Course Code: CORE8

Course Title: PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1

Course Type: APPLIED
Pre-requisite: NONE
Co-requisite: NONE
Quarter: 1st
Course Topic: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
Module: #1 Week: 2-3
Course Subtopic: The Importance of Research in Daily Life
The Characteristics, Processes, and Ethics of
Research
Quantitative and qualitative research
The Kinds of Research Across Fields
Course Description: This course develops critical thinking and problem-
solving skills through qualitative research.
Course Outcomes (COs) and Relationship to Student Outcomes
Course Outcomes SO
After completing the course, the student must be a b c d
able to:
1. Use appropriate kinds of research in making D D D
decisions.
* Level: I- Introduced, R- Reinforced, D- Demonstrated

NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE

By: University of London

We all encounter research in our daily lives. The results of research on many
topics are presented to us in the form of newspaper articles, books, reports,
and television programmes. For example, crime level figures are presented to
us by television news reports and some topics, such as diet and health, are
very popular with magazines as well as television programmes. Thus, through
various media we have become accustomed to seeing, reading and hearing
about research and although we may not be aware of it, we are used to making
our own judgements about research findings. If we take the example of diet and
health, many of us have taken into consideration information that has been
presented on ‗healthy eating‘ and have made our own choices about diet within
the context of our own lives. We assess the information with which we are
presented, form an opinion as to the validity and relevance of the research, and
come to our own conclusions based on considerations such as:
 what we understand is the question or problem to be answered?
 how the findings are presented?
 why the research was conducted?
 what we know about who conducted the research?
 what other people think about the information?
 how the research findings relate to us?

We may choose to ignore the information, we may decide we don‘t understand

what the findings mean, we may disagree, or we may agree with the findings
and either adjust our eating habits or decide that the costs of adjustment are
too high relative to the benefits. For some, because of their life circumstances,
such as those suffering from a food shortage, the information may be of little
immediate value. In other words, you may not be aware of it, but you already

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have some understanding of the research process, the role of research,
research concepts, and research evaluation.

7 REASONS WHY RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT

By: Zarah, Leann (2020)

The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and

contribute to developing knowledge in a field or study. This article will highlight
the significance of research with the following points:

• A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating

Learning
• Research is required not just for students and academics,
but for all professionals and nonprofessionals alike. It is
1 also important for budding and veteran writers, both offline
and online.

For nonprofessionals who value learning, doing research equips them with
knowledge about the world and skills to survive and improve their lives. Among
professionals and scribes, on the other hand, finding an interesting topic to
discuss and/or to write about should go beyond personal experience.
Determining either what the general public may want to know or what
researchers want others to realize or to think about can serve as a reason to do
research. Thus, research is an essential component in generating knowledge
and vice-versa.

"Knowledge" basically pertains to facts based on objective insights and/or

study findings processed by the human brain. It can be acquired through
various ways, such as reading books and online articles, listening to experts,
watching documentaries or investigative shows, conducting scientific
experiments, and interacting with other people, among others. These facts can
be checked to ensure truthfulness and accuracy.

In epistemology, Yale University's David Truncellito (n.d.) identifies three kinds

of knowledge: procedural (competence or know-how), acquaintance (familiarity),
and propositional (description of "a fact or a state of affairs"). A factual
proposition is commonly used to define "knowledge".

Example: The Brain Research UK (formerly Brain Research Trust), a medical

research charity base in the United Kingdom, acknowledges the importance of
research in building knowledge. It sees research as crucial to finding possible
cures for diseases, as well as how to prevent them. Thus, research becomes a
must to ascertain if one‘s ideas are supported by previous studies or if these
ideas still need further proof to be considered as knowledge.

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An example of such endeavor is the 2016 study of several psychologists who
examined how sleep affects memory reactivation. In "Relearn Faster and Retain
Longer: Along With Practice, Sleep Makes Perfect", they "found that interleaving
sleep between learning sessions not only reduced the amount of practice
needed by half but also ensured much better long-term retention. Sleeping
after learning is definitely a good strategy, but sleeping between two learning
sessions is a better strategy." This study supports the fact that: "Both repeated
practice and sleep improve long-term retention of information". Their findings
also emphasize how highly important sleep is to healthy brain function.

• Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase

Public Awareness
• Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on
the part of the writer(s) and the actors. Though there are
2 hosts who rely on their researchers, there are also those
who exert effort to do their own research.

This step helps them:

 get information that hired researchers missed,
 build a good rapport with the interviewee, and
 conduct a good interview in the process

Example: Oprah Winfrey would have not achieved remarkable success as a

news anchor and television show host had she eschewed doing her own
research about certain topics and public figures. According to entrepreneur
and lifestyle coach Paul C. Brunson, in his interview with emotional
intelligence expert and author Justin Bariso (2017), "Oprah spends a
disproportionate amount of her time gathering information from communities
of people outside of her core (different age groups, social classes, ethnicities,
education levels, careers, etc.) and then she shares that information within her
community." This kind of effort shows the necessary role of research in helping
others and in raising social consciousness.

• An Aid to Business Success

• Research benefits business. Many successful companies,
such as those producing consumer goods or mass-market
3 items, invest in research and development or R&D.

Different business industries with science and engineering processes like

agriculture, food and beverage, manufacturing, healthcare and
pharmaceuticals, computer software, semiconductor, information and
communication technology, construction, robotics, aerospace, aviation, and

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energy have high R&D expenditure because it is critical to product innovation
and to improving services.

R&D also helps secure a vantage point over competitors. Finding out how to
make things happen and what could differentiate them from others that offer
similar products and services can raise the company‘s market value. Certainly,
having relevant knowledge in achieving a good commercial image through
sound business strategies like investing in R&D can boost its profitability. In
addition, R&D is essential to supporting a country's economy.

Example: For instance, the United Kingdom's Department of Business

Innovation and Skills (BIS), now known as the Department for Business,
Energy and Industrial Strategy, used to publish an annual R&D Scoreboard.
The report served "...as a benchmarking tool for companies, investors and
policymakers" for 20 years. However, due to the UK government's austerity
measures, it was last produced in 2010.

• A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

• Doing research to reveal lies or truths involving personal
affairs contributes in either making a relationship work or
4 in breaking away from a dysfunctional one.

For the monogamous lot, doing research to disprove or prove infidelity is not
simply a trust issue, but a right to find out the truth - unless one's intimate
partner has already admitted being polyamorous even before the relationship
started. When a person dislikes answering relationship-related questions,
including her or his whereabouts, it is better to see that as a red flag and take
baby steps to save yourself from what could become a more serious emotional
mess later.

Scientists also deal with research to test the validity and reliability of their
claims or those of other scientists'. Their integrity and competence depend on
the quality - and not just quantity - of their research. Nonetheless, not
everything scientists come up with get accepted or learned by everyone,
especially when factors like religion, state suppression, and access to resources
and social services (e.g., education and adequate health programs) either feed
the poor majority with lies or deter them from knowing truths to preserve the
status quo.

Example: Professional and credible journalists undertake thorough research to

establish the veracity of their stories. The movie "Shattered Glass" shown in
2003 tells the rise-and-fall story of a real-life journalist who worked for the The
New Republic based in New York City. Sans investigative research done by

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fellow journalists, Stephen Glass could have written more fictitious pieces for
said editorial magazine.

Fact-checking to know the truth is integral to the process of research, for it is

fueled by an inquisitive and critical mind. Murray, Social News and UGC Hub
(2016) suggest that before news readers share information on social media,
they need to assess the integrity of the news source and check for similar news
on legitimate media outlets.

Example: An FBI agent believed to be responsible for the latest email leaks
―pertinent to the investigation‖ into Hillary Clinton‘s private email server while
she was Secretary of State, was found dead in an apparent murder-suicide...
(Reported on November 5, 2016 by the Denver Guardian)

• Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities

• Research helps people nurture their potential and achieve
goals through various opportunities. These can be in the
form of securing employment, scholarships, training
5 grants, project funding, business collaboration, and budget
traveling, among others.

For those looking for a job or for greener pastures, research is necessary.
Through this process, not only will the unemployed increase their chances of
finding potential employers either through job posting sites or employment
agencies, but it can inform them if work opportunities are legitimate. Without
research, the gullible, yet hopeful jobseeker or migrant worker may fall prey to
unscrupulous headhunters who might be involved in illegal recruitment and/or
human trafficking.

Doing research also benefit civil society and its members. Funding for projects
and research initiatives has been a top concern for those who want to address
social issues. However, not all funding organizations accept proposals year-
long nor are they interested in solving many social problems. Thus, it is
necessary to research for agencies that match the objectives of individuals and
non-profits involved in advocacy or programs that seek social change.

Example: A wannabe business owner can likewise meet potential investors

through research. He/She can examine their profiles and they can do the
same. A good fit in terms of vision, mission, goals and work ethic, as well as
the capital needed to launch the business is critical to making the opportunity
succeed for both.

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 • A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and
Sharing Valuable Information
• Research entails both reading and writing. These two
literacy functions help enable computation and
6 comprehension. Without these skills, it is less likely for
anyone to appreciate and get involved in research.

Reading opens the mind to a vast horizon of knowledge, while writing helps a
reader use her/his own perspective and transform this into a more concrete
idea that s/he understands.

Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in
conducting research. Interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and
casual talks with anyone certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can
also facilitate the critical thinking process. Listening to experts discuss the
merits of their studies helps the listener to analyze a certain issue and write
about such analysis.

• Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

• Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the human as well.
Yet, it is the same curiosity that fuels the mind to seek for
7 answers.

The College Admissions Partners (n.d.) notes how scientific research in

particular "helps students develop critical reasoning skills...helpful for any field
of higher education..." Such search or the thinking process is food for the
brain, allowing creativity and logic to remain active. It also helps prevent
mental illnesses like Alzheimer's.

Example: Several studies have shown that mentally stimulating activities like
doing research can contribute to brain health. In "Educating the Brain to Avoid
Dementia: Can Mental Exercise Prevent Alzheimer Disease?", Margaret Gatz
(2005) enumerated research findings that support such position. However, she
also noted that there may be other factors involved in averting said mental
problem. One of these is intelligence. A study involving 11 year-old pupils in
Scotland in 2000, for instance, pointed to intelligence quotient (IQ) scores as
"predictive of future dementia risk". Gatz opined that clinical trials are needed
and that "conclusions must be based on large samples, followed over a long
period of time."

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 THE CHARACTERISTICS, PROCESSES, AND ETHICS OF RESEARCH

CHARACTERISTIS OF RESEARCH
(analyst0091.blogspot.com › 2011/05 › chapter-1-meaning-and-chara...pdf, 2011)

Research is a procedure by which we attempt to find systematically and with

the support of demonstrable fact. This will eventually lead to the answer to a
question or the resolution of a problem. Research has eight distinct
characteristics:
 Research originates with a question or problem in the mind of the
researcher;
 Research requires a clear goal;
 Research requires a specific plan or procedure;
 Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable
 subproblems;
 Research is guided by the specific research problem, questions or
hypothesis;
 Research accepts certain critical assumptions;
 Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt
to resolve the problem that initiated the research; and
 Research is, by its nature, cyclical or more exactly helical.

Figure 1.2 clearly lists out the 8 research characteristics.

SELF-CHECK 1.1

1. Define research in your own words.

2. Recall the eight characteristics of research.

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 PROCESSES OF RESEARCH
By: Unit 1: Introduction to Research - SOAS University of London

Research can be seen as a series of linked activities moving from a beginning to

an end. Research usually begins with the identification of a problem followed
by formulation of research questions or objectives. Proceeding from this the
researcher determines how best to answer these questions and so decides what
information to collect, how it will be collected, and how it will be analysed in
order to answer the research question.

Described in this way the research process is given the impression of linearity,
yet research investigation is often an iterative process whereby the process of
conducting the research will give rise to new ideas which, in turn, feed back
into the data collection and analysis stage. Decisions made early in the
research process are often revisited in the light of new insights or practical
problems encountered along the way.
(1) Through the process of designing your research, consideration of both
practical and conceptual issues may force you to reconsider your
original research question.
(2) Difficulties with access to research sites or participants may cause you
to reconsider your questions or your methods.
(3) Issues arising during data collection may suggest that additional data
are required or reveal problems with the original research question.
(4) Problems or new questions arising from analysis of data collected so far
may result in a need to collect more data, sample elsewhere or employ
a different technique.
(5) Finally you progress to the report writing stage.

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Source: unit author
An animated version of this diagram is available on your e-study guide

Regardless of the route taken subsequently, research should start with the
problem and the research questions. If the intention of research is to answer
your questions, it follows that choice of method should develop from your
question: choose the method that can best provide the information you need to
answer your research question given the resources available to you. This is one
reason why it is very important to be clear as to what you are asking.

As you can see there are numerous choices to be made within the research
process. Planning your research involves the consideration of four overlapping
themes.
 The conceptual approach – the philosophical underpinnings of research
 Research design – how data collection is organised
 Data collection techniques – how data are collected
 Sampling – from whom data are collected

These aspects of research planning can be represented as forming different

layers of a research ‗onion‘.

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Each layer of the onion presents a different set of choices regarding research
philosophy, research approach, method and so on. All research involves
choices at all these levels, though these choices are not always made explicit.
Choices further into the centre of the onion are often, but not always,
contingent on those made further out.

Compare the two different representations of research presented

above (the ‗research onion‘ and the animated diagrams of the
research process). Note down the particular insights
given by each diagram.

RESEARCH ETHICS: RESEARCHER-PARTICIPANT

By: Showkat, Nayeem (2017)

Conducted ethically, research is a public trust. So, researchers must fully

understand the theories and policies designed to guarantee upstanding
research practices. It becomes important for the researcher to know what
constitutes an ethical research. With an up-to-date knowledge, the researchers
should develop a way with the basic ethical principles ensuring the safety and
security of the participants of the study. Different types of research methods
need a different set of ethical guidelines. To make it easy to understand, let‘s
divide the research ethics simply into two groups; Research-Participant Ethics
and General Ethics. We will enlist different ethical issues arising at various
stages of the research process. The researcher has a primary responsibility
towards the participants and other researchers.

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 • Informed consent is the prime responsibility of the researcher.
1

• The researcher must reveal all the risks associated with the research to
2 the participants.

• The knowledge gap between the researcher and the participants must be
3 considered.

• The privacy, anonymity and confidentiality of the participants and data

4 must be given due consideration (Jensen, 2002).

• Participants must be given an option of rejecting data-gathering devices

5 like camcorders, audio recorders etc.

• To make them convenient and easily understandable, the questionnaire

and other forms of rating scales must be designed in the native language
6 of the participants.

• Participants‘ safety is the prime concern. They should not be exposed to

7 risks greater than they encounter in their normal lifestyle.

• In case, it's the responsibility of the researcher to protect participants

8 from the risks arising from their research.

• The researcher should protect and promote the rights and interests of the
9 participants.

• The researcher must take care of their own safety.

10

• She must take care of cultural, religious, economic, psychological,

spiritual, physiological, biological, political, social and other issues of the
11 participants.

• Researchers are expected to consider ethical implications of their

12 research.

• To uphold the ethical standards in the research process, the researcher

must accept and respect the principles of integrity, honesty, objectivity
13 and openness.

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 GENERAL ETHICS
By: Showkat, Nayeem (2017)

Apart from the above-listed guidelines, a researcher needs to take care of

various other ethical issues at different stages of the research process as
follows:
As some topics are controversial in their nature, so it becomes the prime
duty of the researcher to check whether the topic to be studied has
1.
innate ethical ramifications. Thus, before finalising the topic, the ethical
implications of the topic must be given a thought.
Ethics play a paramount role in the studies involving direct human
2. contacts. So, the effects of the research on subjects must be given due
consideration. Harmful research should be avoided.
Researchers conducting studies involving human subjects should
3.
clearly describe and justify the research protocol in the research design.
Authorship: Each author must be credited in the manuscript. In the
4. same way, all the persons listed as authors in the article should have
contributed significantly to both the research and writing.
Data management: The data must be collected in a way that doesn't
harm or injure anyone. In order to address and sort out all the issues of
conflict, a clear and ethically sound plan for data management must be
carried out. Besides that, the ethical and truthful collection of reliable
5.
data, ownership and responsibility of collected data, and retaining data
and sharing access to collected data with colleagues and the public are
the three most important ethical issues must be taken care of in data
management process. Data manipulation must be avoided.
Avoid plagiarism: Researchers must properly cite the original source.
She has to act responsibly and take care of copyrights, intellectual
6.
property, patents and other forms of rights. Self-plagiarism - copying
one‘s own work, must be avoided at any cost.
Unlike duplication, breaking up or segmenting or slicing a large study
into various different papers is called "salami publication" or "salami
7. slicing‖. This is unethical as the study is based on same hypothesis,
method and population. Don‘t slice the study and publish more than
one paper based on the same findings.
Avoid any fabrication, falsification and misrepresentation of data or
result. Don‘t indulge in the manipulation of images or videos or other
8.
forms of illustrated work. The researcher should report the data
honestly. Research misconduct is a sin.
The author should retain the raw data as they may be asked for the
9.
data at the time of editorial review.
The researcher should also unveil her personal or financial interests
10.
and must avoid bias.
The researchers shouldn‘t launch personal attacks against any
11.
individual, culture, religion etc.
12. They should uphold the moral values of the society.
13. Act sincerely and don‘t break promises. Avoid discrimination on the

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 basis of demography or on any other condition.
Carelessness and negligence must be avoided. The researcher should be
14. critical of her own work and must keep a record of things. Be open to
criticism.
The researcher must maintain the confidentiality of records and other
15.
sensitive information.
The research must contribute to the body of knowledge. Duplication
16.
must be avoided.
17. The researcher must abide by the rules and regulations of the land.
18. Both humans and animals must be handled carefully.
Both negative, as well as positive findings, revealed during the course of
19.
research should be reported.
20. Ensure transparency and accountability in all the research activities.
Besides researcher and editor, sponsor, publisher and reviewer of the
21. research also have ethical obligations to the publication and
dissemination of the findings of the study.
People who anyhow helped the researcher in conducting the research
22.
must be properly acknowledged.
Most of the young researchers send the same manuscript to different
23. reviewers or publications at the same time. It's unethical. Avoid such
practices.
Resubmitting an already published research paper or article with minor
24. changes or under a different title to a journal violates, ―international
copyright laws, ethical conduct, and cost-effective use of resources.‖
The final report must clearly declare the sponsor of the study,
25.
institutional affiliations and conflicts of interest.
The findings of the research must be disseminated in an easily
26.
understandable report.

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
By: Addo, Mary & Eboh, Winifred (2014)

To make an obvious statement here, as a healthcare professional you must

work with people, and as you do so you must also try to understand their
experiences so as to offer compassionate person-centred care. Developing an
evidence base relating to the human aspects of the patient experience enables
us to operate more effectively. Qualitative research seeks to explore human
experiences in order to understand the reasons behind the behaviour and
meanings embedded in those experiences (Holland and Rees, 2010). The type of
knowledge that qualitative research provides for nursing and healthcare
practice gives us an understanding of what it is like to have a particular
experience: note that quantitative research cannot do this.

Gaining insights Into the world of ‗others‘ — whether patients, their families,
careers, or the other professionals you work with — can broaden your thinking
and lead to more thoughtful action through the insights gained (Van der ZaIm
et al., 2000). For example, you cannot measure what it is like to live with or
experience emotional distress with a ruler or a tape measure, although various

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attempts to develop scales to help Lis measure this sort of phenomenon have
been made. According to Myers (2000: 4) ‗Conducting research with people who
are dealing with personal experiences, cancer or addictions and describing
such complex interpersonal investigations are skills that arc not possible to
investigate with structured instruments. If a researcher were ‚o focus on
measuring those phenomena it is likely that he or she would never really come
to understand the process that is the real focus of the inquiry‘.

Example: Many questions that nurses face in their day-to-day work with
patients and others are not just about the numbers (quantity) of incidents that
happen (the rate of discharges for example). It ¡s also important for nurses to
address questions such as ‗What is it like for nurses to work with patients who
generate strong emotions in the nurse?‘ or ‗How do patients on admission feel
al,out the communication skills that nurses use to allay their fears?‘ These
sorts of questions relate more to trying to understand the perceived quality of
care experiences from a patient perspective, rather than the actual amount
(quantity) of care received. Therefore, when we need to understand what it
means to have lived a human experience of illness or a disease condition that
cannot be measured by predictive instruments (quantitative research) that is
when we also need to embrace alternative ways of knowing (qualitative
research).

Take a look at Activity below. This activity aims to introduce you to the
relevance of qualitative research in your own practice.

WRITTEN WORK 1:
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Instructions: Think of an area of practice that you are particularly

interested in—one that relates to the experience. Undertake a search
for one article that relates to this area. We have provided two examples
of the types of search terms that you could use to enable you to find an
article;
 Patient experience+ Pain + Breast cancer
 Carer experience + Epilepsy + Child

Once you have found the article, take some time to read it in detail.
Don‘t worry If you across words that you are not familiar with. Jot
down some notes on the following thought-points:
1. What is the researcher aiming to find out in the study?
2. What tools did the researcher use within the study (e.g.
interviews)?
3. What are the key findings from the research and their relevance
to your own practice?
4. Are there any words or concepts (relating to the research
approach) that you are unsure about? Make a list of these as
learning points to come back to.

Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper or/ word document.

Paper Size: Short Bond Paper (Handwritten/Typewritten)
Font Style: Times New Roman/ Calibri (Body)
Font Size: 11

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While you may not have been able to fully understand all aspects of the article,
you will have been able to see that qualitative research does indeed help us
understand the experiences of particular people in particular Situations or
contexts. You can save this article as you may wish to go back to it at the end
of the chapter and fill in the gaps in relation to the areas that you identified for
further learning (or use it as you work your way through subsequent chapters).

We will now move on to examine some further detail on qualitative approaches.

As we have already said, you will have an opportunity to expand on your
knowledge of these approaches as you progress through the book, so keep in
mind that this chapter is an introduction and aims to equip you with an initial
understanding of the concepts. Qualitative research has the following
properties (Cicrnsh and l.acey. 2010):
 It is inductive, which means that the researcher collects data relating to
the phenomenon under Investigation (e.g. the inpatient experiences of
mental health service users) and develops theory from the data or the
situation.
 It is descriptive in nature in that the research process allows for a
detailed description of the phenomenon.
 It is interpretive in that the researcher offers one Interpretation of the
meaning of the data.
 It enables the investigation of human experiences in a diverse range of
social contexts
 It allows the researcher to construct meanings out of peoples experiences
as lived.

There are different types of qualitative research (see below for a brief overview
of the three main types).

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Addo, Mary & Eboh, Winifred (2014

PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology is a term that covers a range of research approaches that are
derived from similar, but different, philosophical perspectives. You will come
across the works of philosophers such as Husserl, Heidegger and Gadanier,
with each offering a view on the way in which the researcher looks at the world.
For example, Husserl suggests that the researcher should brackct‘ their
experiences, knowledge and attitudes (i.e. set them aside so they do not
interfere with the research process). Heidegger on the other hand, takes the
view that the researcher is an inherent part of the research process, and that
therefore their knowledge, attitudes and experiences can be taken into the
research process (so long as this is clearly articulated within the research
itself). Phenomenology aims to investigate the lived experiences of people within
the particular context of that experience. The researcher investigates the
phenomenon°° (the particular lived experience) through the people who have
had that experience. Data collection methods arc normally conducted via in-
depth interviews and other verbal or written narratives. Data analysis
approaches allow for interpretation of the narratives and would normally be
presented as themes and categories. There are various types of
phenomenology, including descriptive phenomenology and interpretive or
hermeneutic phenomenology.

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Example of a research question: What are the lived women with breast
cancer?

GROUNDED THEORY

Grounded theory aims to generate theory by concurrently gathering and

analyzing data. It is often used to undertake investigations into areas that have
not previously been investigated (or are under-researched). Grounded theory
can focus on the development of knowledge relating to the ways in which social
interactions take place and how these interactions are interpreted within the
field, and can therefore shed light on the ways in which these social
interactions can be enhanced for the benefit of particular practice situations.
Data collection is usually undertaken using in-depth interviews and
participants are selected on the basis that they can talk about the phenomenon
under investigation. With grounded theory, the people who participate (the
sample) will often develop over the course of the research study, with
participation soughtfrom those who can describe the issues emerging from the
initial interviews. The analytical process is one that is ongoing and results in
the development of categories (that emerge as the collection of data progresses).

Example of a research question: What are the perceptions of children‘s and

young people‘s nurses of their role in caring for patients and their families with
cystinosis?

ETHNOGRAPHY

Echnography aims to study culture and cultural groups through the

observation of behaviours, rituals, customs and practice. This observation can
take place either overtly (i.e. with the knowledge of the people under
investigation) or covertly (i.e. without their knowledge). By this stage you will
probably already be thinking about the considerable ethical issues associated
with undertaking a research study without the knowledge of the participants —
but it has been done! The process of undertaking ethnography allows the
researcher to offer an interpretation of the ways in which the cultural context
impacts on people s behaviors and practices within that context. Data
collection takes place by the researcher going into specific ‗field‘, undertaking
observations and engaging in discussion/questioning, taking field notes, and
potentially undertaking interviews. Data analysis commences with the field
notes (where the researcher starts to write down their ideas interpretations and
descriptions of what they see and hear).

Example of a research question: How is patient-centred care enacted in a

particular forensic unit?

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Addo, Mary & Eboh, Winifred (2014)

As you will have gathered qualitative research uses human speech or written
data, rather than numbers, as is the case in quantitative research. The sample
size (simply put, the number of participants selected from the total population
using sampling techniques is usually small Cohen et al. 2007 because of the
depth and richness of the data generated: Think ibout when you have
conversation with your friends or family about something that is of real interest
to you all. If you were to write down the conversation, it would probably run to
pages of text. When researchers ask people to participate in their studies, they

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will invite people who have experienced the phenomenon in question (e.g.
domestic violence) and therefore those participants are likely to have a lot to
say — thus creating a depth and richness of data (the words). Studies are also
undertaken in the research participants‘ natural environment or settings or in
a place of their choosing in order that they are more likely to feel comfortable
and at ease in that environment (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005).

As you have seen, data collection in qualitative research requires the

researcher to use one or more of a number of different types of data collection
methods, such as in-depth interviews, semi-structured interviews,
unstructured interviews, focus groups, conversational analysis, participant
observations, and videoing. These data collection methods are sometimes
termed subjective in that the data are open to interpretation and are usually
the views or perceptions of each participant. The purpose of qualitative data
collection is to gather rich, descriptive data that, once analysed, will enable the
researcher to provide a description and‖ or 1iterpretation of the phenomenon in
question (Green and Browne, 2005). Data analysis for qualitative research can
take a number of forms but should always be systematic, rigorous, and
appropriate to the philosophical framework. As you will see, the decisions that
arc made regarding methodology (perhaps phenome1ogy), data collection
method (perhaps in-depth Interviewing), and ana1ysis all come together
through a systematic knowledge-based approach to the development of a
strong research proposal.

You might like to work together in a small group to undertake Activity 8.2. you
may wish to undertake this activity in a group, but you can do it alone if you
wish.

LOOSEN UP:
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Instructions: Go back to the article that you chose to look at in

Activity 1 Take turns in your group to describe the following:
1. The methodology used in the research study.
2. The data collection method(s) used.
3. The analytical framework used.
Once you have all had a turn, discuss the following thought-points in
your group:
4. What makes the studies ‗qualitative‘ in nature?
5. What kinds of research questions can qualitative research
provide ‗answers‘ to?
6. How is the qualitative nature of the studies reflected in the
methodologies, method and analytical frameworks?
7. What are the key features of qualitative research that you have
identified so far?

Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper or/ word document.

Paper Size: Short Bond Paper (Handwritten/Typewritten)
Font Style: Times New Roman/ Calibri (Body)
Font Size: 11

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As you will have seen from the studies you discussed as a group, qualitative
research can be of a sensitive nature. For example, a study that investigated
mental health service users‘ experiences of sexual and relationship issues
uncovered personal information through semi-structured interviews (McCann,
2010).

Let‘s Get Philosophical

The value and strength of qualitative research lie in helping you to
ascertain people‘s experiences through their exploration in a given
social context. It provides thick, rich, and meaningful insights into the
phenomenon being studied (Polit and Beck, 2010), and helps in giving
a voice to the less articulated knowledge embedded in human
experiences (Dunniece, 2002).

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Addo, Mary & Eboh, Winifred (2014)

Now that you have considered some of the ways that research can help nursing
and healthcare practitioners begin to understand aspects of the human
experience, we shall move on to look at quantitative research, which aims to
provide evidence relating to clinical interventions and other situations through
the Collection of numerical data and their subsequent statistical analysis.
Quantitative research involves formal objective information gathering about the
world through the use of measurement tools such as validated questionnaires,
to statistically quantify the phenomenon being studied. It can be used to
describe and test relationships between various factors in order to examine
cause-and effect relationships (Punch and Punch, 2005).

Quantitative researchers will use large samples of participants with the aim of
generalising findings to encompass the wider population — what this means in
simple terms is that the findings from a quantitative study often aim to be
relevant and applicable across the wider population rather than simply those in
whom the research was undertaken (the latter is often the case in qualitative
research). Quantitative studies involve the use of statistics to describe the
findings and enable the research user to make judgments about a study‘s
usefulness in practice.

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 WRITTEN WORK 2:
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Instructions: Do another search for a research article that describes a

quantitative study in an area of interest (perhaps relating to the
qualitative article that you accessed earlier). Consider the following
questions and write down your initial thoughts:
1. What is the aim of the research (or the research question)?
2. What makes the study a quantitative study? For example, is the
study aiming to determine the measurable impact of an
intervention on the health outcomes of a group of patients?
3. Which data collection and data analysis approaches were used?
(Do not worry if you feel a little lost with the statistical analysis
— later chapters will enable you to engage constructively with
the data presented in quantitative studies.)

Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper or/ word document.

Paper Size: Short Bond Paper (Handwritten/Typewritten)
Font Style: Times New Roman/ Calibri (Body)
Font Size: 11

The most common quantitative research designs include

• Experimental designs, ranging from:
 randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in which an experiment is conducted
where participants in the study are randomly assigned to the
intervention group or a control group;
 pre-/P05t test studies where data are gathered prior to the intervention
with the same approach to data collection used to gather data following
the intervention — allowing for comparisons to take place between the
two;
 quasi-experiments where ¡t is not possible to undertake a randomised
controlled trial —for example, where it would not be possible to introduce
an intervention and also have a control group for practical or ethical
reasons.
• Surveys including:
 Descriptive — used to describe a population and to determine whether
there may be links or trends between variables (a variable is something
that can be measured and that can sometimes change over time or in
different situations — e.g. blood pressure, age, smoking status);
 correlation — used to determine whether there are relationships between
demographic data (e.g. age, gender) and behaviour (e.g. exercise
behaviour);
 comparative studies — used to determine whether behaviours/variables
change over time and in relation to interventions and/or demographics);
 longitudinal — studies that take place over a longer period of time;
 Cohort studies — studies that follow a particular group of people over a
period of time.

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 Figure 8.1 an example of a hierarchy of evidence
(source: Holland and Rees, 2010)

To some extent all of these designs have a common aim, which is to produce
evidence that is tangible, concrete and measurable, justifying why — when
considering the hierarchy of evidence — quantitative studies feature high on
the list (second to systematic reviews) as shown in Figure 8.1.

This hierarchy of evidence will vary depending on different schools of thought.

However, despite these differences of opinion quantitative research remains
high on the list of evidence. The rigour of research studies is crucial for all
practitioners to consider when selecting evidence to inform practice.
Quantitative researchers will use validity (whether the data collection tool, for
example, a questionnaire, measures what the researcher says it measures) and
reliability (whether the data collection tool consistently measures what it sets
out to measure) to measure rigour, whereas (as briefly discussed already)
qualitative researchers will use trustworthiness, confirmability, transferability,
and credibility (MacNec and McCabe, 2008).

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 OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE MEASUREMENTS IN QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Addo, Mary & Eboh, Winifred (2014)

The main aim of quantitative research is to measure or quantify a phenomenon

and all data or variables identified to he analysed in numerical form (objective
measurements). Making sense of quantitative data requires analysis manually
or using a statistical package such as Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS). There are four types of measurements used to categorise
quantitative data. These are listedhere with examples of the kinds of data that
the terms refer to:
 Nominal or categorical scales: Labels (or names) such as gender,
ethnicity and religion which have no intrinsic order as such.
 Ordirials cales: Data that have named categories and are ordered,
such as the honours classifications of an undergraduate degree from
1st class Honours to 3rd class Honours.
 Interval scales: Numbers that have a specific order with measures
those are equal between each occurring value. An example of this is a
Likert scale measuring a respondent‘s agreement or otherwise which
can have values from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1).
 Ratio scales: Considered the strongest scale as it has an absolute zero
starting-pøint enabling the distance between the points to be
compared with each other as well as proportionally (e.g. weight,
height, blood pressure, pulse rate).

The reason why it is necessary to have some understanding of the types of data
that can be gathered quantitatively is that this allows you to determine whether
the statistical tests used in a particular study were appropriate for the type of
data gathered.

In contrast, qualitative research measurement is subjective in nature and aims

to shed light on the hidden meanings attributed to particular human
experiences in various social situations. As you have seen, ¡t does this through
interpretation and meaning seeking by generating categories and themes from
the data collected so that the phenomenon being studied can be described
(Guba and Lincoln, 2005). Qualitative research measures such as interviews
and observations aim to measure, through insight and understanding,
unquantifiable concepts such as ‗What is compassionate caring‘?, and ‗How
does compassionate caring vary in different nursing situations?

There will be times when qualitative and quantitative approaches can both be
utilized in a single study. For example, the uses of standardized measures like
questionnaires to collect data relating to the clinical outcomes of a particular
healthcare intervention could sit well alongside the use of interviews to
investigate patients‘ of that intervention.

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 Hancock, Beverley, Ockleford, Elizabeth & Kate Windridge (2009),
The NIHR RDS for the East Midlands / Yorkshire & the Humber 2009
Qualitative Research

THE KINDS OF RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

By: International Network for Natural Sciences (2020)

RESEARCH
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful
information on a particular topic. Research is important both in scientific
and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems, events, phenomena
and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions and
suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists
have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions,
explanations and applications.

The research is broadly classified into two main classes: 1. Fundamental or

basic research and 2. Applied research. Basic and applied researches are
generally of two kinds: normal research and revolutionary research. In any
particular field, normal research is performed in accordance with a set of rules,
concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is well accepted by the
scientists working in that field. In addition, the basic and applied researches
can be quantitative or qualitative or even both (mixed research).

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Fundamental or basic research
Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for
occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called
theoretical research. Study or investigation of some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure science are termed as basic research. Basic researches
sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned
with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or
basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem
and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on
it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research
form the basis for many applied research.
Basic research
 Seeks generalization
 Aims at basic processes
 Attempts to explain why things happen
 Tries to get all the facts
 Reports in technical language of the topic

Applied research
In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and
accepted theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case
studies and inter-disciplinary research are essentially applied research. Applied
research is helpful for basic research. A research, the outcome of which has
immediate application is also termed as applied research. Such a research is of
practical use to current activity.
Applied research
 Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize
 Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
 Tries to say how things can be changed
 Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
 Reports in common language

Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of research bearing
some characteristics feature as follows:
Quantitative research
 It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and
uses numbers.
 It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 It is conclusive.
 It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.
Qualitative research
 It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
 Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
 Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
 It is exploratory.
 It investigates the why and how of decision making.
Mixed research
Research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative
methods or paradigm characteristics. Nature of data is mixture of
variables, words and images.

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Other types of research

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus
group interviews. The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the
researcher‘s need for better understanding, may test the feasibility of a more
extensive study, or determine the best methods to be used in a subsequent
study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad in focus and rarely
provides definite answers to specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables.

Descriptive research
The descriptive research is directed toward studying ―what‖ and how many off
this ―what‖. Thus, it is directed toward answering questions such as, ―What is
this?‖.

Explanatory research
 Its primary goal is to understand or to explain relationships.
 It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or
characteristics off individuals, groups, situations, or events.
 Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are
related to each other).
 Explanatory research asks the ―Why‖ question.

Longitudinal Research
Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points
in time. Longitudinal studies may take the form of:
 Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g.
organizational absenteeism rates during the course of a year
 Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates
for the sales department;
 Panel study- traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career
tracks over the period 1990 – 2000 for the same starting cohort.
While longitudinal studies will often be more time consuming and expensive
than cross-sectional studies, they are more likely to identify causal
relationships between variables.

Cross-sectional Research
One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once,
during a period of days, weeks or months. Many cross-sectional studies are
exploratory or descriptive in purpose. They are designed to look at how things
are now, without any sense of whether there is a history or trend at work.

Action research
Fact findings to improve the quality of action in the social world

Policy-Oriented Research
Reports employing this type of research focus on the question ‗How can
problem ‗X‘ be solved or prevented?‘

Classification research
 It aims at categorization of units in to groups
 To demonstrate differences
 To explain relationships

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Comparative research
To identify similarities and differences between units at all levels

Causal research
It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship among variable

Theory-testing research
It aims at testing validity of a unit

Theory-building research
To establish and formulate the theory

Last of all, it is needless to say that scientific research helps us in many ways:
 A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific
community or an industry or a government organization or a society
experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a
thorough understanding and possible solution.
 Research provides basis for many government policies. For example,
research on the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of
revenues to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a budget.
 It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving
problems.
 Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and
novel phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning
have been discovered only through research.
 It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity
and to improve the quality of products.
 Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
 It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new
living things, new stars, etc.
 Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes
the problems in them.
 Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain
social phenomena and seek solution to social problems.

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 HOMEWORK 1:
KINDS OF RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

Instructions: Search for a research title about the kinds of research

across fields.

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 SELF-ASSESMENT

Encircle
your
Answer

FORM
Read each statement and check ( ) the box that reflects your work today.

Name: Date:
Section:
Strongly
Disagree Agree
Agree

1. I found this work interesting.

2. I make a strong effort.
3. I am proud of the results.
4. I understood all the instructions.
5. I followed all the steps.
6. I learned something new.
7. I feel ready for the next assignment.
www.ldatschool.ca/executive-function/self-assessment/

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Online References:
 SOAS University of London, Unit 1: Introduction to Research
Retrieved from: https://www.soas.ac.uk/cedep-demos/000_P506_RM
_3736-Demo/module/pdfs/p506_unit_01.pdf
 Zarah, Leann (2020), 7 Reasons Why Research Is Important
Retrieved from: https://owlcation.com/academia/Why-Research-is-
Important-Within-and-Beyond-the-Academe
 Chapter 1: Meaning and Characteristics Of (2011)
Retrieved from:...analyst0091.blogspot.com › 2011/05 › chapter-1-meaning-
and-chara....pdf
 Showkat, Nayeem (2017), Research Ethics
Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318912804_
Research_Ethics
 Addo, Mary & Eboh, Winifred (2014), The Essential of Nursing and
Health Care Research
Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260181153
 Hancock, Beverley, Ockleford, Elizabeth & Kate Windridge (2009),
The NIHR RDS for the East Midlands / Yorkshire & the Humber 2009
Qualitative Research

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