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Combinatorics

6.0 INTRODUCTION
In one form or the other counting originated with the primitive man. He did not find any
problem as long as it was within the limits of his fingers. As it crossed the limits of his fingers,
he found out other devices and invented the numbers. But counting becomes laborious and
impossible even with numbers. Hence new concepts and ideas are developed which gave rise
to permutations and combinations. In discrete mathematics we frequently encounter the
problem of counting. The branch of Discrete Mathematics dealing with counting problem is
called combinatorics. The different techniques of counting problem are important in computer
science, especially in algorithm analysis and design. In this chapter we will be dealing with
two important aspects, i.e., permutation and combination. Permutation is defined as the
arrangement of elements whereas combination is defined as selection of elements.

6.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING

Basically fundamental principle of counting is of two types. These are addition principle and
multiplication principle.
Addition Principle: If one event can occur in n1 different ways and another event can occur
in n2 different ways, then exactly one of these events takes place in (n1 + n2) ways. The above
addition principle can be extended to finite number of events. This addition principle is
otherwise known as principle of disjunctive counting.
For example assume that a student have to choose an elective paper in computer science
from one of the four lists containing 5, 6, 5 and 4 elective papers respectively.
It indicates that the student can choose an elective from the first list in 5 ways, from the
second list in 6 ways, from the third list in 5 ways whereas from the fourth list in 4 ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways that the student can choose an elective paper from the
four lists is equal to (5 + 6 + 5 + 4) = 20.
Multiplication Principle: If one event can occur in n1 different ways and another event can
occur in n2 different ways then both these events take place in (n1n2) ways. The above principle
can be extended to finite number of events. This multiplication principle is otherwise known
as principle of sequential counting.
142 Fundamental Approach to Discrete Mathematics
For example consider a cinema hall with 3 entrances and 5 exits. Therefore, the number of
ways that a person can enter and exit from the cinema hall is (3 × 5) = 15.

6.2 FACTORIAL NOTATION

The continued product of first n natural numbers is denoted as n! and read as factorial n.
Mathematically,
n! = 1. 2. 3. 4. ……(n – 1). n
= {1. 2. 3….. (n – 1)}. n
= (n – 1)! n
For example 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 and 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24. Therefore, it is clear that
5! = 4! × 5 = 24 × 5 = 120.

6.3 PERMUTATION
Assume that, we have 3 digits 1, 3 and 5. Then the two digit numbers that can be formed out
of the given digits if the digits are not repeated as: 13, 15, 35, 31, 51, 53. Therefore, there are
6 possible ways of getting 2 digit numbers out of three digits. This is nothing but the
arrangement of 2 digits out of three digits. Similarly, if we make an arrangement of all the
three digits, then we have 135, 153, 351, 315, 513 and 531 as possible arrangements. The
number of different arrangement or ordering that can be made out of the given number of
objects by taking some or all at a time is called the permutation. If r-objects are arranged out
of n-distinct objects, then we call it as r-permutation.
Theorem The number of arrangements of r different objects out of n distinct objects ( r ≤ n )
is denoted by P (n, r) and is call r-permutation of n objects. It is defined as
P (n, r) = n (n – 1) (n – 2) …. (n – r + 1)
n!
=
(n − r)!
Proof: Given that there are n distinct objects and we have to arrange r objects. This is same
as the number of ways in which r places can be filled up by n distinct objects.

st nd rd
1 2 3 rth

From the figure it is clear that any one of the n object can be put in 1st place i.e., the 1st
place can be filled up in n distinct ways. Therefore, we are left out with (n – 1) objects, so the
2nd place can be filled up in (n – 1) distinct ways. Since each way of filling up the first place can
be associated with each way of filling up the second place, so by multiplication principle the
first two places can be filled up in n (n – 1) ways. Similarly, for the 3rd place we have left out
with (n – 2) objects, so the 3rd place can be filled up by any one of these (n – 2) objects.
Therefore, by multiplication principle the first three places can be filled up in n(n – 1)(n – 2)
ways. Proceeding in this manner the total number of ways in which r places can be filled up is
given as
P (n, r) = n(n − 1)(n − 2)...r factors
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) …. (n – r + 1)
 Combinatorics 143

n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)L (n − r + 1)(n − r )(n − r − 1)L1

=
1.2.3.4.L (n − r − 1)(n − r )
n!
=
(n − r)!

6.3.1 Permutation with Repetition

In this case there is no restriction on the number of times a particular object may occur in
r-permutation of n objects. It implies that a repetition is allowed all the r places to be filled up
by any of the n objects. Therefore, by multiplication principle the total number of ways in
which r places can be filled up is given as
n × n × n × …… × n (r-factors)
= nr
For example consider 3 prizes to be given to 4 students. Hence, it is clear that the 1st prize
can be taken by any of the 4 students and similarly the 2nd prize can be taken by any of the 4
students and so on. Therefore, by using multiplication principle the total number of possible
ways
= 4 × 4 × 4 = 64

6.3.2 Permutation of n Things not all Different

Assume that there n objects, among which K1 are alike say A, K2 are of second type say B. Let
the elements are A1 , A 2 , A 3 ,L, A k1 and B1 , B2 , B3 ,L , B k2 . But we know that, if the n objects are
dissimilar, then it can be arranged in n! different ways.
Now, consider the total number of permutations be X. For one of this permutation
A 1 , A 2 , A 3 ,L , A k1, k1 objects can be arranged among themselves in k1! ways. Therefore, for X
permutations the total number of possible ways are Xk1!.
Again for one of these Xk1! permutations, the k2 objects B1 , B2 , B3 ,L , B k2 can be arranged in
k2! ways. Therefore, for Xk1 ! permutations, the total number of possible ways are equal to
(Xk1! k2 !). Therefore, we get
Xk1! k2 ! = n!
n!
This implies that X=
k1 ! k2 !
Note: The above concept can be generalized to any number of objects. Permutation of n objects out of
which k1 objects are of 1st kind say A, k2 objects are of 2nd kind say B, k3 objects are of 3rd kind say C and
n!
so on is given by X = , where k1 + k2 + k3 +... = n.
k1 ! k2 ! k3 !L

6.3.3 Circular Permutation

Arrangement of objects in a circle is called circular permutation. In this case of arrangement
of objects, there is no distinction between the 1st place and the last place. Hence, in circular
144 Fundamental Approach to Discrete Mathematics
permutation we fix one of the n objects in the first place and arrange remaining (n – 1) objects
among themselves. This can be done in P(n –1, n – 1) ways i.e., (n – 1)!.
For example, consider a problem of arranging 5 members for seating on a round table. It is
a problem of circular permutation. Therefore, the total number of ways that the members can
be seated in the round table is (5 – 1)! = 4! = 24.
Notes: 1. If the anticlockwise and clockwise arrangements are different, then the total number of
arrangements is equal to (n – 1)!.
2. If both clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are same, then the total number of arrangements
1
is equal to (n − 1)! .
2

6.3.4 Restricted Permutations

Sometimes in arrangement, we restrict some particular objects to be either always occur or
will never occur. Such type of permutations are known as restricted permutations and this
leads to two cases.
+=IA`1 Permutation of n-objects in r-places when ‘x’ particular objects will always occur. In
such case, first the ‘x’ particular objects can be arranged in r-places and then remaining (r – x)
places will be filled up by the remaining (n – x) objects. Therefore, the total number of
arrangements is equal to P (r, x) × P (n – x, r – x).
+=IA– 2 Permutation of n-objects in r-places when ‘x’ particular objects will never occur. In
this case (n – x) objects will fill up the r-places. Therefore, the total number of arrangements
is equal to P (n – x, r).

6.3.5 Interpretation of Factorial 0

The value of zero (0) factorial can be determined with the help of permutation. We know that
P(n, r) = n (n – 1) (n – 2) … (n – r + 1)
On taking r = n we get
P(n, n) = n (n – 1) (n – 2) … (n – n + 1)
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) … 1
= n!
n!
This implies that = n ! and hence 0! = 1.
n ! 0!

6.4 COMBINATION
We have seen that permutation is an ordered arrangement of objects. However, it is observed
that order is not significant in some cases. For example, consider an examination and a
student has to answer four questions out of seven questions. In this case, a selection is to be
made irrespective of order. We call it as combination. Assume that, we have 3 objects A, B and
C. If we consider the groups of two objects without taking into account the order then the
different groups are AB, BC and CA. Therefore, the total number of groups is 3. This is nothing
but the selection of 2 objects out of three objects. The number of different selections that can
be made out of given number of objects by taking some or all of them at a time is called the
combination. In combination we do not give importance to the order of arrangement.
 Combinatorics 145
Theorem The number of selections or combinations of r-different objects out of n-objects
(r ≤ n) is denoted by C (n, r) and we call it as r-combination of n-objects. This is defined as
n!
C (n, r) = .
r ! (n − r)!
n!
Proof: We know that P(n, r) = ; r≤n
(n − r)!
As discussed earlier the order of arrangement is not significant in combination. In every
combination there are r-objects that can be arranged among them in r! number of ways.
Therefore, C (n, r) combinations will lead to r! × C(n, r) number of permutations. We call it as
a permutation of r-objects out of n-objects i.e., P(n, r). Hence we get,
r! C(n, r) = P(n, r)
P (n, r)
i.e., C (n, r) =
r!
n!
= .
r ! (n − r)!

6.4.1 Important Properties

The important properties of combination are discussed below.
(a) C(n, r) = C(n, n – r)
(b) C(n, r) : C(n, r –1) = (n – r + 1) : r
n!
Proof: (a) We know that C(n, r) =
r !(n − r)!
On taking r = (n – r), we will get

n!
C(n, n − r) =
(n − r)!(n− (n − r))!
n!
= = C(n, r)
(n − r)! r !

i.e., C (n, r) = C (n, n – r)

(b) In order to prove C(n, r) : C(n, r –1) = (n – r + 1) : r, consider the L.H.S.
n!
C(n, r) r !(n − r)!
=
C (n, r − 1) n!
(r − 1)!(n − r + 1)!
n! (r − 1)! (n − r + 1)!
= ×
r !(n − r)! n!
n! (r − 1)! (n − r)! (n − r + 1)
= ×
(r − 1)! r (n − r)! n!
n− r +1
=
r
146 Fundamental Approach to Discrete Mathematics
6.4.2 Pascal’s Identity
Let n and r be positive integers with n ≥ r. Then C(n, r) + C(n, r –1) = C(n + 1, r)
n! n!
Proof: C(n, r) + C(n, r − 1) = +
r ! (n − r )! (r − 1)! (n − r + 1)!

n! n!
= +
(r − 1)! r (n − r)! (r − 1)! (n − r)! (n − r + 1)
n! 1 1 
=  + 
(r − 1)! (n − r )! r (n − r + 1) 
n!  n+1 
=  
(r − 1)! (n − r)!  r(n − r + 1) 
(n + 1)!
= = C(n + 1, r)
r ! (n − r + 1)!
This proves the Pascal’s identity.

6.4.3 Restricted Combination

Sometimes we impose some restrictions that some particular objects to be either always occur
or will never occur. Such type of combination is known as restricted combination and this
leads to two cases.
+=IA`1 Combination of n-objects taken ‘r’ at a time when ‘x’ particular objects will always
occur. In such case, we keep aside the ‘x’ particular objects which always occur and then we
choose the (r – x) objects from the remaining (n – x) objects. Therefore, the total number of
combinations is equal to C(n – x, r – x).
+=IA` 2 Combination of ‘n’ objects taken ‘r’ at a time when ‘x’ particular objects will never
occur. In such cases, after removing ‘x’ objects from ‘n’ objects ‘r’ objects are to be selected
from (n – x) objects. Therefore, the total number of combinations is equal to C(n – x, r).
Notes: 1. On taking r = n, we will get
n! 1 1
C (n, n) = = = =1
n ! (n − n)! 0! 1
Therefore, C(n, n) = 1

2. On taking r = 0, we will get

n! 1 1
C (n, n) = = = =1
n ! (n − n)! 0! 1
Therefore, C (n, 0) = 1

3. On taking r = 1, we will get

n! (n − 1)! n
C (n, 1) = = =n
1! (n − 1)! (n − 1)!
Therefore, C(n, 1) = n
 Combinatorics 147
6.5 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
The sum of two distinct terms, say (x + y), is called a binomial. Binomial theorem is defined as
a formula for the power of a binomial, i.e., (x + y)n, n ∈ N. The binomial expansion for the case
n = 2 was used by the Greek mathematician Euclid. However, Omar Khayyam the Arab
mathematician is credited with the binomial expansion for higher natural numbers. Later the
great British scientist Sir Isaac Newton generalized the binomial theorem for negative
integral and fractional indices.
Theorem Let n is a positive integer. Then for all x and y,

( x + y)n = C (n, 0) x n + C(n, 1) x n −1 y + C(n, 2) x n − 2 y2 + L + C ( n, n) y n

n
= ∑ C(n, r) x n−r
yr
r =0

Proof: We will prove this by the method of mathematical induction on n.

For n = 1 we have ( x + y)1 = x + y = C (1, 0) x + C (1, 1) y
For n = 2 we have ( x + y)2 = x 2 + 2 xy + y2
= C(2, 0) x2 + C(2, 1) x2 −1 y + C(2, 2) y2
So, the statement is true for n =1 and 2. Assume that the statement is true for n = k.
Therefore, we have,
( x + y)k = C (k, 0) x k + C(k, 1) x k −1 y + C( k, 2) x k − 2 y2 + L + C( k, k) y k
k
= ∑ C(k, r) x k− r
yr
r=0

Now, for n = k + 1, we have

( x + y)k+1 = ( x + y)( x + y)k = x( x + y)k + y( x + y)k
k k
= x∑ C (k, r) x k − r yr + y∑ C (k, j ) x k − j y j
r=0 j=0
k k
= ∑ C(k,
r =0
r ) x k +1 − r yr + ∑ C (k, j ) x k − j y j +1
j =0

k k
= x k +1 + ∑ C(k, r) x k +1 − r yr + ∑ C(k, j ) x k − j y j +1
r =1 j =0

k k +1
= x k +1 + ∑ C( k, r) x k +1 − r yr + ∑ C(k, r − 1) x k − r +1 y r ; [on taking j = r – 1]
r =1 r =1
k k
= x k +1 + ∑ C( k, r) x k +1 − r yr + ∑ C(k, r − 1) x k +1− r y r + y k +1
r =1 r =1
k
= x k +1 + ∑ (C(k, r) + C(k, r − 1)) x k +1 − r y r + y k +1
r =1
k
= x k+1 + ∑ C(k + 1, r )x ( k+1) − r y r + y k+1 ; [on using Pascal’s identity]
r=0
k +1
= ∑ C(k + 1, r )x ( k +1) − r
yr
r=0