize the phenomenon dreams will
still be regarded as an important form of communication under the esoteric mode.

5.2 Divination: This is kingdom of peeping into the pest and projecting into the future,
the event of which have implications for the presents. It consist of communication with
the gods ancestors who are believed tore cal such pest and future events. The pest in the

41
circumstance is seen as been responsible for what is happening in the present and
something need to be done happenings in the future or avert them.
The mean by which communication is effected under this form is shrouded in
mystery. It is impossible for a non-initial to be a channel of this process. Individual and
whole communities rely on this form to order their lives, and satisfy their communication
needs. Ibagere (1994:94) declares that essence of this mode is in its enforcement of social
control as whatever.
Message is received is believed to come from the gods or ancestors of the land”.
Thus divination is a kind of inquest as it is geared towards answering certain question put
forward, regarding cause of certain events as well as should be done to propitiate the gods
or ancestors in order to mitigate an impending calamity which will occur if such
propitiation was not done.
Divination is done in several ways. With the diviners using different instruments.
The most common method is the kolanut. The type of kolanut is the one that have four
lobes. These lobes are separated and thrown on a flat plate or even on the ground. In Ifa
divination among the Yoruba, the lobes are classified into male and female lobes. This is
crucial are interpretation derived from the lobes lie on the ground or plate when they
thrown.

Kolanuts

42
Female Lobes

Male Lobes

This is however dependent on the kind of question being asked. For example, two
female lobes lying up with two male lobes lying face is interpreted differently from when
all the lobes lie face up or face down. In interpreted different from all the lobes up or face
dawn.
Another important from of divination is what among the Yoruba is called Opele.
This is an instrumental consisting o the shells of the seeds of a certain tree strung together
and cast on the ground. This was the shells lie is interpreted for the benefit of the person
concerned.
There are various other ways which use other material some way be just a symbols
of water which the diviner gazes into and get a message. One of the most important of
such materials is the cowry. Cowries or cowry shells are important symbols in the
African traditional communication pantheon. In centuries past cowries were the legal
tender until money was introduced.

43
Cowries

Opele

Today they are only contemplated in esoteric terms. Although the cowry possesses
artistic significance, its esoteric essence continues to be paramount as the most likely
place to find it today is the traditional diviner’s abode, which uses it to perform his duty,
either the combination with order material along. While some of the material may be
combined by only one material other may mot, and concentrates on only one material.
Because of connection and supernatural, the existence of some communities
depend on this mode .hence priests and divines are held in high esteem because they are
regarded as link between the people and the gods or ancestors. So whatever message they
bring to the people is high regarded.
The nature of mode demands that tending diviners must to undergo some training.
This training nag takes a very long period depending on the diviner who does training. In
certain cases, the trance never graduates from pupilage unit the death of his master. In
such situations, the pupil remind with master divination under the guidance of the master.

44
 Divination, apart from enhancing the maintenance of social order, also creates an
identity for a particular community. This depends on kind of divination, which varies
from place to place. Thus a particular people could be identity through an examination of
the material they for divination.
It is apparent that divination is necessarily combined with order mode to effect
communication. For example, divination may include incantation, which belongs in the
domain of the verbal mode. It could also involve song in the domain or music, such as an
idiophone, all in a bid to make the message clear.

5.3. Telepathy. This is special mode of communication in which a message is sent by

one individual to another to mean other them the known channels involve the senses.
Telepathy transcends intuition which is a psychological process of descending the truth
without a rational process. Telepathy involves the mind of two individual, who may be
far apart and does not involves song or sight. This mode demands a high level of psychic
development. The individuals involves in telepathic exchange must attain this level to
either send or receive the message as well as interpret the message correctly and act
according.
Telepathy is one very important mode of communication in the African tradition
context. According to Ibagere (1994:94):
African can and do communicate or receive ideas and
messages through their use of the inner and outer
spiritual, human and material powers or force
depending on the relationship and understanding of the
individuals involved in the communication activity.

It is clear then that the most important thing in using this mode is the attainment of
the appropriate level off psychic development to enable one not only to send or receive
the message, but have the ability to send and receive to know when the message is
receive and able to understand the message, it is not strange, for instance, to find

45
someone return to the village claiming to be summoned home and on enquiry, the claim
is found to be true because his family needs him for consultation on certain issues. Yet,
the summons was not physically done.
Thus, telepathy is usually used to send messages to people who may be so far
away or whose whereabouts are unknown and contact with them through any known
means is impossible. In this way, several problems having to do with the presence of
somebody needed to do some community work is solved.
5.4. Others: any other esoteric form of communication is represented under this
category. Thus the at tribulation of meaning to certain natural phenomena because
important to particular communities because they are compelled to respond to such
phenomena in a particular way. The flow of a particular river, the blowing of the wind or
decomposing dead matter could be interpreted to respond in a particular way. A heavy
storm or rain may signify the anger of their gods over a particular transgression, just as
the appearance of a rare breed of animals or birds may demand propitiation if agricultural
yields are to be substantial.
What is of utmost importance is the ability to interpret the natural phenomenon in
the context of communicating something significant. This is why there are people whose
ability of integration has been so developed that they become quite important in the
scheme of things. Their attention is usually called in the event of thing strange
occurrences.
It has been noted that the esoteric mode of communication is the most difficult
mode in the African traditional communication system. This is as result of its source
which involves the extra mundane, that is the gods and other extraterrestrial force. It is
easy to understand message send via other mode. But is as been state that participation
under the esoteric mode demand of particular level of psychic development. This is
needed to send, receive understand and correctly interpret the message to these who are
not so gifted to the extent of understanding such message. In order for one to use this
mode. it is necessary to be initiated. Most time initiation involve certain rituals,
particularly he then assumes a new personality whereby he adopts a then assumes a new

46
attitude to life compelling him to behave in a particular way. For example, in divination,
an ordinary individual cannot partake in act. Only established diviners a9or priests0 and
their acolytes engage in the act. And each must have gone through the process in the act.
Initiation. An ordinary person would not be patronized an no matter how truthful his
interpretation and long period of tutelage that develops his psychic senses that would
enable him to perform appropriately. Such a process would obviously lead to a loss f
personality while assuming a new one.
It is a pertinent to note, however, that the esoteric mode is the one that is been
objected to a lamentable bastardization through modernization with its attendant
globalization. Ibagere (194:95) notes that:
The esoteric mode is the most spurned of all
The modes as a result of social pressure
Resulting from modernization which tends to
View traditional African life as primitive,
Needing change and irrelevant in the present
Scheme of affairs.

This is a result of ignorance or lack f understanding of the more generally, due to

its complexity. Beside, the operator of the mode defies scientific explanation or sound
empirical proof. The complexity too, compels some people to employ the mode wrongly
while other have mode commercialized it. Such developments have move esoteric mode
to become questionable as some on longer believe in its efficacy. This reduces the
significance of this mode. His is why some traditional religion adherents have continued
to claim that some miracle church pastors derive their power from traditional African
practices which consists of the esoteric mode of communication and that the miracles and
prediction or prophecies as well as interpretation of phenomena as could be seen in such
churches are no more than the application of the esoteric mode of communication.
Consequently, the traditional religions claim that such pastors use esoteric powers that
are not linked to the. Holy bible but are connected to the esoteric milieu in the African

47
traditional pantheon. But modernization which has equally impacted people to seek,
whereas these answer could be provided through with a new Pentecostalism has
compelled people to seek answer to pertinent questions about them in the church,
whereas these answer could be provided through divination and endowed to do so.
Traditional rulers in some cases have ever led the bastardization of these modes by
adopting other religions which do not recognize such practices as challenge and fringe
invasion the mode continues to be relevant as there are people who still relate to it and
will continues to use mode to satisfy their communication mode.

48
PART THREE
COMPONENTS OF AFRICAN
TRADITIONAL MEDIA
Introduction
Every communication activity, be it interpersonal or mass communication consists
of certain elements. The elements are common to all communication situations. It must
be noted that the African traditional communication such adjunct system has these entire
element including such adjunct system as advertising and public relations which some
modern scholars have preferred to refer to of persuasive media. Because of the lukewarm
attitude of African this aspect f their existence, even scholars among them tend
contemplate the African traditional communication system is passive terms. It a usually
forgotten that the system the contributed immensely to general African stability.
According to Ugboajah (1972), traditional media has (sic) force and credibility. (Carted
in Wilson and Unoh, 1991-28). The systems can only attributes reticent of such a system.
The system is even more credible as a result of the face-to-face relational interacting in
African. Is clear than that on meaningful development can take place in African if the
system is disregarded.
A critical examination of the African traditional communication system would
reveal the face that the system possesses the same components as these of other modern
mass communication situation. However, this similarity exists only in nomenclature. In
terms of operations, they are queried different. Even the structure is different. Because of
the failure of scholars to properly examine the system or give it an in-depth focus. There
has always been haphazard reference and classification of the system. There is therefore,
no standardized way of viewing the system in terms of its components which are
something referred to modes. For example, a channel, such as the market place or the
gong man has been referred to by some scholars as a mode of communication. But in the
strict sense of classification of element of the communication process, such a component
cannot be taken as complete modes. It is Marcy a components (channel), without which
the communication process is incomplete. But these do not foreclose the possibility of

49
some of this components ever lapping during a discussion of them. There is certainly no
strict of absolute compartmentalization of these forms. The point being mode is for
proper situation of forms within actual precincts. This will definitely serve the purpose of
scholarship better.
Within the context of communication as a scholarly discipline as well as a process
which connects certain elements, the African traditional communication system is here
by found to include the following components; source, content, codes, channel,
gatekeeper, destination, feedback and noise. Each component is hereby examined in some
detail. However. Some elements within the components will be further examined in
subsequent chapters for better understanding. It a communication system cannot be
complete without a critical focus on any of the modes would definitely in-depth on any of
the modes would definitely reveal that each mode include all the components enumerated
in the following chapters.

50
CHAPTER 6
SOURCE, CONTENT AND CODES

6.1 Source: The source in the African traditions’ communication system has peculiar
attributes which differentiate it from the source of the modem m communication
situation. Of course this is contingent on the African way of life that resulted in giving
the system its peculiar character.

The source of the African traditional media is well known. Since the relational
pattern of life is the face-to-face kind, the information is therefore, got directly from the
source. This confers credibility on the e.g. received. Because of the face-to-face
relationship, the information is verified immediately for its authencity. An advantage of
this situation is that the more credit3le the source, the more reliable will be the
information’ this is more so since the source is open to the inquiring eyes of the receiver
of the message.

Again, unlike modem mass communication, the source does not involve a wide
range of job specialization. The source includes those who are in positions of authority
and so can summon the people and pass information to them. This depends on their field
of specialization as they should purvey reliable information. A fisherman, then, cannot be
expected to relay information from the ancestors or the gods. The source is made up of
chiefs, priests, warriors, hunters and other opinion leaders who are involved in. the
different occupations. They, most of the time, also perform the gate keeping function of
the communication process. Theirs is the collective duty of ensuring the continuity of the
community. Therefore, they have the responsibility of ensuring that the information
purveyed is that which fosters societal cohesion and maintaining societal balance. The
source, then, must be seen or perceived to be working in the general interest of the
community for whatever information that emanates from it to be well received. Once the
source suffers problems of credibility a big damage is done which can only the repaired

51
with sincere apology from the source. Only then can confidence be restored to the source.

Also, the source, unlike that of a typical modern mass medium is not owned by anybody.
Thus the source is open to everybody to use. It shows a typical democratic use of the
media. For example, anybody who desires to use even the traditional rulers palace to pass
information may do so, by passing the information to the ruler for dissemination to the
people. It has be stated above that it is the kind information that determines the source.
For example, news about strange characters being encountered in the forest connotes
changer to the life of those engaged in1 farming, specially woeful If this information does
not 4, come from an authentic scrub, the news might be held in abeyance or treated with
levity. The most authentic, source in this instance would be either hunters or farmers who
flush haw encountered such strange characters. If their information is from an unreliable
source, warriors: and hunters may he sent into the forest fox verification of the
information before action is taken unit.

Because of the pulpier nature of the source, whereby no job s1peciaIiation is

involved, huge financial stacks are not port of the establishment of the source. There is no
need for awnings of the staff that would operate the source, as could be sewn in a mass
communication Situation.

6.2 Content: Any communication situation has a content which may be rei3lTed to as the
message or the information that is disseminated. Nwodu and Nwammuo (2006:131) note
this feeler and submit that the contents of traditional communicating arc embedded in •
the channels through which communication is made possible in the rural areas” Citing
Wilson (1994), they list the content of traditional communication to include the following
“news, advertising, directives, public relations, education and entertainment” (131) What
has been omitted from the list is culture which, of course, presents what may be regarded
as the symbol of the people’s identity

52
 News consists of information needed by the people to behave like rational
members of the society, response to human and other natural phenomena and contribute
to the general development of the community. Advertising involves drawing attention to
goods and services for which people pay. Directives refer to instructions passed from
those in authority to others directing them to act that a particular manner. For example,
the traditional ruler may direct that there should be environmental sanitation on a
particular day of the week the town center has the duty to make the announcement round
the community for the people concerned to •respond and act accordingly. The public
relations element can be gleaned from the different modes, which express the
characteristics of certain social groups Those that express their cohesion in dance, song or
music are merely engaged in a public relations activity aimed as presenting such groups
in manner that would endear the group to the audience, The same could be said in respect
of the praise — singing an individual or even the traditional ruler of the community.
Education through the communicator’ process comes in various forms. The message
serves to teach the receivers a lot of things about the people. A: child is made a useful
member of the community through a process of maturation as well as learning the culture
of his people. This is a process which cannot take place in the absence of communication.
The content communication also, includes the people’s culture as could easily he seen in
their dances, music and manner of rehiring to each other as they go about their daily
rituals. This includes such elements as manner of speaking, dressing and other
idiosyncrasies which are peculiar to the people as a corporate body in a particular
environment, flowing from the foregoing; the content is quite crucial to societal balance
in the following ways, which may be the ultimate function of the communication I
process as a whole.

(a) Surveillance of the environment this is a kind of perusal of the environment

to know what is happening in and around the community. The content
determines the extent to which the information would go In news, for
instance, the distribution or dissemination is dependent on the

53
 consequences it would have on the community. Thus, news about danger in
the forest may compel hunters and warriors to search and clear such’
danger. It must be noted though, that the content, on its own, does not carry
out surveillance. Rather, it enhances the people’s surveillance of their
environment, for the purpose of perpetuating their pattern of or modifying
such patterns accordingly.

(b) Social coordination and control. This is the influence of the way the society
is administered, in response to what goes on in the community. This
involves the integration of the physical body with the environment. The
content is used to influence this integration as it tells the people how to go
about it. For example, one has to learn the simple behavior of exchanging
pleasantries through communication. The young are usually admonished on
this and it gradually becomes part of them as they become part of the
corporate whole. The purpose of all this is to safeguard the community’s
culture which its identity

(c) Enculturation: This refer to the teaching learning of Culture As has been
noted beholding the content of communication, people imbibe their culture

(d) Facilitation: This is making things easier refers to the facilitation of the
operations d other social institutions The media here provide the
information needed by the other social institution and make them interact
with them seines. Thus, the content of communication in particular and
enhance the organization Process in general, enhance the organization of
the social system and act like the human body’s endocrine system which is
the engine of the body without which the body cannot function.

6.3 Codes: Every Communication medium has as Own code by which it operates As
the term relates to mass communication it means rules of practice which Black and

54
Whitney (1983) refer to as codes of conduct However, codes in the context of its use here
refers to the different kinds of grammar employed by the: different modes in the
traditional communication system. Each mode has its peculiar grammar or code which a
receiver of the message must understand to enhance proper understanding of the
message. Without Proper understanding of the grammar, the message could
misinterpreted and a wrong response given. it is therefore important for any user of any
of the modes to first understand the code of such mode.

The grammar or code of the verbal mode is the common and everyday language.
Here the task of understanding what is communicated is not as intricate us in a non-
verbal situation. The essence of the verbal mode is interaction, that is, sharing of ideas,
the object of which is the facilitation of the social process. Low ever, the verbal mode
may employ a highly technical or embellished code which may transcend the ordinary
everyday expression. This is when proverbs become part of the expression. This of
course, requires a fuller discussion.

Proverbs are, generally, part of spoken language this buttresses the fact that the
manner of speaking may convey a particular message which is an addition to the actual
message being conveyed. Proverbs are said through word of mouth. They are short
statements of fact which have connotative meanings as different fm the ordinary
denotative meaning. Proverbs must not confuse with poetry which has its own special
form and construction. When a proverb is said, a receiver expected to the cods the
connotative meaning a understand the message. Without decoding connotative meaning,
the message may never understood this is why proverbs are usually referred to as sayings
of the wise. In Igbo land, they are generally defined as the “palm oil with which words
are eaten”. This definition falls mare within the context of center Liniment. Proverbs are
entertaining as they are equally intellectually demanding. There is virtually no occasion
of cultural significance that is devoid of proverbs. At such formal occasions as marriage
ceremony, burial and even general meetings where the development of the community is
discussed, proverbs are usually employed to pass messages effectively. It is the ability to
55
decode the connotative meaning accurately that ensures the success of the message. It is
the occasion as well as the incident being referred to that determines the type of proverb
that is rendered. This is why different proverbs arc fit for different occasions. Thus, there
are proverbs for all situations. There are proverbs to warn against danger, to advise
against a particular action, or express an opinion and so on. For example when one says
worm that destroys the kolanut lives. Inside the kolanut”, he may mean that the because
of the problem (if it is a problem) in a household within the household. Therefore, there is
the need to look inwards for a solution, rather than elsewhere that may not yield any
result. In the same vein, a proverb like “the rain does not fall on one roof alone” may be
used to express the fact that the issue being referred to, concerns everyone in the vicinity.

It must be noted that proverbs cannot, on their own constitute complete modes of
communication. Rather, they are part of the semiotic phantom in the communication
process. One cannot communicate by mere rendition of proverbs to a receiver. Proverbs
are lied to issues being discussed. They complement spoken language and enhance
effective communication through spoken language. They cannot, on their own, be modes
of communication capable of eliciting a response in the absence of the spoken language.
They serve as embellishment to the word of mouth. They can, at best, be regarded in
terms of style of expression in communication within the spoken language form as
encapsulated in the verbal mode.

The non-verbal mode makes use of the kind grammar which needs more attention•
because it demands a deeper concentration and consideration in order to fully
comprehend the message. The non-verb mode, essentially, is the expression of inner
feelings, their very object of which is the making of the communicated feel what the
communicator feels and respond accordingly, using forms other than the spoken
language. The code then, refers to the signs and symbols employed to convey the
message that a beholder in expected to respond to. These signs and symbols arc usually
specific and universal to the partial’ community that employs them. This means that they
must be common enough in the community to the expertly of their being understood by
56
all the members of the community. These signs have been adopted based on the
experiences of the people. This is why a particular sign may mean different things to
different communities. This is also why it is absolutely necessary for one to be well
acquainted with the cultural signs and symbols of the people before communication can
be effective and ‘be seen to have occurred under the non-verbal mode. Such acquaintance
is necessary to obviate the problem of aberrant interpretation of the message which might
occur.

The, esoteric mode is the .most complex in terms of code or grammar participation
.under this mode has been noted, to however a process if initiation. One has to be
initiated into: tit extramundane scheme of things before one can be involved in the
communication process this is because ‘of the abstra4 characteristics and the seemingly
inexplicable form in which the process of communication takes place. This abstraction
relates to the fact that no physical evidence can be adduced to prove that communication
has actually taken place and the process itself takes place on the metaphysical plane. This
is in sharp contrast o the other modes which operate on the physical pleura with physical
evidence to prove that the process has talon place.

The code of the 6oteric mode is therefore shrouded in mystery as an ordinary

person cannot speak or understand the language of such extra-terrestrial beings as the
gods, with is marine forces or spirits and so on. This necessitates initiation it is also
pertinent to note that such initiation emails the initiate to possess a dual personality —
one, us ordinary, physical. Self reminiscent of the character, sticks of every other person,
and his extrarnundane esoteric self. Who ‘sees and communicates with these esoteric
beings, whose activities’ arc believed to affect ordinary physical human beings. For
example, a mentally ill girl may diagnosed as having an extraterrestrial husband residing
in the water. It then becomes a battle between the extraterrestrial and the physical. It is
either she loses her physical self by dying and joining the extraterrestrial husband or she
remains a mentally unbalanced person. The mental imbalance stems from the fact that the
extraterrestrial husband would he appearing to her from time to time, needing her
57
attention. But she would be the only one seeing him. And as she talks to him or rebuffs
him, people seeing her would begin to contemplate her in insane terms because they see
her as communicating with a non-existent person, which, ordinarily, is madness. In the
alternative, the extraterrestrial husband Fills be propitiated or placated with certain items
to crimple him to release the girl to live a normal earthly life.

The above is a complex process involving, first, knowing that the problem is
beyond the physical. Then there is a diagnosis to know the cause, then what remedy, and
finally, how the remedy should be applied. AIF these involve communication. First, the
ability to know the esoteric nature of the problem, then the diagnosis and what the
extraterrestrial husband needs to placate him and then the presentation of the items.

Finally, pleading with him to accept the items and extracting his promise to let go
of the girl in question. In all this, non-initiates, even Hough present, may never
understand what is going an. It is only when the diviner or priest tells them his findings
that they know the lore going remains the reality in all esoteric communication situations.
Only initiates can see, hear and understand witches and wards, or other extraterrestrial
brings such as marine spirits or Ogbanje the spirits. The initiation is a special rite which
is sacrosanct in making the esoteric mode of communication a meaningful part of the
African’s existence, Without such rite, the person concerned would, at best, be a lunatic
whose communication would be regarded as the ranting of a and person. Without general
recognition, any claim to the ability to communicate with the extraterrestrial can only be
regarded as mental derangement. Hence a mentally-ill girl who may claim to be talking to
her extraterrestrial hushed may only be contemplated in terms of mental development
brought upon her by that husband due to there refusal to join him. He must there force be
placated for her to be released to live a normal physical life.

With regards to initiation, one has to willingly submit himself. The alternative,
there are those who have been compelled. For example many priests’ initiates have
claimed to be compelled to adopt. Position which is invariably connected with tradition

58
religions so different forms of initiation abound and the vary from place to place. They
equally vary with regard to the kinds of extraterrestrial beings. So, the kind initiation
required for communication with an ogbanje spirit for instance may be different in Asaba
in Delta State from that required in Nekede in Imo state of Nigeria even though the same
phenomenon is being focused on. It also explains the differences in the experience of the
same phenomenon in different environments.

59
CHAPTEER 7

CHANNELS AND DESTINATION

7.1 Channels: Every communication activity or process uses a channel. There is no

medium of communication situation of communication without a channel. The channel in
any communication situation refers to the conduit through which the message or
information passes to the receiver Tosanwumi (1994:7) submits; that the channel “is the
conduit through which the medium chosen is passed to the receiver”. Dc Fleur and Bali-
Rotech (1975:128) see the channel as the device by which information is moved across
space. There exist a number of channels in the African traditional communication system.
if we consider the modern mass me4ia which one must either tune, or subscribe to by
Payment of a fee (for example buying a newspaper or magazine) we discover that the
channel in a typical traditional communication situation is not expensive and very simple
to relate to. The channel refers to what conveys the information to the people. By this is
meant, the “where or whom or what the people receive the information from. The channel
of the African traditional communication system therefore includes, but not limited to, it
following: Announcements arc equally made here. For example during an entertainment
event, information from a recognized authority could be relayed. The village square also
serves as the community playground which. Children exhibit their acts, such as
moonlight plays and storytelling. Other deliberations, such as meetings various groups
take place here too.

The codes employed in this channel may be verbal, non-verbal or esoteric. It could
be verbal when the announcement of important information is made by anybody
appointed to do so. in this regard, it is everyday word of mouth that may be used, which
everybody is expected to understand, It could he nonverbal when music and dance are
used to pass vital information to the people. And it may be an esoteric code when
divination is made. Such divination may become necessary when an intractable problem
has confronted the people and such divination is needed to find a solution to the problem.

60
In this ease, every member of the community may be required to be present during the
divination, including even the traditional ruler. The perhaps, explains the significance of
the village square and why it is usually located at the village centre, which is accessible
to everybody.

(v) The Traditional Ruler’s Palace: The concept here includes the compounds of
notable chiefs who command authority in a particular community. A message emanating
from the traditional ruler may be given to a chief to make available to the people. Such a
chief may then summon some people who may make up the majority of the people or the
opinion leaders, and the message is given to them for further amplification to all the
nooks and crannies of the community. The traditional ruler’s palace in this regard
becomes the most important channel, or at least, one of the most important channels. This
is especially in terms of the community’s security. Important decisions concerning the
community’s development or survival arc taken at the ruler palace before the information
is disseminated to the people. People could be equally summoned to the palace to hear
the information if the ruler so wishes.

The code of communication applicable to the channel is the am as that of the

village square, that is the verbal, non-verbal and the esoteric. The application of the code
is ä also the am way as in the village square.

(iv) The Royal Bard, Town Crier or Gun gong man:

This is the channel that performs the duty of information dissemination like a modem
mass communication: medium. It operates like the broadcast media. Ugboajah (1972),
cited by Konkwo, (2006:142) sees the town crier or gong man as one “who must amuse
the attention of his audience first by deft combination of the Ekwe, ogene or Opi with the
verbal component of his message in order to achieve maximum effectiveness”. Konkwo
sees the gong man in this connection as a traditional broadcaster. The town crier is the
main transmitter of news in a typical African traditional set up. He goes round, beats his
gong or wooden drum or rings his bell to attract the people’s attention. Then he passes,

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the message to them. The royal bard tells the people about the traditional ruler. From him
the people understand the mood of the ruler and even what goes on in his household.
Depending off the kind of message, the bard or town crier may employ any of the codes
of the established modes.

iv) Traditional Priests and Diviners: These on situation the channel through which
esoteric information emanating from the extramundane realm is passed to the people.
They explain what the message is. Otherwise the people may not understand what is
required of them. Whatever they say as emanating from the gods goes without quaint
because they are the only ones so endowed to communicate with such extramundane
beings.

This particular charnel operates in a special way. Somehow, this channel becomes
important when a particular probed confronts somebody or even the entire community,
such as strange illness or an epidemic. A search for suction would lead the people to the
diviner or priest who Ail then use his paraphernalia to get the solution from he gods,
through the esoteric mode of communication. Lahore is any other way to effect
communication with the extramundane beings except through this channel. The only
other esoteric means are dreams which may still be subjected to some verification via this
mode.

(v) Age Grades and other social organizations: These are societal institution; through
which information permeates the society. These include the women’s guild, youth
groups, hurter’s guild, maidens and so on. Each group has a way of making its presence
felt in the community. And each has a way of disseminating information concoction the
group among the people In the same way, any information concerning them and which
emanates from a higher authority: be disseminated to some of their leaders for fun
dissemination among their members.

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(vi) Others: Other channels through which message are passed to people include the
home, and streams rivers and even places of celebration. The home is the emporium from
which the child begins to learn the cultural traits of his people. This cannot be
successfully done in the absence of communication. The family they is an important
institution which serves as a channel of information dissemination. The stream side or
river side equally serves as an important channel from which people get useful
information. This happens as they go to fetch water for domestic use. Gossip and
information sharing take place as they go about their duties; such information is taken
home and further spread to the extent that, depending on the importance of information, it
may permeate the entire community within a very short tithe. Other channels such as
different occasions that take place in different venues include such occasions as marriage
or festivals Different people. .from far arid near do attend such occasions for different
reasons. Some may be tourists; some may be visiting for spiritual edification while others
may be visiting for fun. Since they spend much time with other, the opportunity to
exchange may be quite vital or crucial for a particular community, as the so got could be
used to enhance development.

7.2 Characteristics of channels

The channels of the African traditional Communication system have characteristics that
are similar to those of the modem mass media. However, they have other characteristics
which are peculiar to hem and which are not found in the modem mass media. It is
needless attempting a comparative enumeration here. Rather the characteristics of the
African traditional system arc hereby enumerated and one can then differentiate between
them.

(i) The channels of African traditional communication are public. They are
open to everyone to use depending on the kind o information to be passed.
The enamels are not hidden. They arc. Not Under anybody’s control except
such channels’ as the traditional ruler’s palace or priests. And diviners. But

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 this does not imply any restricted to the extent that one who wants to pass
information via the king’s palace its and interact with ethers, the
opportunity to thongs information is thus presented Such an exchange may
be quite virtue or crucial for a particular community as the infarction so got
could be used to enhance development.

(ii) Messages are slow. This is unlike modem mass communication, where
messages are very fast and not repeated. Under the African traditional
communication system, the messages are also repeated. The essence of
repetition is to ensure lucidity and for everyone to hear and understand the
message. In some cases, the people have the opportunity to ask questions
relating to the message to ensure clarity. For example, when the gong man
is making an announcement round the village, anybody may stop him and
ask him any question relating to the y message. He has the duty to any
appropriately to clear any ambiguity. Such a person may even correct the
gong man in relation to certain aspects of the message, such as the code
used or part of the content would be denied the opportunity. Channels like
market, village square or even the town crier are public entities which open
to use by the people.

(iii) Channels serve large audiences, relative w the size of the community in
question. This is because there are no specialized audiences as the case in
modem mass communication. Only in some special cases would there be
specialized audiences. This most especially concerns security matters or
other classified information which needs to be censored. But generally,
anybody may be part of the audience irrespective of interest, in any
traditional communication situation.

(iv) Channels enlarge events. They amplify what has occurred which may
otherwise have been insignificant, but for the channels. For example

64
 somebody may die in the quiet of his home. When the news gets to the
market place, it will be enlarged to cover the entire community. This is
irrespective of the person’s status in the continuity. Such a person would
otherwise have had a not too elaborate funeral but for the enlargement of
the event of his death that weld be the concern of the entire community
because the news got to the market and got anile fid and made significant.
This means that the channels, like modem mass media, have the capacity to
set agenda for the people.

(v) As has been well notes and discussed under market, the channels in most
cases displays the two-stop flow system of communication. This has
already been adequately discussed and need no repetition here

7.3 Functions of Channels

From the foregoing, it could be noted that most of the characteristics of channels
are actually functions. However, they could be regarded as inadvertent functions. The
channels have de facto, particular4 functions, these are:

(i) To articulate the main lines of the established cultural consensus about the
nature of reality. This, of course, is contingent upon the people’ experiences
which have compelled them contemplate reality in their own particular. Terms
Thus, the village square, for example which, serves the purpose of channel will
regards to such non-verbal communication as dance or music only emphasizes
such reality from the people’s cultural perspective.

(ii) The channels also ensure that members of the society arc warped into the
established value system. These borders on individual relationships as part of
the entire social system. This includes such social relationships as that between
the young and the old, male and female, husband and wife, ways of exchanging
pleasantries, how to treat strangers and other social practices. For cxam1e, a
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 Yoruba man cannot fail to observe such a practice as prostrating in a typical
channel like the palace of an Oba in Yoruba land. If he fails, by omission, he
would be corrected, thereby compelling him to respect that value.

(iii) The channels serve to assure the society and its culture of their practical and
physical adequacy in the universal nexus, by affirming and confirming its
ideologies, philosophy and mythologies. This is achieved through active
interaction with other cultures or societies. During interaction in the market, for
example, people of other cultures would definitely display their cultural values,
side by side those of the indigenous. Such a process may make The people of
the indigenous culture stick fact to their own if they find their values better that
those they have interacted with.

(iv) The channels also serve to expose any practice inadequacy in the society’s
sense of. Itself, this might result from changing conditions that are predicated
on the society’s interaction with other societies, or from pressure within the
community. The essence of this is for a possible reordering or modification of
the existing ideology, or an outright change of the cherished or established
philosophy.

(v) The channels, by virtue of their functions, so far enumerated, also serve to
assure the members of the community that their status, positions and identity
are guaranteed by their culture. Of course, this is why they would continue to
cherish the culture and maintain its values. Any culture that becomes
inadequate and has been so portrayed by the channel is ultimately due for
modification or change.

(vi) The channels finally, by these means, so far enumerated; transmit a sense of
cultural membership from generation to generation. A critical examination of
these particular functions of the channel would reveal similar roles which the

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 modern mass media play John Fiske and John Hartley (1984) in their study of
television have discovered that the medium performs these particular
Functions. They, in fact enumerated these functions and I ken the role of
television to that of the royal bard (cited Ibagere 2009:18). This goes a long
way to emphasize [tic significance of the channel as a component of the
communication process. The foregoing equally shows the prime place the
channel occupies in the African traditional communication system and
forecloses any argument as to the completeness of the system and whether-it
satisfies what can actually be referred to as a communication system.

7.4 Destination:

The destination is the terminal point of the message which originates in the source.
All along the information passes through the channel and terminates at the destination
which reacts to it. The destination is made up of the particular people the message or
information is meant for and from whom a response expected. The destination has a
number characteristics which differentiate it from the destinations of modern mass
communication.

(i) The destination is made up of a large number of people. This depends on the
channel being used. For exosmic the number of people in the market would,
definitely be larger than they number of people who converge at the priest of
diviner’s place to get vital information. The priest or diviner’s place may
equally serve a bigger audience than the home of an individual or the stream’
or ‘river side. This largeness of size is also relative to the size of the
community; A “large number of people” in once community nay be just a
fraction in another commonly.

(ii) The destination could be individuals who get the message or information and
later interact with other individuals or groups of individuals or groups of

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 individuals. They then pass the message to those individuals or groups. The
destination could also be a mass of the whole community depending on the svc
Here, everybody could be summoned to the village square to receive a
particular crucial information.

(iii) By virtue of the ‘fact that the destination must see or hear the message for the
process of communication to be complete, it follows that, the destination may
or may not be physically separated from the source. In mass communication,
the source and destination are separated in time and space. In the African
traditional system, this separation is not a notable feature. The destination is
separated only in certain cases. For example the use of symbol graph such as
grass being tied to convey a message or signs being made on trees in the forest,
the destination may be separated from the source in time and space. In some
other cases, such as the esoteric mode, the destination may not be separated
from the source at all.

(iv) Filters do not exist in the destination of the African traditional communication
system. This is as a result of the homogenous structure of the traditional
African society. Filters refer to those situations which affect the way the
receiver interprets the message. Several factors in such situations impact or
interfere with the capacity of the receiver to interpret the message. There are
kinds of filters:

(a) Physical filters. These refer to the internal state of the receiver which may
determine how he perceives the information. For example, a hungry person
may not care much for information until hunger is satisfied. A person in a good
state will definitely perceive the message better.

(b) Cultural, filters. This arc the learned meanings assigned to different
concepts. Such learning is acquired over time and may influence the way a

68
 person perceives information. For example, the concept of “African time” in
Nigerian parlance has acquired much prominence to the extent that one has to
make allowance for it in’ fixing time for any occasion to commence.

(c) Psychological filters. These are those psychological elements which bear
on the receiver’s state of mind and compel him to prefer certain information or
part of it. This result in the following: selective attention that is what one is
willing to see or hear; selective perception, which relates to how one interprets
the information and selective retention, which is what one remembers.

The point being made in discussing these filters is that they feature in other
communication situations because in such situations the destination is a mass of
differentiated individuals who receive the information differently. But the destination of
the African traditional communication, is homogenous and the channels operate the two-
step flow system. In such a situation, it is hardly expected that member of the audience
would respond differently from the others. This is why these filters cannot feature hr the
destination whereby everybody responds based on the response or expected response of
the other person.

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 CHAPTER 8

FEEDBACK, GATEKEEPERS AND NOISE

8.1 Feedback; Feedback in any communication situation refers to the response of the
destination to the message sent by the source. Feedback is quite crucial to the
success of the source in its effort to get a response from the destination.
Feedback determines whether the destination actually received the massage and
whether the destination was ready for it at the time it was received. Feedback,
then, is the constant scanning of behaviour to ascertain the success or failure of the
communication activity. This is for the significant purpose of modifying future
behaviour in the direction of success. Such scanning and modification is crucial
for the control of messages so that they can have the desired effect. This is because
people engage in communication to achieve certain goals. Feedback is the end
component of any process of communication. In the absence of feedback, the
process cannot be said to be complete.

8.2 Characteristics of Feedback. Just as the African traditional communication system

is different from other communication systems and situations, so too is its feedback. The
characteristics of feedback in the African traditional system are peculiar to the African
system. Enumeration of these would definitely reveal how different the feedback is from
other communication situations especially modern mass communication.

(i) Unlike the case in mass communication, the feedback in the African traditional
communication system is immediate. It is not delayed. Delay in modern mass
communication results from the remoteness of the destination in time I and
sometimes in space. These are attributes that are not part of African traditional
system.

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(ii) Feedback, most of the time, is quantitative, in the sense that the people react
uniformly based on the two-step flow system. But, it could, at times, be
qualitative, especially when opinion leaders influence both the flow of value
response received information as well as the response to such information when it
is by the people.

(iv) Because it is immediate, there is no need for data to be accumulated for analysis.
This is different from modern mass communication whereby feedback is compiled
for analysis and the kind of response determined from such analysis

(iii) By virtue of the fact that it is immediate and spontaneous, it becomes more
authentic and reliable. This is unlike modern mass communication where
feedback, by virtue of its being delayed may be influenced by some other factors
which may, consequently, render it unreliable.

(iv) Feedback in the African traditional system is not formalized. This is became the
communication activity takes place in a face-to-face social situation In mass
communication, feedback is presented in a formalized form, and equally analyzed
in mathematical terms, such as graphs and charts. Since feedback is immediate
with no4ornai presentation, the African system has no need for analysis in
mathematical terms

From the enumerated characteristics of feedback, the fact could be deduced that
feedback is very important to the communication process. It is crucial in the sense that it
may be utilized by the source to design future messages to achieve the desired impact.
Specifically, feedback can he used to do any of the following.

a. It could be used to control the nature of the messages that arc sent out. If the
source critically analyzes the response of the destination, it can then put in place
some factors aimed at either reducing the volume, or increasing or intensifying
future messages..
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b. Feedback can be used to tell the source the kind of choice the destination is
making. The source would then know the kind of messages the destination
prefers to receive as well as the form preferred.

c. The feedback m the traditional system enables the source to feel the pulse of the
destination is it concerns certain matters of importance in the society. This will
then determine the kind of decision to take in respect of such matters.

It must be stated that for feedback to be significant, it must include every

significant member of the audience (or destination). This is why it is crucial for every
concerned person to be, present to hear the message. If for any personal reason,
somebody chooses to be away from where the message is delivered, he would be deemed
to be part of whatever response is given by those present. This can be gleaned from what
happened to the cock in a common Igbo folktale. The cock had told his kinsmen that he
was going to his farm and would not attend an important meeting called to find a solution
to a serious problem confronting the community, He had stated that he would abide by
whatever decision that would be taken at the said meeting. In his absence, a consultation
with the gods revealed that the cock must be sacrificed to solve the problem.. Having
agreed to abide by whatever decision, taken at the meeting, the cock cannot now come to
oppose the decision that he should be sacrificed for the problem to be solved.

It is therefore important for any opinion leader in any community .to be present
when feedback is being sent in order for his opinion to be part of it Otherwise loses the
chance to contribute meaningfully to what sent back to the source as feedback

The nature of feedback is also influenced in certain cases by the way the message
is delayed. For example, a town crier goes round the village to invite the people to a
meeting at the king’s palace the next morning. This will give enough time for the people t
reflect on how they would react, especially if they can guess (or if they know) the issue
the very message concerns. Here an opinion leader would even he consulted by some

72
people and this would influence their individual responses which will eventually
crystallize into the general feedback. But this cannot be regarded as delayed feedback.
This is because even though the people may have known about the issue, the actual
message is not delivered to them in its real form until their response is needed.

8.3 Gatekeeper: In modern mass communication, when messages flow along the
communication chain, they get to certain places which are called gates. There, they may
be stopped from getting further. In the alternative such messages may be changed, or
modified and allowed t pass through those gates to the receivers.

Usually, there are people who man these gates. Their responsibility is to stop these
messages and change or modify them. These people are the gatekeepers of the
communication process. The African traditional communication system has its own
gatekeepers with peculiar characteristics. One of these characteristics is that, in most
cases, the gatekeepers are more or less the sources of the information so disseminated.
This is as a result of the nature of the communication system, whereby the face-to-face
relationship dominates proceedings.

Every important information filtering into the community must pass through the
gatekeeper for such information to be authentic. These gatekeepers arc those in authority,
who lead or administer the community. The only information that may need not be
authenticated by these gatekeepers is that which has no consequence on, or bear no
significance to the community.

These gatekeepers are the chiefs and other opinion leaders in the community, who
authenticate every important information before it is taken as important or true by the
people. The village chief (or traditional ruler) is the chief gatekeeper of the community.
The community may be a population large enough to be a country. For example, the
Sultan of Sokoto is the chief gatekeeper of the Muslim Ummah (community) in Nigeria.
The Muslim Ummah is large enough to form more than one county. Yet any important

73
Islamic information, such as the date to commence fasting in the month of Ramadan as
well as end the fast comes from him. He announces the sighting of the new moon to
commence or end the holy month of Ramadan. This is the way a typical gatekeeper
works in the African traditional communication system. Usually, the other community
leaders meet to discuss a particular piece of news. They may then meet with the
traditional ruler on how to disseminate such information. They therefore mediate the
news in this way before allowing it to be disseminated to the people. If it is information
relating to security, those concerned such as hunters, able bodied youths or warriors must
deliberate on the information before it is passed on to the people in its mediated form.
Any information that could have an adverse effect on the established norms and values of
the people may be suppressed by these gatekeepers while encouraging the dissemination
of that which edifies or promotes such norms and values.
8.4 What Gatekeepers do: The functions of gatekeepers in any communication situation
arc similar. However, the reason or what motivates the gatekeepers to carry out these
functions might be different. This depends on the environment in which the
communication activity takes place. For example, while the influencing factor of
mediating a particular news item on television could be commercial consideration or
benefit, it is never so in the African traditional communication system. The main factors
that influence mediation or rather, gatekeeping are the general security of the community
as well as cultural concerns. The security of life and property determine the way
gatekeepers perform their various tasks. For example any information that is capable of
causing panic among the people might be suppressed while the problem arising from the
information is tackled. Cultural concerns involve the need for perpetration and
perpetuation of the established norms and values of the people. From the foregoing
certain pertinent functions of gatekeepers can, thus, be enumerated.
i. Gatekeepers change messages. This they do by adding to the message or subtracting
from it. If an information must be modified to ensure the security of the people or
guarantee the continuous cherishing of norms and values, then such vital

74
 information has to be added to or subtracted form to put it in a form that
guarantees the intent before it is passed on to the people.
ii. They exercise judgment over those news items that are significant and those that
are not. Before they modify or change or expunge any item of information that
gets to the people, they examine the information and decide which item should
reach the people and that which should not
iii. They modify the message. This is done in a number of ways. First they may
emphasize what they feel is important about the message. Conversely they may
deemphasize the item they feel is insignificant to the perpetuation of cultural
norms and values. For example, a message of discord from a neighboring
community could be emphasized if such a community is a hostile one and there is
the need to confront the community belligerently. But such information could be
dc-emphasized if the community in question is a friendly one, just in order to
maintain the friendly disposition of the two communities. By emphasis or dc-
emphasis is meant amplification which could ft done by repetition to emphasize or
renaming from, letting the news be amplified to deemphasize its significance.
iv. They open and close gates to allow messages pass through to their destination.
This function, in fact, encompasses all other functions. Before the gate is opened
to allow for passage of any message, such a message would have been judged,
modified or changed to suit the interests or dictates of the gatekeepers who may be
acting in the general interest of the entire community. The gatekeepers have been
identified to be the leaders of the community. So they usually act in the general
interest of the people. Ordinarily, the traditional African is not selfish and
whatever he acquires is for the general glory of the tribe. So gatekeepers perform
their duty in the general interest of their respective communities In this regard,
they must open the gates to let information filter into the community or close it if
and when necessary, provided such an activity is ft 1 the general interest of the
people.

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 Gatekeepers, thus function to distort messages because they do not want people to
see or hear what will create the wrong impact on them. It must be noted that this impact
is determined by the general principles, norms and values cherished by the community,
such that the intended impact is usually in favour of the continued existence of the
community as a corporate whole.
In terms of information dissemination, the gatekeeper in the African traditional
system becomes the most important component in the chain. This becomes quite apparent
when the issue of the enhancement of societal balance is considered. For any society to
achieve societal balance through the mediation of information that is crucial to the
society, the contribution of the gatekeeper becomes paramount. It could safely be
conelude4 that if the society is to maintain any balance through the provision of
information (or through, the process of communication), the gatekeeper must occupy a
prime place in the configurations. For the traditional African society, this is crucial for
the community or society’s continuity.

8.5 Noise: Noise is a crucial component of any communication process. It is a component

that is not an intended one. But most often, it becomes part of the process: John Fiske
(1982:8) defines noise in. the following way:
Anything that is added to the signal between its
transmission and reception that is not intended by the
source But the concept of noise has been extended to
mean any signal received that was not transmitted by
the source or anything that makes the, intended signal
harder to decode accurately.
Noise then, may be audible noise or otherwise. I somebody drops dead at a social
gathering where vital information is being passed to the people, it will be regarded as
noise, because it will obstruct the flow of the information. It is clear from Fiske’s
definition that noise can occur at any point in the communication process. But wherever
it occurs in the process, whether at the source, channel or destination, the fact remains

76
that the effect is devastating to the communication process, This is because it confuses
the intention of the source and limits the desired amount of information that can be sent,
or that can reach the destination, or which the destination can interpret in a given
situation at a given time. This is quite crucial because communication is an irreversible
process and people engaged in it can only go forward from one stage to another.
Noise is divided into two broad types-Semantic noise and mechanical noise — in which
other sub-types are subsumed. While semantic noise would naturally relate mostly to the
verbal mode, mechanical noise would most certainly be identified in but not limited to
the non-verbal mode. Semantic noise therefore, includes the following:
i. Wrong mode of expression. For example, different communities recognize or
accept different modes of expressing love. A community that cherishes song or
dance in accompaniment of normal everyday language may find it unacceptable or
fail to interpret correctly a boy employing the drum to woo a girl. That of course,
is a wrong mode. Such a boy should have employed the verbal mode instead,
because the girl concerned may interpret the message differently.

ii. Over-expression. This refers to the use of more words than arc necessary to
convey the message. This may lead to what is known as pleonasm which means
redundancy of wards. For example, rather than a speaker going directly to the
point, he begins by telling related stories, when the message is a simple one. This
has the danger of distraction. The receivers may be diverted from that simple
message and they may, instead, now concentrate on the story which has no
relevance to what they are being told.

iii. Inappropriate language or expression. This can make moaning quite difficult to
decode inappropriate language may result in a situation of diglossia where there is
an elevated dialect as different from the common one in the area. When the
process now employs the dialect that is not too familiar or which is unexpected, it
would tend to create a different meaning. Again, when the people expect a simple
message passed with the everyday expression, but it comes with esoteric language,
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 its meaning would be difficult to decode. For example, a town crier begins his
message with an esoteric expression or with proverbs and riddles. This would
definitely note make for good communication, because the expression is being
employed at the wrong form. So, very few or even none would understand the
message.

iv. Distracting elements. Many things can distract the receiver’s attention if they
unintentionally become part of the paraphernalia of the message. This is mostly
when some other factors contribute towards effective message delivery. Thus, a
bad accent can distract the receiver of the message and negatively impact on his
capacity to correctly interpret the message: So too can an unsuitable costume and
even a wrong pitch of voice distract the receivers of a message delivered and make
such receivers lose track of the message being conveyed to them. Attention
mayhem be diverted to the anomaly. All the above sub-types of noise have• the
danger of distorting meaning, should they occur during the process of
communication. Mechanical noise on the other hand, may be encountered when
the message requires more than mere words of mouth. Mechanical noise includes
the following:

(i) Wrong pitch in a song or wrong lyrics. An important song meant to communicate a
message should flow naturally and melodiously in order to first attract attention and
generate the right impact and response. But when the wrong pitch is used, they include
would become distorted and attention will be drawn to the style of rendition, rather than
the message in the song. When the wrong lyrics are rendered, there will be no message
delivered, as the receivers will rather be engaged trying to make a meaning out of what
they are hearing.

(ii) Faulty instrument which may produce the wrong sound, or wrong tune. Ordinarily, a
musical instrument meant to communicate like the human mouth by producing sounds in
place of speech would definitely send the wrong message if the sound so associated with

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it is not the one produced as a result of either a fault originating from the instrument or
faulty use by the person playing it. For instance, the Yomba talking drum is used to-
communicate by rendering sounds that resemble spoken words. These sounds are
correctly interpreted by those who are quite familiar with the Yoruba language. If the
drummer releases a wrong sound or through a fault in the drum the sound becomes
different from the particular one that communicates his intended message, the wrong
message would be sent and this may generate the wrong response from the people.

(iii) Faulty dance steps. When faulty dance steps are presented to an audience, attention
would be diverted from the aesthetics of the dance as well as the message being passed
across to the people. The people may lose interest and consequently focus on the errors of
the dance. This point is quite crucial when dance is considered in terms of its expression
of social organization whereby it becomes a symbol of a particular social group.
Significant error could be fatal to the identity of the particular group the dance
emphasizes. For instance the hunters’ guild cannot be expected to exhibit dance steps
reminiscent of maidens at an occasion meant to honors the king. Such a development can
only be seen as a lamentable bastardization of the people’s culture.

It must be seriously noted, however, that noise as a component of the traditional

communication system in Africa is not much of a problem. This stems from the
very nature of the system. The other components of the system as have been enumerated
and discussed, display the characteristics which enable the problem of noise to be
reduced to the barest minimum. In some cases, the problem is even eliminated
completely. The face-to-face relationship which guides the communication system
,censures that most times the messages are repeated. In fact, it has been noted that
messages are slow and often repeated. Such repetition enables the receiver to fully
comprehend what it is and respond appropriately. Again there is room for correction in
view of repetition. Where there has been a mistake, the source can correct the mistake
during repetition. For example, the town crier can be recalled and corrected if he fails to
deliver the message accurately. Also, in a dance, it is not just a step that constitutes the
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centric dance. Besides, the step is often repeated. So any of the dancers who miss his step
can afford to correct it where incidence of noise is therefore not as devastating to the
communication system as it is in modern mass communication in which noise can result
in a wrong response which can trigger a serious crisis in the society. Such crisis may
result from communication failure occasioned by the incidence of noise.

It is quite clear from the foregoing that the African traditional communication
system operates as an authentic communication system capable of being studied. It has
been shown to have the components identifiable in other forms of communication, such
as way mass communication. It is necessary reiterating that lack of indepth or appropriate
scholarly attention has led to less than adequate publication of this very important aspect
of life in Africa. As a result of this lack of indepth focus on the subject, there has been no
published material relating to how the components of this communication system operate.
The major focus is usually a superficial treatment of the modes in terms of classification.
Such superficial analysis compels most of the scholars to even classify channels as modes
(as has been well noted). This stems from the difficulty of examining all the facets
extensively.

The importance of engaging in this discourse can therefore not be over

emphasized. This will obviously enrich the body of knowledge on this subject as it Opens
new vistas of interest for those who would wish to have a more indepth focus on the
African traditional communication system. This section therefore provides the first step
for such scholars.

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PART FOUR

NEWS, ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC

RELATIONS

Introduction

In the introductory part that forms the general overview of the section dealing with
the components of the African traditional communication system, it was hinted that
certain elements constituting some of the components will he discussed in greater detail.
The elements referred to include news, advertising and public relations. These three
elements are part of the content and they have been selected for fuller discussion because
of their peculiar significance.

News, advertising and public relations have a greater impact on the traditional
society more than any other clement. News has been noted to consist of information that
the individual needs to enable him contribute to the betterment of the society by behaving
in a manner acceptable to all, including responses to natural phenomena that affect the
community in general. Advertising involves the special crafting of a message which not
only draws attention to the person broadcasting it, but also to a particular thing in the
message he wants receivers to respond to in a particular way. Public relations compels
people to behave in a certain way for the purpose of getting the people to have a
favourable disposition towards those engaged in the act of public relations.

Having briefly stated the elements that will be discussed, the question remains as
to whether these clement present any significant characteristics which arc markedly
different for those of other communication situations like modem mass media And if
there are such significance, are they worthy to the extent a of presenting enough
phenomena that can be studied?

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 If it must be noted that significant African populations do not relate to the modern
mass media as a result of several ichors (some of which have already been noted in the
introductory chapter of this hook). T he question as to whether these elements are capable
of being given an extensive study, therefore becomes irrelevant. There are no
opportunities for the traditional African to make use of the modern mass media. For
example, there is hardly any news item on television that .relates to the rural man, unless
it is a disaster of colossal magnitude which may likely gnat global attention It is therefore
the news that is connected and relevant to his existence that becomes important to him
This point becomes crucial ii the submission of Oslo Wino is analysed in this context,
According to Who (cited in Gokthabcr, 1983:13): already cited (see Page 17):

The importance of a news item is inversely

correlated with the square o distance... In plain
language, the law means that a fist fight in my
neighbor’s family is to me a more important
news item than 10,000 persons killed 10,000
miles away.

Based on the above submission of Wiio, Ibagere (1985:27) concludes that the rural
populace will not relate to television because there is little or nothing that relates, to their
experiences. Therefore the rural African purveys news in his own way. Such manner of
purveying the news is definitely significant enough and presents characteristics worthy of
scholarly study; as will be proved by subsequent discussion. As for public relations, it
should be noted that most acts done during social activities arc in furtherance of public
relations calculated to present a good image before the general public.

It is therefore fallacious to attempt a discussion of the African traditional

communication system without including these elements. It is even more damaging to
clean that the system does not possess all the components and thereby neglect to discuss
all issues as a result of such false claim.

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 CHAPTER 9
NEWS
9.1 News in the African Traditional Communication System
News has been defined in several ways. In fact, the plethora of definitions has
compelled such scholars as Ufuophu — Bin (2006:11) to conclude that “there are almost
as many definitions of news as there are professionals and academics in the field of
journalism”. The focus here is not a critical approach to what news is. Rather it is to get a
concise definition against which it could be discussed within the precincts of the African
communication system. Ralph Akinfeleye (1987:96) defines news as “an account of
timely events”. He continues that “news is an account of unusual events which must be
reported” (96). A more concise definition, however, is that provided by Willis (1967) and
cited in Ufuophu — Bin (2006:11) which says that news is “a report of what is happening
now in the local community, in the state, in the nation and throughout the world”. This
definition can actually be taken as concise enough and represents what news actually is.
Needless to say that the above definitions also hold for news in the African traditional
communication system. Though, there may be different factors which influence news
dissemination, it makes no difference attempting to define news from the African point of
view. ft has also been generally agreed by scholars that certain ingredients must be part of
the news for such news to have any value. Akinfeleye (1987:86) lists these ingredients as
timelines, proximity or nearness to the place of event; prominence; human interest,
magnitude of the event and consequences. Ufuophu-Biri (2006:13) synthesizes these and
adds them up into the following: timeliness, proximity, personality/prominence,
consequences and impact, human interest, oddity/novelty, conflict/disaster, and
magnitude. However, in consideration of the African situation which does not fall into
these Western enumerations, Folarin (2002:106) includes some other ingredients in
addition to those listed by Akinfeleye and Ufuophu-Biri. According to him factors that
determine news value should include social and national development, including
education.

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 A critical analysis of all these ingredients would reveal that they all apply to the
African traditional communication system, especially when examined against the
backdrop of Osmo Wiio’s submission that has been presented earlier. If the piece of
information is news at all, it means the ingredients are present, in view of the fact that
traditionally, those whose communication needs are being served by the system have not
been fully integrated into national or international scheme of things through mass
communication. Attempting to prove how these ingredients are part of the African system
would he at the risk of repetition. There is the need to obviate puerile restatement of why
and how these ingredients are essential. But the focus will be on what usually determine
the performance of gatekeepers’ duties as regards the purveyance of news to the people.
This invariably involves news management, which is an essential way of controlling
information such that the desired effect would the seen in the people. The desired effect is
for the purpose of ensuring societal balance and social stability
It is pertinent to note that news gathering and dissemination requires no special
training. This has somewhat been stated in the discussion of the source. But what
determines the way news (or information) is disseminated need to be discussed.

9.2 News Management: The nature of the African traditional communication system
derives substantially from oral tradition, which ensures the handing down of cherished
norms and values from one generation to another. It is expected, therefore, that changes
would take place. Besides, these changes could have resulted from responses which are
predicated on information which might not be congruent with the perpetuation of such
norms and values. But it is surprising that despite interaction and modernization, certain
norms remain in the people’s social system. These are the norms and values which
continue to give the people their identity. One crucial factor that has impacted on the
social system and has caused an inability to effect changes that would upset social values
is the way news is managed. Management refers to the mediation process whereby the
news is allowed to filter into the community for the purpose of having the desired effect.
This includes the factors that influence the mediation as well as the mediation process

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itself.

9.3 Factors that Determine News Management:

News in the African traditional communication system is managed with the aim of
ensuring the prosperity of the society. This is contingent upon certain
considerations which are geared towards enhancing the prosperity of the
community. These considerations include the following:
(i) Security and stability of the Society. This is a paramount consideration in the
management of news. The effort of gatekeepers is against the background of safety
of every individual who makes up the community. For any information to be
disseminated to the people, it must have been certified capable of ensuring the
safety of the people, or at least not capable of putting the people in danger or cause
panic among them. This consideration invariably covers domestic stability. Thus,
any information which is manifestly perceived to cause an upset of cherished
matrimonial norms and other domestic duties such as the sexual division of labour
as well as the division of sexual labour may be considered dangerous to the
corporate existence of the society and could, therefore, be suppressed. But such
vital information that enhances the perpetuation of such norms would be
promoted.
(ii) Moral Standards. This is another major consideration in the management of news
in the African traditional communication system. Moral standards vary from place
to place. That is, what may be morally permitted in a particular community may be
a moral anathema in another community. For example, it is morally permissible in
certain societies for girls at puberty age to parade themselves nude as part of
puberty ceremony before graduating into the next age grade. But this may be
considered to be morally decadent in some other societies. Any information then
which is designed to supplant this practice in the society where it is part of the
cultural value may he expunged from the information pool of the society, since it
would be seen as a damaging news that may erode their cultural identity.

85
 Conversely, a society which abhors the practice of nudity may not condone such
news in its area since it is morally debasing. It must be noted though, that such
information could be mediated and allowed to filter in for the purpose of
strengthening the people’s belief in their own culture’s sense of itself. By so
doing, the gatekeepers may purvey such information in a form designed to ridicule
the society in which such practice of nudity is cherished, while at the same time,
inducing the people to stick to their own culture.
(iii) Development. The development• of the community is a paramount activity that is
usually the concern of all the members of the community. In most rural areas,
communal life is still prevalent. Here people’s material acquisition is equally
communal and for the glory of the community. As a result of the societal structure,
any information which may have a positive effect on the development of the
community may be given prominence so that every person may use the
opportunity to serve the community and get personal recognition. The information
regarding the availability of fertilizer in an agrarian community, for instance may
be widely disseminated to enable them to make effort and get same to improve
yields. But the information that may have negative effect on development could be
suppressed depending on the kind of information. It could be given prominence in
order for the people to prepare against its effects should the situation arise. For
example, information regarding the need for population control may not have any
importance attached to it in a community which does not recognize the need to
control its population. Worse still, the information may even be treated with
contempt if the population control measure involves vasectomy. This is because,
the typical African traditional society does not recognize such birth control
practice that places the onus of realizing it on the man.

(iv) Gatekeepers might consider whether the information might enhance the general
perpetuation of established norms and values before treating it with the attention it
deserves. If it is the kind of news that threatens a cherished norm, it may be

86
 outrightly suppressed or not given any regard. But that which edifies the norms
and values may be given prominence. In the mid — 1980s for instance, when the
war against indiscipline was launched by the General Mohammed Buhari regime,
the environmental sanitation arm of the policy demanded every household to
provide refuse bins in front of their houses for the evacuation of domestic waste.
The information was not well received among the Binis and so it did not get the
prominence it deserved. The major reason for this failure is that traditionally, the
Binis do not dump refuse in front of the house, but at the back — a practice that
had ensured a clean environment for centuries. Asking the people to now provide
refuse bins in front of their houses was a new information that threatened the age
— long norm of dumping refuse at the back of the house in a well-dug pit. The
annual Igue festival, on the other hand, is given extensive publicity. This is
because, this is a festival in which not just the Oba is involved, but also all
prominent citizens of Benin kingdom. Besides, the festival affords the opportunity
to display rich Benin heritage with the ultimate aim of emphasizing the Bini
cultural identity.

9.4 The Process of News Management

News is a very important element of the content and its management is effected
with the most genuine of intentions. Such intention is contingent on the survival of the
community. It has been noted that the community is usually small and every endeavour is
geared towards the people’s continued existence. So the ultimate purpose of news
management is the perpetration and consequent perpetuation of the cherished norms and
values which give them their identity. The ultimate purpose of this endeavour is the
continuity of the social system and the community in general. The more favourable the
information to the wellbeing of the culture, the more prominence it would be accorded.
This is why, at times, vital information is jealously guarded. News is, thus managed in
the following ways:

87
(i) Verification. This is the first way news is managed in the African traditional
communication system. News is usually verified for its reliability or
authenticity as well as its consequences on the social life of the people. The
gatekeepers first get the news and verify it to know how authentic the
information is. The source may be examined for its reliability. Then the
consequences may be considered. If the news is found to have adverse effects
on the people, it may be decided that the information be suppressed, so that it
does not get to the people. Even if it filters out to the people, steps will be
taken to suppress it and reduce its effect to the barest minimum.

(ii) The second step in news management is suppression. Suppression can take a
number of forms. First the gatekeepers may shut the gates completely and stop
the information from getting to the people. But if the news filters out before
shutting the gates, they could refuse to authenticate it and it would remain a
rumour, which may not bear much weight. Again, another rumour may be
released which may render both discredited. In this way the original
information becomes useless.

(iii) In a situation where the news is found to be potentially dangerous, it could be

managed through mediation. By this is meant the modification of the
information. This is achieved either by subtracting or adding to the information
in order to elicit the appropriate response. If, after verification, it is discovered
that the information is such that cannot be suppressed, the gatekeepers may
then modify the information so as to avoid such response that may trigger a
crisis in the social system.

(iv) Test and certification. This relates to the human channel. When the human
channel is employed for the dissemination of information, the person must be
certified and recognized as such. He must have been tested and fund capable of
relaying accurately, what the source wants him to relay. Thus, he would have

88
 been tested and found to be a patriot and one whose general disposition
enhances the perpetuation of the established norms and values. Invariably,
then, the person has to be an indigene, well versed in the traditions of the
people. He must be prepared to preserve the culture of the people and should
possibly have a stake in the socio-cultural affairs of the people. A relevant
doubt relating to his patriotic disposition may jeopardize his chance of being
employed as a channel to disseminate information to the people, especially if
the information in question concerns the security of the community.

(v) Deliberate delay. News can, at times be deliberately delayed for some reasons.
Most times such news is considered for its effect on the recipients. It could
therefore be delayed so that it can have the desired effect. For example, news
of trespass on a community’s land could be delayed until such a time when the
community would deem it necessary to take a very drastic action to forestall
such trespass in future. Again, news could be delayed to cushion its effect on
the recipients. For example, the sudden death of a family head or clan head
may not be broken to the chief mourners immediately in order to forestall the
devastating effects on such mourners as more deaths could be recorded. The
news is usually broken gradually or allowed to filter in as rumour that would
gradually be confirmed.

(vi) Other safety methods can be used to manage news in the traditional African
communication system. This varies from place to place. For example, threats
of various kinds could be issued against whoever intends to release vital
information, to deter him from doing so. Again, counter releases could be made
if the information has been released. This is to discredit it or reduce its effect
on the people. Of course, this is akin to propaganda in a way. And because the
gatekeepers are highly respected individuals in the community, such releases
from them may help to make the original information ineffective. This is

89
 because, the people tend to consider any message from them to be reliable and
authentic.

It is clear from the foregoing that the need for news management is quite
paramount. And several conflicts in the history of African people may have resulted from
the inability of the people to manage news adequately. Today such conflicts can still be
noticed. But majority have been settled through proper management of the information
dissemination process. With the employment of several conflict resolution methods, it is
probable that with time, inter-tribal or inter-ethnic crisis will be a thing of the past,
especially if the management of news is effectively carried out.

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 CHAPTER 10
Advertising and Public Relations
In certain cases, advertising and public relations arc regarded as adjunct to the
communication media. This is because, the arc specialized kinds of communication
which need the media to be actualized. Both arc not substitutes or alternatives to the
media of communication. Rather they cannot be actualized without the media. In the
traditional African context, they utilize the different modes already enumerated and
discussed to actualize their essence.
Both advertising and public relations have been rightly termed by Black and
Whitney (1983:308) as the “persuasive media”, which in “some cases, .... provide
information and commercial content to the mass media; more often, their purpose is to
persuade”. This feature equally holds for the African traditional communication system.
The purpose or functions of these two are the obviously to differences in origin as well as
the differences with regards to the interests of the people they serve respectively same as
However, those of modem mass communication. However, their methods of operation
differ due
Obviously to differences in origin as well as he differences with regard to the
interests of the people they serve respectively. The focus here is not a comprehensive
analysis or study of advertising and public relations within the socio-cultural context of
the traditional African society. Rather, it is to prove the completeness of the African
traditional community system as a significant part of the social system, having the
capacity to serve the communication needs of the African even in a modernizing and
globalizing Africa. This is with the conclusion that, ipso facto, the traditional
communication system is more Significant to the physical reality of the African and
serves the needs of a majority of Africans, much more than the modern mass media.

10.1 Advertising: The Nigerian Code of Advertising Practice (cited in Ekwuazi,

2007:3) defines advertising as “a communication in the media, paid for by an identified
sponsor and directed at a target audience with the aim of imparting correct information

91
about a product, service, idea or opinion. . . .“ This definition is quite embracing. It
represents what advertising actually is. However, the definition relates only to the modern
mass media. In fact Ekwuazi goes ahead to list the media being referred to as “the
newspaper, magazine, radio, television, outdoor, cinema, the internet and direct mail”
(2007:3). It could be noted from the list that, the only near the African traditional system
in terms of application is the outdoor which may be interpreted in ways that may include
the verbal mode.
The definition, therefore, excludes the African system in at least two ways. First,
advertising is not paid for by an identified sponsor. Secondly, the media mentioned do
not fall within the purview of the African traditional system. However, other features of
the definition relate to the African traditional communication system. But, as has been
well noted, the focus is not a comparative analysis of advertising in a traditional African
setting v.is-à-vis the modern mass media. Neither is it the analysis of African traditional
advertising using the parameters of modern mass communication. The concern, instead,
is to show that advertising is part of the African traditional communication system,
complete in its own way.
Advertising under the African traditional communication system exhibits the
characteristics which conform with the face-to-face relations, just like the communication
system itself. Advertising is therefore cheap in terms of financial involvement. The
advertiser must engage in his activity in strict conformity with the face-to-face
relationship. That is, he must advertise by making his audience see, touch or hear what he
is advertising. This creates the compelling need for the advertiser to plan his strategy
regarding the best mode of communication to adopt. The product, service or idea,
determines the mode to be adopted. It could as well be a combination of modes. Usually,
one finds an advertising troupe involved in the advertising of both goods and services.
For example, the troupe might advertise a product (such as a drug) as well as its services
as an entertainment outfit that could be invited to entertain at any social function. In this
situation, a combination of modes will have to be employed for successful advertising. So
the advertiser first plans and decides which mode to adopt. Usually, combination would

92
be more effective in attracting attention. For example, the use of an idiophone such as a
gong or bell is to attract attention. Thus the advertiser may choose to use the bell or gong
to get the people either to listen to him or get them to assemble around him where he
would show them what he has for them. He could just choose to use only his voice.

Salesmen Advertising Their Wares

The next step in advertising is the effective use of the particular mode that has
been chosen. The advertiser who chooses the verbal mode must ensure its effective use if
he must be successful. Thus the voice must be trained to ensure that it would be able to
attract the appropriate attention needed. It could be just hawking a tray of fruits round the
village. To attract attention, the hawker has to voice out by shouting to tell the people
what he is selling. This will bring them out of their hawking a tray houses to buy such a
product. Today, such advertisers could be seen all over the place even in big cities. Some
(especially drug peddlers) now use the motor parks and even buses to advertise their
wares. In all these cases, the voice is usually loud enough to attract attention. If other
modes are used, they must be effectively utilized. For example, music or dance must be
presented effectively for the audience to be attracted. The dancers must be in good
costumes to attract the people. If mode utilization is not effective, it may not attract the
appropriate attention. This informs the use of clowns to advertise certain goods. In Benin
City, (South-South, Nigeria) advertising in the 1980s and 1990s featured clowns
popularly called “Babuwa” that were advertising different products. They were quite
popular among the people at the time, making bumper sales. Herbalists and others who
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belong to the esoteric plane equally use other instruments to attract attention. For
example, there are snake charmers or those who have tamed wild animals and use them to
attract attention. While entertaining the people with such feats as controlling such
venomous snakes or dangerous animals, they make brisk business selling their wares as
well as getting some donations for the entertainment. Here, the esoteric mode is
employed to get such beasts to do the bidding of the advertisers, who may engage in
some other acts that could be seen as pure magic. All this is then combined with the other
modes (verbal and non-verbal) to drive home the advertising message. Displays like these
usually have
If the motive of improving sales for the advertiser. The main purpose of
advertising in the African traditional communication system, therefore, is to persuade the
target audience to have a favourable disposition towards the product or service being
advertised and purchase such product or service. And from the foregoing, it is clear that
the first step in advertising is planning. This is followed by effective utilization of the
mode chosen as well as reaching the widest audience by moving from place to place at
the right time. The time must be right in order to get to the greatest number. Hence, it
would be a waste of time to attempt to advertise a product in the night when the product
may not be seen clearly.

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 Advertisers in action

For obvious reasons, it is clear that advertising will continue to be part of the
African traditional communication system despite the rate of modernization which
globalization which effect remains the upsetting and sometimes, outright supplanting of
traditional modes of communication. For one, certain products may not be effectively
advertised via the modern mass media. For example, a herbalist who uses snakes and
wild animals to advertise his wares may find himself merely entertaining the audience
and no more if he uses television. Worse still, radio may not present convincing evidence.
It is only practical evidence which the people can experience that would convince them.
So the African traditional mode should be used. Again the level of poverty compels petty
traders to put a few items on a tray and hawk just to eke out a living. It is impossible for
these hawkers to use any other means to advertise their wares. This is how they can
sustain themselves. Advertising has been part of the communication system and no
matter the level of development or modernization, it would remain even at the risk of
being the last evidence of the existence of the African traditional communication system.
10.2 Public Relations: There are as many definitions of public relations as there are
companies and businesses. Igben (1997) lists many of them. A few of them would
suffice. Webster New International Dictionary defines public relations as “the promotion
of rapport and good will between a person, a firm or institution and other persons, firm or
community at large ..“ (cited in Tgben 1997:12)
Also Bob Ogbuagu (cited in Igben, 1997:17) says public relations is:

95
 A determined and well articulated effort to establish,
sustain and improve favourable relationship between
persons and persons, person and organizations,
organizations and organizations. It is a conscious effort
to build bridges of mutual understanding and respect
among various peoples and organizations.

It should be noted that virtually all the definitions of public relations relate it to
business organizations and profit making. But Kogan (1977) is quick to point out that:
Public relations, in essence, is a point of view
with an ultimate goal. It is not a department, not
a person, not a publicity campaign — although
it may include any or all of these. In effect, it is
a state of mind and an attitude toward anyone
who comes in contact with the enterprise.

Again, there is the reference to business in the definition. Dalton (1977) notes that
public relations “has been practiced as long as recorded history” (5). Pointing out that it is
also an art, Dalton submits that as a profession, it is relatively new and only came into
being in the 1920s (8).
If we can view the community, the country and the entire society as a social
organism, then it could be likened to an enterprise needing public relations practice.
Countries’ rulers appoint people who ostensibly act as public relations managers that
clean up their image before the outside world. The African continent has ha& its own
share of traditional public relations practice. The community could be seen as the
organization and other communities may become other competing organizations and
publics.
With regards to the African traditional situation, every reasonable member of any
particular community is virtually a public relations agent for that community, in so far as

96
he acts in the interest of the community. It has been well noted that in a typical African
society, communal living is the main feature where even personal acquisition is for the
glory of the community. In such a situation it is difficult to labour selfish and unpatriotic
proclivities. So the first member of the community to be accosted by a stranger is usually
the first public relations officer of the community as he would refrain from saying or
doing anything that would engender the stranger’s having negative impressions about the
community. This may start from the exchange of pleasantries which will either encourage
further interaction or discourage it. This will definitely improve relations if well handled.
For example, the Yoruba concept of respect for elders is well known. If this is displayed
to a stranger at first meeting, it would definitely present a good image of the people to the
stranger
At social occasions involving different communities such as marriage ceremonies,
public relations practice could be seen. Speakers at such occasions would usually speak
in glowing terms about their own communities, all in a bid to create a good image for
their own communities. Even when emissaries from traditional rulers visit other
communities and interact with their rulers, they do well to create a favourable image of
their communities. This is with a view to influencing such communities to develop a
favourable attitude towards them, in a bid to foster cordial and peaceful relationship
between them. In all cases whereby people from one community interact with those from
another community, public relations may be a very formal activity as the spokesmen for
both communities are usually deemed to be representatives of their respective
communities and that they speak on behalf of their communities. It is in this regard that
professionalism in the context of the African traditional communication system comes in.
The art of oratory is one that is acquired through a long process of observation and
learning, as well as practice. People are selected to represent a community based on their
abilities. Thus at such occasions of interaction involving two or more communities, the
person usually chosen to speak on behalf of the community or even the family (as the
case may be) is usually a good speaker, tested and well known to perform in that
capacity. This is in view of the realization that poor performance by him may cast the

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family or community he represents in a bad light. Therefore at such occasions the
spokesman would usually be seen to be acting to present the family or community in such
a way that would create a good impression in the minds of those present. Of course this
fosters a cordial relationship and guarantees peace and harmony among the people and
the various communities at large.
The place of public relations cannot therefore be overemphasized as an essential
part of the communication system in traditional Africa. It is the public relations aspect
that generates the right attitude towards each other (whether individually or with regards
to inter-communal relations). It is the right public relations attitude that leads to better
understanding and which influences behaviour in respect of the other man and the other
community. This then checks individual excesses, and enhances peace and harmony
among the people. Public relations must therefore continue to be part of the African
traditional communication system if the essence and functions of the system are to be
seen as being well placed or regarded.

98
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